1.

INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN
Modern aircraft are a complex combination of aerodynamic performance,
lightweight durable structures and advanced systems engineering. Air passengers
demand more comfort and more environmentally friendly aircraft. Hence many
technical challenges need to be balanced for an aircraft to economically achieve its
design specification. Aircraft design is a complex and laborious undertaking with a
number of factors and details that are required to be checked to obtain optimum the
final envisioned product. The design process begins from scratch and involves a
number of calculations, logistic planning, design and real world considerations,
and a level head to meet any hurdle head on.
Every airplane goes through many changes in design before it is finally built
in a factory. These steps between the first ideas for an airplane and the time when it
is actually flown make up the design process. Along the way, engineers think about
four main areas of aeronautics: Aerodynamics, Propulsion, Structures and
Materials, and Stability and Control.
Aerodynamics is the study of how air flows around an airplane. In order for
an airplane to fly at all, air must flow over and under its wings. The more
aerodynamic, or streamlined the airplane is, the less resistance it has against the
air. If air can move around the airplane easier, the airplane's engines have less 2
work to do. This means the engines do not have to be as big or eat up as much fuel
which makes the airplane more lightweight and easier to fly. Engineers have to
think about what type of airplane they are designing because certain airplanes need
to be aerodynamic in certain ways. For example, fighter jets maneuver and turn
quickly and fly faster than sound (supersonic flight) over short distances. Most
passenger airplanes, on the other hand, fly below the speed of sound (subsonic
flight) for long periods of time.
Propulsion is the study of what kind of engine and power an airplane needs.
An airplane needs to have the right kind of engine for the kind of job that it has. A
passenger jet carries many passengers and a lot of heavy cargo over long distances
so its engines need to use fuel very efficiently. Engineers are also trying to make
airplane engines quieter so they do not bother the passengers onboard or the
neighborhoods they are flying over. Another important concern is making the
exhaust cleaner and more environmentally friendly. Just like automobiles, airplane
exhaust contains chemicals that can damage the earth's environment.

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Structures and Materials is the study of how strong the airplane is and what
materials will be used to build it. It is really important for an airplane to be as
lightweight as possible. The less weight an airplane has, the less work the engines
have to do and the farther it can fly. It is tough designing an airplane that is
lightweight and strong at the same time. In the past, airplanes were usually made
out of lightweight metals like aluminum, but today a lot of engineers are thinking
about using composites in their designs. Composites look and feel like plastic, but
are stronger than most metals. Engineers also need to make sure that airplanes not
only fly well, but are also easy to build and maintain.
Stability and Control is the study of how an airplane handles and interacts to
pilot input and feed. Pilots in the cockpit have a lot of data to read from the
airplane's computers or displays. Some of this information could include the
airplane's speed, altitude, direction, and fuel levels as well as upcoming weather
conditions and other instructions from ground control. The pilot needs to be able to
process the correct data quickly, to think about what kind of action needs to be
taken, and to react in an appropriate way. Meanwhile, the airplane should display
information to the pilot in an easy-to-read and easy-to-understand way. The
controls in the cockpit should be within easy reach and just where the pilot expects
them to be. It is also important that the airplane responds quickly and accurately to
the pilot's instructions and maneuvers.
A beautiful aircraft is the expression of the genius of a great engineer who is
also a great artist.
Neville Shute,
British Aeronautical Engineer and
Novelist, From, No Highway, 1947.

1.1 Defining a new design:

The design of an aircraft draws on a number of basic areas of aerospace
engineering. These include aerodynamics, propulsion, light-weight structures and
control. Each of these areas involves parameters that govern the size, shape, weight
and performance of an aircraft. Although we generally try to seek optimum in all
these aspects, with an aircraft, this is practically impossible to achieve. The reason
is that in many cases, optimizing one characteristic degrades another.
There are many performance aspects that can be specified by the mission
requirements. These include:

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The aircraft purpose or mission profile

The type(s) and amount of payload
The cruise and maximum speeds
The normal cruise altitude
The range or radius with normal payload
The endurance
The take-off distance at the maximum weight
The purchase cost

1.1.1 Aircraft Purpose

The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With
this, it is often possible to place a design into a general category. Such categories
include combat aircraft, passenger or cargo transports, and general aviation aircraft.
These may also be further refined into subcategories based on particular design
objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or landing distances, maximum
speed, etc. The process of categorizing is useful in identifying any existing aircraft
that might be used in making comparisons to a proposed design. With modern military
aircraft, the purpose for a new aircraft generally comes from a military program
office. For example, the mission specifications for the X-29 pictured in figure 1.1
came from a 1977 request for proposals from the U.S. Air Force Flight Dynamics
Laboratory in which they were seeking a research aircraft that would explore the
forward swept wing concept and validate studies that indicated such a design could
provide better control and lift qualities in extreme maneuvers. With modern
commercial aircraft, a proposal for a new design usually comes as the response to
internal studies that aim to project future market needs. For example, the
specifications for the Boeing commercial aircraft (B-777) were based on the interest
of commercial airlines to have a twin-engine aircraft with a payload and range in
between those of the existing B-767 and B-747 aircraft. Since it is not usually possible
to optimize all of the performance aspects in an aircraft, defining the purpose leads the
way in setting which of these aspects will be the design drivers.
For example, with the B-777, two of the prominent design drivers were range and
payload.
1.2 Design Motivation
Fundamentally, an aircraft is a structure. Aircraft designers design structures.
The structures are shaped to give them desired aerodynamic characteristics, and the
materials and structures of their engines are chosen and shaped so they can provide
needed thrust. Even seats, control sticks, and windows are structures, all of which
must be designed for optimum performance. Designing aircraft structures is
particularly challenging, because their weight must be kept to a minimum. There is

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always a tradeoff between structural strength and weight. A good aircraft structure is
one which provides all the strength and rigidity to allow the aircraft to meet all its
design requirements, but which weighs no more than necessary. Any excess structural
weight often makes the aircraft cost more to build and almost always makes it cost
more to operate. As with small excesses of aircraft drag, a small percentage of total
aircraft weight used for structure instead of payload can make the difference between
a profitable airliner or successful tactical fighter and a failure. Designing aircraft
structures involves determining the loads on the structure, planning the general shape
and layout, choosing materials, and then shaping, sizing and optimizing its many
components to give every part just enough strength without excess weight. Since
aircraft structures have relatively low densities, much of their interiors are typically
empty space which in the complete aircraft is filled with equipment, payload, and fuel.
Careful layout of the aircraft structure ensures structural components are placed
within the interior of the structure so they carry the required loads efficiently and do
not interfere with placement of other components and payload within the space.
Choice of materials for the structure can profoundly influence weight, cost, and
manufacturing difficulty. The extreme complexity of modern aircraft structures makes
optimal sizing of individual components particularly challenging. An understanding of
basic structural concepts and techniques for designing efficient structures is essential
to every aircraft designer.

1.3 Design Process

The process of designing an aircraft and taking it to the point of a flight test
article consists of a sequence of steps, as illustrated in the figure. It starts by
identifying a need or capability for a new aircraft that is brought about by (1) a
perceived market potential and (2) technological advances made through research and
development. The former will include a market-share forecast, which attempts to
examine factors that might impact future sales of a new design. These factors include
the need for a new design of a specific size and performance, the number of
competing designs, and the commonality of features with existing aircraft. As a rule, a
new design with competitive performance and cost will have an equal share of new
sales with existing competitors. The needs and capabilities of a new aircraft that are
determined in a market survey go to define the mission requirements for a conceptual
aircraft. These are compiled in the form of a design proposal that includes (1) the
motivation for initiating a new design and (2) the technology readiness of new
technology for incorporation into a new design. It is essential that the mission
requirements be defined before the design can be started. Based on these, the most
important performance aspects or design drivers can be identified and optimized
above all others. Following the design proposal, the next step is to produce a
conceptual design. The conceptual design develops the first general size and
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configuration for a new aircraft. It involves the estimates of the weights and the
choice of aerodynamic characteristics that will be best suited to the mission
requirements stated in the design proposal.
Research, development and market analysis

Mission Requirements

Conceptual Design

No
Requirements Satisfied

Yes
Preliminary Design
Stop
Final Evaluation
Go
Detailed Design

Test Article Fabrication

Flight Test
FIG.1.1 Design Process flow chart

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The conceptual design is driven by the mission requirements, which are set in the
design proposal. In some cases, these may not be attainable so that the requirement
may need to be relaxed in one or more areas. This is shown in the iterative loop in
the flow chart. When the mission requirements are satisfied, the design moves to
the next phase, which is the preliminary design.
1.4 Conceptual Design
This article deals with the steps involved in the conceptual design of an
aircraft. It is broken down in to several elements, which are followed in order.
These consist of:
1. Literature survey
2. Preliminary data acquisition
3. Estimation of aircraft weight
a. Maximum take-off weight
b. Empty weight of the aircraft
c. Weight of the fuel
d. Fuel tank capacity
4. Estimation of critical performance parameters
a. Wing area
b. Lift and drag coefficients
c. Wing loading
d. Power loading
e. Thrust to weight ratio
5. Engine selection
6. Performance curves
7. Three View diagrams

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1.5 Design Process Breakdown

TABLE 1.1 Design Process Breakdown

Conceptual Design:

- Competing concepts evaluated

- Performance goals established
-Preferred concept selected

-What drives the design?

-Will it work/meet requirement?
-What does it look like?

Preliminary Design:
- Refined sizing of preferred tests
- Design examined data/establish
parameters
- Some changes allowed

-concept Do serious wind tunnel tests

-Make actual cost estimate

Detail Design:
- Final detail design
- Drawings released
- Detailed performance
- Only tweaking of design allowed

-Certification process
-Component/systems tests
-Manufacturing
-Flight control system design

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2. INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS JETS

A business jet is a jet that is owned by a private company or individual that
is used primarily for transporting the people who own the aircraft. That being said
a lot of planes that were developed to be used as business jets are also used for
other purposes. In addition there are also companies that are set up exclusively to
operate business jets. Therefore the lines between a business aircraft and a
commercial one have become somewhat blurred.
Over the last few years business jets have become a very popular way to
travel. They offer great comfort of travel and service, with the option of having the
aircraft at your beck and call whenever you require it. A private business jet trumps
regular commercial transport in a number of areas. Nowadays, organizations and
individuals who can afford the heavy expenses that a private jet entails are willing
to invest in one. Greater ease of travel, ease of access, faster and hassle free transit
and high comfort levels are some of the advantages of business jet transport.
In most cases a business jet will be quite a bit smaller than a commercial jet.
The most common ones carry fewer than twenty passengers since this allows them
to operate under a different set of rules from the ones that are required for airliners.
There are however now quite a few business jets that are the size of airliners and in
many cases they are airliners that have been adapted for the purpose. Nevertheless
most business jets are quite small and only carry a small number of people.
Business jets have a much more luxurious interior, with a number of amenities and
services that a normal airliner would not have. Airliners are designed to carry large
numbers of people, most of who are looking for the lowest cost possible. Business
jets on the other hand are designed to carry people in a much higher level of
comfort. The people who travel by business jet are almost always quite well off
and expect this level of comfort when they travel.
2.1 Classification of Business Jets
The business jet industry groups these jets into four loosely-defined classes
Mid-sized jets:
Combining flight distance, speed and comfort, these mid-sized jets are ideal for
intimate trips.
Number of Passengers: 8 - 10
Sample Aircraft: Gulfstream 200, Embraer Legacy 450, Cessna Citation X,
Bombardier Challenger 600
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Large-cabin jets
These aircraft are fast, comfortable, and can accommodate a medium-sized group.
Number of Passengers: 8 - 15
Sample Aircraft:
Gulfstream 550, Embraer Legacy 650, Dassault Falcon 7X
Light jets
Light jets have been a staple of the business jet industry since the advent of the
Learjet 23 in the early 1960s. They provide access to small airports and the speed
to be an effective air travel tool.
Number of Passengers: 3
10 Sample Aircraft:
Learjet 40, Cessna Citation CJ1, Dassault Falcon 10, Beechcraft Premier I
VIP business jets / Heavy airliners
With a variety of potential configurations, jets in this category have the capacity
for dining rooms, bedrooms and offices.
Number of Passengers: 18 - 40/50 250
These heavy airliners are an ideal choice for larger groups, corporate meetings and
special events.
Sample Aircraft:
Boeing BBJ, Airbus AGJ, Embraer Lineage 1000
2.2 Need for Business Jets
The following list details some of the primary reasons companies utilize
business aviation as a solution to some of their transportation challenges:

Accessing communities with little or no airline service.

Business aviation serves ten times the number of communities (more than 5,000
airports) served by commercial airlines (about 500 airports). This means business
aviation can allow companies to locate plants or facilities in small towns or rural
communities with little or no commercial airline service. With nearly 100
communities having lost airline service, this is important.

Reaching multiple destinations quickly and efficiently.

Companies that need to reach multiple destinations in a single day may elect to use
business aviation because that type of mission could be hard or impossible to
complete with other modes of transportation.

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Supporting the travel needs of many types of company employees.

An NBAA survey revealed that 72 percent of passengers aboard business airplanes
are non-executive employees. Companies often send teams of employees to a
given destination because it is the most cost-effective means of transport.

Moving equipment.
When companies need to immediately move sensitive or critical equipment,
business aviation is often the best solution.

Ensuring flexibility.
Businesses dont always know in advance where or when opportunities will
present themselves. In todays business environment, companies need to be nimble
enough to move quickly. Business aviation provides flexibility for companies that
need to ensure employees can respond to changing demands and circumstances

Increasing employee productivity and providing security.

Business aviation is a productivity tool when traveling aboard business aircraft,
employees can meet, plan and work en route. Business aviation also allows
employees to discuss proprietary information in a secure environment without fear
of eavesdropping, industrial espionage or physical threat.

Keeping in contact.
Many aircraft have technologies that allow employees to remain in communication
throughout the duration of their flight. This can be critical for companies managing
a rapidly changing situation.

Providing a return to shareholders.

Studies have found that businesses which use business aviation as a solution to
some of their transportation challenges return more to shareholders than companies
in the same industry that do not utilize business aviation.

Schedule Predictability.
More than 3 percent of all commercial airline flights are cancelled. Nearly one
quarter are delayed. Today, because of record load factors on commercial airlines,
if your flight is cancelled or a delay causes you to miss your connection, the odds
of you getting on the next flight are significantly reduced. When the future of a
company and its employees is dependent upon you arriving on time, business
aviation is an important tool.

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3. COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET FOR BUSINESS JET

TABLE 3.1 DATA SHEET-1

Parameters

Bombardier Bombardier
Gulfstream Gulfstream Gulfstream Gulfstream
Dassault
Challenger Challenger
GV
G279
G550
G650
Falcon 5X
300
600

Dassault
Falcon 7X

Pax

19

10

19

18

16

19

16

19

Length(m)

29.4

20.3

29.4

30.41

20.93

20.85

25.2

23.38

Height (m)

7.87

6.5

7.9

7.72

6.2

6.3

7.5

7.93

Wing span (m)

28.5

19.2

28.5

30.36

19.46

19.61

25.9

26.21

Empty weight (Kg)

21,000

10,954

21,900

24,490

10,591

9,292

15,456

15,456

MTOW (Kg)

41,136

17,960

41,300

45,200

17,622

19,618

31,570

31,750

Max. speed (Km/h)

940

892

940

982

891

882

956

953

Cruise speed (Km/h)

904

850

850

956

850

851

871

900

Range (Km)

12,038

6,667

12,501

12,960

5,741

6,236

9,630

11,000

Max. (R/C) (m/s)

25.4

10.16

21

20.32

25.4

22.58

15.24

15.24

Service ceiling (m)

15,545

13,716

15,545

15,500

13,716

12,500

15,545

15,500

Takeoff run (m)

1570

1448

1801

1786

1466

1737

1600

1740

Name

2 Rolls3 Pratt &

2 Rolls2
2 Rolls2
Royce
2 General
Whitney
Royce Honeywell Royce
Honeywell
2 Snecma
Deutschland
Electric CF34Canada
BR710A1- HTF7250G BR710 turbo
HTF7000 tur
Silvercrest
BR725 turbo
3A turbofan
PW307A tur
10 turbofan turbofans
fan
bofan
fan
bofans

Thrust rating (KN)

65 KN (x2) 33 KN (x2) 68.44 KN(x2) 71.6 KN (x2) 30.36 KN(x2) 40.7 kN(x2) 50.93 KN(x2) 28.49 kN(x2)

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TABLE 3.2 DATA SHEET-2

Parameters

Bombardier Bombardier Cessna

Citation Bombardier Embraer Embraer Beechcraft
Global 7000 Global 8000 citation X Sovereign+ Learjet 75 Legacy 500 legacy 600 hawker 4000

Pax

19

12

12

12

12

14

12

Length(m)

33.8

31.2

22.05

19.354

17.6

20.75

26.33

21.1

Height (m)

8.2

8.3

5.84

6.2

4.31

6.45

6.76

Wing span (m)

31.7

31.7

19.38

22.04

14

20.24

21.17

18.8

Empty weight (Kg)

30,000

30,000

9,798

8,210

6,300

12,020

16,000

10,659

MTOW (Kg)

48,194

48194

16,374

13,744

9,752

17,280

22,500

17,917

Cruise speed (Km/h)

902

903

972

852

861

863

833

871

Range (Km)

13,705

14,630.80

5,956

5907.88

3778

5,788

6,060

6,075

Max. (R/C) (m/s)

15.24

15.24

18.6

20.74

14.224

19.1

13

15.24

Service ceiling (m)

15,545

15544.8

15,545

14.326

16,000

13,716

12,496

13,716

Takeoff run (m)

1,814

1767.84

1,567

1075.944

1353

1219.2

1711.147

1500

Name

2 Rolls2 General
GE's Royce/Alliso
Electric
Passport n AE 3007C or
Passport turb
engine 3007C1 turbo
ofan
fan

2 Pratt &
2 Pratt &
2
2
2 RollsWhitney
Whitney
Honeywell Honeywell Royce AE
Canada
Canada
TFE731- HTF7500E Tur 3007/A1E tur
PW306D turb
PW308A turb
40BR Turbine bofan
bofans
ofan
ofan

Thrust rating (KN) 73.4 kN(x2) 73.4 kN(x2) 30.09 kN(x2) 26.28 kN(x2) 17.1 kN(x2) 31.1 kN(x2) 39.2 kN(x2) 30.7 KN(x2)
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4. COMPARATIVE GRAPH FOR THE PERFORMANCE

FIG.4.1 PASSENGER Vs RANGE

From graph,
At Range =13103km;

Passenger=18

FIG.4.2 MTOW Vs RANGE

From Graph,
At Range=13103km;

MTOW=43414.38kg
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FIG.4.3 MTOW Vs EMPTY WEIGHT

From Graph,
At MTOW=43414.38kg;

Empty weight=22050.53kg

FIG. 4.4 THRUST Vs RANGE

From Graph,
At Range=13103km;

Thrust=69.2KN
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FIG. 4.5 THRUST Vs CRUISE SPEED

From Graph,
At Thrust=69.2KN;
Cruise Speed=903(km/hr)

FIG. 4.6 MTOW Vs CRUISE SPEED

From Graph,
At Cruise Speed=903(km/hr); MTOW=43414.38kg
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FIG. 4.7 RANGE Vs CRUISE SPEED

From Graph,
At Range=13103km;

Cruise Speed=903(km/hr)

FIG. 4.8 SERVICE CEILING Vs CRUISE SPEED

From Graph,
At Cruise Speed=903(km/hr); Service Ceiling=15525m

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FIG. 4.9 MAX. R/C Vs CRUISE SPEED

From Graph,
At Cruise Speed=903(km/hr); Max. R/C=15.24m/s

FIG. 4.10 MAX. R/C Vs THRUST

From Graph,
At Thrust=69.2KN;

Max. R/C=15.24m/s

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New Aircraft design dimensions and its performance:

TABLE4.1 New Aircraft design dimensions and its performance

Crew

2+3

Capacity

18pax

Length

31.2 m

Height

8.3 m

Wing span

32 m

Wing area

113.65m

Aspect ratio

9.01

Max take-off weight

43414.38kg

Max landing weight

22999.908kg

Max fuel weight

20414.47kg

Thrust

69.2KN

Service ceiling

15525m

Range

13103km

Rate of climb

15.24m/s

Cruise speed

903(km/hr)

Max speed

1007.03(km/hr)

Wing loading

382 Kg/m2

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5. WEIGHT ESTIMATION OF AN AIRCRAFT

Flight plan

1-2 -Start up and take-off

2-3 - Climbing

3-5 - Cruising level

5-6 - Desent

6-7 Loiter

7-8 Landing

FIG5.1 FLIGHT PLAN

The above plan one of the most basic and would generally
correspond to a civilian business aircraft (Commercial aircrafts). It consists of
flight phases made up of engine start up and take-off, climb and accelerate to
cruise altitude and speed, cruise out to destination, and landing.
1.Engine start-up & take-off: The engine start-up and take-off is the first phase,
which consist of starting the engines, taxing to the take-off position, take-off, and
climb out. A good empirical estimate for the weight of fuel used in this phase is
from 2.5 to 3.0 percent of the total take-off weight.
0.97 Wf/Wi 0.975
Wf/Wi =0.972
Wf = 0.97244665kg
Wf = 43414.38kg
Therefore, this final weight will be the initial weight at the
climb and accelerate to cruise conditions.

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2. Climb & accelerate to cruise condition: After take-off, the aircraft will generally
climb to cruise altitude and accelerate to cruise speed. When accelerating from Mach
0.1 up to approximately Mach 1, there is only a small decrease in the weight of fuel,

Wf/Wi 0.95
Wf/Wi = 0.95
Wf = 0.9543414.38kg
Wf = 41243.661kg
This final weight will be the initial weight at the cruise out to destination.
3. Cruise out to destination: For a cruising aircraft, the fuel weight fraction can
be determined quite well from an analytic formulation called the Briquette range
equation. For turbo-jet the range can be calculated by,
R=V * Isp * (L/D) * ln (Wi/Wf)
3

13103*10 = 250.83518220ln(41243.661/W f)
Wf = 24845.58kg
This final weight will be the initial weight at loiter.
4. Loiter: Loiter phase consists of cruising for a specified amount of time over a
small region. Loiter time is usually built into the flight plan to allow for delays
prior to landing. However, reconnaissance aircraft could have the loiter endurance
as the primary mission. For this phase, the fuel weight fraction is derived from an
analytic Exaction called the Endurance equation. For turbo-jet the range can be
calculated by,
E = Isp * (L/D) * ln (Wi/Wf)
After cruise out to destination the initial weight was 16057.57 kg. And its
endurance is 2700 sec.
2700 = 300020ln (24845.88/ Wf)
Wf = 23662.46kg
This final weight will be the initial weight at landing.

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5. Landing: The final phase of the flight plan is landing. As an estimate of the fuel
weight fraction used at landing, we use the same Empirical formula that was used
for start-up and take-off, namely,
0.97 Wf/Wi 0.975
Wf/Wi =0.972
Wf = 0.97223662.46kg
Wf = 22999.908kg
This is the final weight after the flights operation.
6. Fuel weight: The difference between the initial weight at engine start up and
take off to the final weight after the landing is called as fuel weight.
Wfuel = Wi - Wf
= 43414.38- 22999.908
Wfuel = 20414.47kg
The fuel used during the flights operation was 20414.47 kg
7. Available empty weight: The empty weight of the aircraft can be determine
from the difference of the initial weight at engine start up and take off to the sum
of fuel weight and payload.
Wempty = Wi (Wfuel + Wpayload)
Wempty = 44665 (20414.47 + 2200)
Wempty = 22050.53kg

The available empty weight of the aircraft was 22050.53kg

TABLE 5.1 Weight estimation summary

Weight estimation summary:

Engine start-up & take-off
Climb & accelerate to cruise condition
Cruise out to destination
Loiter
Landing
Fuel weight
Available empty weight

43414.38kg
41243.66kg
24845.58kg
23662.46kg
22999.91kg
20414.47kg
22050.53kg
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6. POWERPLANT SELECTION
Engine specific weight and specific fuel consumption were discussed in the
previous paragraphs, but for certain design requirements, the final powerplant
selection may be based on factors other than those that can be discussed from an
analytical point of view. For that reason, a general discussion of powerplant
selection follows. For aircraft whose cruising speed does not exceed 250 mph, the
reciprocating engine is the usual choice of powerplant. When economy is required
in the low speed range, the conventional reciprocating engine is chosen because of
its excellent efficiency and relatively low cost. When high altitude performance is
required, the turbo-supercharged reciprocating engine may be chosen because it is
capable of maintaining rated power to a high altitude (above 30,000 feet). Gas
turbine engines operate most economically at high altitudes. Although in most
cases the gas turbine engine provides superior performance, the cost of gas turbine
engines is a limiting factor. In the range of cruising speed of 180 to 350 mph, the
turboprop engine performs very well. It develops more power per pound of weight
than does the reciprocating engine, thus allowing a greater fuel load or payload for
engines of a given power. From 350 mph up to Mach .8.9, turbofan engines are
generally used for airline operations. Aircraft intended to operate at Mach 1 or
higher are powered by pure turbojet engines/afterburning (augmented) engines, or
low-bypass turbofan engines.
Thrust To Weight Ratio:
From the graph,
Thrust to weight ratio T/W = 3.19
Take-off weight obtained from the weight estimation is 43414.38kg
T = 3.19* W
= 3.19*43414.38* 9.81
T = 1358605.27 N
This is the total thrust required by two engines.
So, we have to calculate the thrust required by each engine.
T = 1358605.27/2
T = 69245.94N
Thus the thrust required by each engine is
T=69.2 KN
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List of engine selection,

1. Rolls-Royce BR710 turbofan
2. Rolls-Royce DeutschlandBR725 turbofan 3. General Electric Passport turbofan
-

68KN
72KN
73KN

from above these three engine, we chosen the 2 * Rolls-Royce

DeutschlandBR725 turbofan engine for the required thrust, which gives the
72KN thrust each. Its specification are shown below

FIG.6.1 Rolls-Royce DeutschlandBR725 turbofan

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General Characteristics:

Type: Turbofan

Length: 202in (5130.8 mm)

Diameter: 71.65 in (1820 mm)

Dry weight: 4912 lb (2228 kg)

Components:

Compressor: 10-stage high pressure axial compressor and singlestage fan

Turbine: 2-stage high pressure and 3-stage low pressure

Performance:

Maximum thrust: 72 KN

Overall pressure ratio: 18 :1 to 20:1

Air mass flow: 240 to 280 lb/s (109 to 127 kg/s)

Turbine inlet temperature: 994

Thrust-to-weight ratio: : 4.1 to 5.6

Thus the Powerplant are selected for the Ultra long range business jet.

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7. WING SELECTION

FIG. 7.1 Wing Geometry

Span:
Selecting the wing span is one of the most basic decisions to make in the design of a
wing. The span is sometimes constrained by contest rules, hangar size, or ground
facilities but when it is not we might decide to use the largest span consistent with
structural dynamic constraints (flutter). This would reduce the induced drag directly.

However, as the span is increased, the wing structural weight also increases and at
some point the weight increase offsets the induced drag savings. This point is
rarely reached, though, for several reasons.
1. The optimum is quite flat and one must stretch the span a great deal to reach the
actual optimum.
2. Concerns about wing bending as it affects stability and flutter mount as span is
increased.
3. The cost of the wing itself increases as the structural weight increases. This must
be included so that we do not spend 10% more on the wing in order to save .001%
in fuel consumption.
4. The volume of the wing in which fuel can be stored is reduced.

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5. It is more difficult to locate the main landing gear at the root of the wing.
6. The Reynolds number of wing sections is reduced, increasing parasite drag and
reducing maximum lift capability.
On the other hand, span sometimes has a much greater benefit than one might
predict based on an analysis of cruise drag. When an aircraft is constrained by a
second segment climb requirement, extra span may help a great deal as the induced
drag can be 70-80% of the total drag.
The selection of optimum wing span thus requires an analysis of much more than
just cruise drag and structural weight. Once a reasonable choice has been made on
the basis of all of these considerations, however, the sensitivities to changes in
span can be assessed.

Area:
The wing area, like the span, is chosen based on a wide variety of considerations
including:
1. Cruise drag
2. Stalling speed / field length requirements
3. Wing structural weight
4. Fuel volume
These considerations often lead to a wing with the smallest area allowed by the
constraints. But this is not always true; sometimes the wing area must be increased
to obtain a reasonable CL at the selected cruise conditions. Selecting cruise
conditions is also an integral part of the wing design process. It should not be
dictated a priori because the wing design parameters will be strongly affected by
the selection, and an appropriate selection cannot be made without knowing some
of these parameters. But the wing designer does not have complete freedom to
choose these, either. Cruise altitude affects the fuselage structural design and the
engine performance as well as the aircraft aerodynamics.
The best CL for the wing is not the best for the aircraft as a whole. An example of
this is seen by considering a fixed CL, fixed Mach design. If we fly higher, the
wing area must be increased by the wing drag is nearly constant.

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The fuselage drag decreases, though; so we can minimize drag by flying very high
with very large wings. This is not feasible because of considerations such as engine
performance.
Sweep:
Wing sweep is chosen almost exclusively for its desirable effect on transonic wave
drag.(Sometimes for other reasons such as a c.g.problem or to move winglets back
for greater directional stability.)
1. It permits higher cruise Mach number, or greater thickness or C L at a given
Mach number without drag divergence.
2. It increases the additional loading at the tip and causes span wise boundary layer
flow, exacerbating the problem of tip stall and either reducing C Lmax or increasing
the required taper ratio for good stall.
3. It increases the structural weight - both because of the increased tip loading, and
because of the increased structural span.
4. It stabilizes the wing aero elastically but is destabilizing to the airplane.
5. Too much sweep makes it difficult to accommodate the main gear in the wing.
Much of the effect of sweep varies as the cosine of the sweep angle, making
forward and aft-sweptwing similar. There are important differences, though in
other characteristics.
Thickness:
The distribution of thickness from wing root to tipis selected as follows:
1. We would like to make the t/c as large as possible to reduce wing weight
(thereby permitting larger span, for example).
2. Greater t/c tends to increase CLmax up to appoint, depending on the high lift
system, but gains above about 12% are small if there at all.
3. Greater t/c increases fuel volume and wing stiffness.
4. Increasing t/c increases drag slightly by increasing the velocities and the
adversity of the pressure gradients.
5. The main trouble with thick airfoils at high speeds is the transonic drag rise
which limits the speed and CL at which the airplane may fly efficiently.

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Taper:
The wing taper ratio (or in general, the planform shape) is determined from the
following considerations:

Ctip= * Croot
1. The plan form shape should not give rise to an additional lift distribution that is
so far from elliptical that the required twist for low cruise drags results in large offdesign penalties.
2. The chord distribution should be such that with the cruise lift distribution, the
distribution of lift coefficient is compatible with the section performance. Avoid
high CL's which may lead to buffet or drag rise or separation.
3. The chord distribution should produce an additional load distribution which is
compatible with the high lift system and desired stalling characteristics.
4. Lower taper ratios lead to lower wing weight.
5. Lower taper ratios result in increased fuel volume.
6. The tip chord should not be too small as Reynolds number effects cause reduced
CL capability.
7. Larger root chords more easily accommodate landing gear.
Here, again, a diverse set of considerations are important.
The major design goal is to keep the taper ratios as small as possible (to keep the
wing weight down) without excessive CL variation or unacceptable stalling
characteristics.
Since the lift distribution is nearly elliptical, the chord distribution should be nearly
elliptical for uniform CL's. Reduced lift or t/c outboard would permit lower taper
ratios. Evaluating the stalling characteristics is not so easy. In the low speed
configuration we must know something about the high lift system: the flap type,
span, and deflections. The flaps-retracted stalling characteristics are also important,
however (DC-10).

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Twist:
The wing twist distribution is perhaps the least controversial design parameter to
be selected. The twist must be chosen so that the cruise drag is not excessive. Extra
washout helps the stalling characteristics and improves the induced drag at higher
CL's for wings with additional load distributions too highly weighted at the tips.
Twist also changes the structural weight by modifying the moment distribution
over the wing.
Twist on swept-back wings also produces a positive pitching moment which has a
small effect on trimmed drag. The selection of wing twist is therefore
accomplished by examining the trades between cruise drag, drag in second
segment climb, and the wing structural weight. The selected washout is then just a
bit higher to improve stall.

Winglets:

Fig. 7.2 Winglets

Blended winglets are used in this heavy business jet.
A blended winglet is attached to the wing with smooth curve instead of a sharp angle
and is intended to reduce interference drag at the wing/winglet junction.

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Fig.7.3 Wingtip Differentiation

These winglets which stand 2.5m tall each offers 5 to 7% reduction in cruise
drag (induced drag) and increase in wing area and aspect ratio without
geometrically increasing the wing span which results in 8 to 10% increase in
range.
DESIGN CALCULATION:

Croot Calculation:
Croot

2*S
b * (1 )

= (2 113.65) / [32 (1+0.3)]

Croot =5.4639m

Ctip Calculation:
Ctip = * croot = (0.3 x 5.4639)
Ctip = 1.6392m

Cmean Calculation:
Cmean =

1
2

*Croot*

= 0.6666 x 5.4639 x 1.0692308

Cmean= 3.8948m

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Section Lift Coefficient:

2

CL=2*W / *v *s
2

=(2*382*9.81)/(0.44592*250.83 )

CL =.2671

Wing Lift Coefficient:

CL=0.9 x CL x cos
=0.9 x 0.2671 x cos30
CL = .2082

RESULT:
TABLE7.1 Wing Design Parameters
S.no

PARAMETER

VALUES

1.

Chord in root

Croot =5.4639m

2.

Chord in Tip

Ctip = 1.6392m

3.

Chord in mean

Cmean= 3.8948m

4.

Section Lift Coefficient:

CL =0.2671

5.

Wing Lift Coefficient:

CL = 0.2082

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8. AIRFOIL SELECTION
DEFINITION:
An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces a force perpendicular
to the motion called lift. Subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a
rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with asymmetric
camber. A fixed-wing aircraft's wings, horizontal, and vertical stabilizers are built
with airfoil-shaped cross sections. Airfoils are also found in propellers, fans,
compressors and turbines. Airfoil design is a major fact of aerodynamics. Various
airfoils serve different flight regimes. Asymmetric airfoils can generate lift at zero
angle of attack, while a symmetric airfoil may better suit frequent inverted flight as in
an aerobatic airplane. In the region of the ailerons and near a wingtip a symmetric
airfoil can be used to increase the range of angles of attack to avoid spin-stall.
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRFOIL:
i) BASED ON THE SHAPE:

1. Symmetrical
2. Semi-Symmetrical
3. Flat Bottom
4. Modified Flat Bottom
5. Under-cambered
6. Reflexed
ii) BASED ON NACA NOMENCLATURE:
1. 4 Digit series
2. 5 Digit series
3. 6 Digit series
4. 7 Digit series
5. 8 Digit series
iii) BASED ON APPLICATION:
1. Low speed airfoils (Subsonic airfoils) cambered airfoil with curved top and
bottom surface with sharp trailing edge.
2. Modern speed airfoils flat top surface and curved bottom surface with cusped
trailing edge.
3. High speed airfoils (Supersonic airfoils) sharp leading and trailing edge i.e,
similar to symmetrical wedge.

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AIRFOIL TERMINOLOGIES:

1. The mean camber line is a line drawn midway between the upper and lower
surfaces.
2. The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges of the
airfoil, at the ends of the mean camber line.
3. The chord is the length of the chord line and is the characteristic dimension of
the airfoil section.
4. The maximum thickness and the location of maximum thickness are expressed
as a percentage of the chord.
5. For symmetrical airfoils both mean camber line and chord line pass from centre
of gravity of the airfoil and they touch at leading and trailing edge of the airfoil.
6. The aerodynamic center is the chord wise length about which the pitching
moment is independent of the lift coefficient and the angle of attack.
7. The center of pressure is the chord wise location about which the pitching
moment is zero.

Fig.8.1 Aerofoil Geometry

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ANGLE OF ATTACK ()

gg

Fig.8.1 Aerofoil Geometry

Fig.8.2 Angle of Attack
Angle of attack () is the angle between the free stream and the chord line.
Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions,
design/selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio, lift
curve slope, characteristic curves.
NACA 6 Digit:
t/c =

0.3 1

M M cos

5 M cos 2

M cos 1/ 3 1

3.5

5 M *

2/3

1st digit: identifies series type.

2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from leading edge
(LE).
3rd digit: indicates acceptable range of C L above/below design value for
satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of C L).
4th digit (x0.1): design CL.
5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)
It becomes necessary to use high speed airfoils, i.e., the 6x series, which have
been designed to suit high subsonic cruise Mach numbers.

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NACA 63A-514 (Root airfoil)

Max thickness 14%

Max camber 3.2%

Fig.8.3. NACA 63A-514 (Root airfoil)

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NACA 63-512 (Midspan airfoil)

Max thickness 12.5%

Max camber 2.2%

Fig.8.4. NACA 63-512 (Midspan airfoil)

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NACA 63-310 (Tip airfoil)

Max thickness 10%

Max camber 1.1%

Fig.8.5. NACA 63-310 (Tip airfoil)

(JavaFoil airfoil generator)
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t/c Calculation:
0.3 1
t/c =

M M cos

Taking

5 M cos 2

M cos 1/ 3 1

3.5

5 M *

2/3

M* = 1.05 - 0.25 CL(cruise)

Where,
M = Drag Divergence Cruise Mach Number = .85
= Sweep Back Angle = 30 at Quarter Chord
CL (cruise) = 0.2082
Substituting the values in the above equation, we get,
t/c = 0.12

NACA 64(2)-015A airfoil

NACA 63(2)-615 airfoil

NACA 66(1)-212 airfoil

max thickness 12% at 40% chord

max camber 0% at 0% chord
max thickness 15% at 34.8% chord
max camber 3.3% at 50% chord
max thickness 12% at 45% chord
max camber 1.1% at 50% of chord

Chosen airfoil from the above,

NACA 64(2)-015A airfoil

Fig.8.6. NACA 64(2)-015A airfoil

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9. LIFT ESTIMATION
Lift is the force that directly opposes the weight of an airplane and holds the
airplane in the air. Lift is generated by every part of the airplane, but most of the lift
on a normal airliner is generated by the wings. Lift is a mechanical aerodynamic force
produced by the motion of the airplane through the air. Because lift is a force, it is a
vector quantity, having both a magnitude and a direction associated with it. Lift acts
through the center of pressure of the object and is directed perpendicular to the flow
direction. There are several factors which affect the magnitude of lift.

Fig.9.1 Lift Generation

HOW IS LIFT GENERATED?

There are many explanations for the generation of lift found in encyclopedias, in
basic physics textbooks, and on Web sites. Unfortunately, many of the
explanations are misleading and incorrect. Theories on the generation of lift have
become a source of great controversy and a topic for heated arguments. To help
you understand lift and its origins, a series of pages will describe the various
theories and how some of the popular theories fail.
Lift occurs when a moving flow of gas is turned by a solid object. The flow is turned
in one direction, and the lift is generated in the opposite direction, according to
Newton's Third Law of action and reaction. Because air is a gas and the molecules are
free to move about, any solid surface can deflect a flow. For an aircraft wing, both the
upper and lower surfaces contribute to the flow turning. Neglecting the upper surface's
part in turning the flow leads to an incorrect theory of lift.
39 | P a g e

Fig.9.2 Longer Path or Equal Transit Theory

NO FLUID, NO LIFT
Lift is a mechanical force. It is generated by the interaction and contact of a solid
body with a fluid (liquid or gas). It is not generated by a force field, in the sense of a
gravitational field ,or an electromagnetic field, where one object can affect another
object without being in physical contact. For lift to be generated, the solid body must
be in contact with the fluid: no fluid, no lift. The Space Shuttle does not stay in space
because of lift from its wings but because of orbital mechanics related to its speed.
Space is nearly a vacuum. Without air, there is no lift generated by the wings.

NO MOTION, NO LIFT
Lift is generated by the difference in velocity between the solid object and the
fluid. There must be motion between the object and the fluid: no motion, no lift. It
makes no difference whether the object moves through a static fluid, or the fluid
moves past a static solid object. Lift acts perpendicular to the motion. Drag acts in
the direction opposed to the motion. You can learn more about the factors that
affect lift at this web site. There are many small interactive programs here to let
you explore the generation of lift.

40 | P a g e

LIFT COEFFICIENT:
The lift coefficient CL is defined by,

Where L is the lift force, is fluid density, v is true airspeed, S is the planform area
and q is the fluid dynamic pressure.
The lift coefficient can be approximated using the lifting-line theory, numerically
calculated or measured in the wind tunnel test of a complete aircraft configuration.

Fig.9.3 CL Vs A.O.A

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Calculation:
i) Lift at Cruise
= 0.445 (at the cruising altitude of 10800m)
V =250.83m/s
2
S = 113.65 m
CL (cruise) = 0.2082 (from the wing and airfoil estimation)
2
L( c r u i s e ) = 0.50.445(250.83) 113.650.2082
L( c r u i s e ) = 331237.22N
ii) Lift at Take -Off
= 1.225 (at sea altitude)
V =0.7 x 1.2 x Vs t a l l
V=0.7*1.2*47.22= 39.66m/s
2
S = 113.65 m
0
CL ( t a k e - o f f ) = 4.205 (flaps extended and kept at the take -off position of15 )
2

L( t a k e - o f f ) = 0 .51.225(39.66) 113.654.205
L( t a k e - o f f) = 460412.34N

iii) Lift at Landing

= 1.225 (at sea altitude)
V = 0.7 x 1.3 x Vstall
V=42.97m/s
2
S = 113.65 m
0
CL(landing) = 1.0313 (flaps extended and kept at the landing position of 30 )
2

L(landing) = 0.51.225(42.97) 113.651.0313

L(landing) =132553.52N

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10. DRAG ESTIMATION

Drag is the aerodynamic force that opposes an aircraft's motion through the
air. Drag is generated by every part of the airplane (even the engines!). How is
drag generated? Drag is a mechanical force. It is generated by the interaction and
contact of a solid body with a fluid (liquid or gas). It is not generated by a force
field, in the sense of a gravitational field or an electromagnetic field, where one
object can affect another object without being in physical contact. For drag to be
generated, the solid body must be in contact with the fluid. If there is no fluid,
there is no drag. Drag is generated by the difference in velocity between the solid
object and the fluid. There must be motion between the object and the fluid. If
there is no motion, there is no drag. It makes no difference whether the object
moves through a static fluid or whether the fluid moves past a static solid object.

Fig.10.1 Drag Generation

Drag is a force and is therefore a vector quantity having both a magnitude and a
direction. Drag acts in a direction that is opposite to the motion of the aircraft. Lift
acts perpendicular to the motion. There are many factors that affect the magnitude
of the drag. Many of the factors also affect lift but there are some factors that are
unique to aircraft drag.
We can think of drag as aerodynamic friction, and one of the sources of drag is the
skin friction between the molecules of the air and the solid surface of the aircraft.
Because the skin friction is an interaction between a solid and a gas, the magnitude
43 | P a g e

of the skin friction depends on properties of both solid and gas. For the solid, a
smooth, waxed surface produces less skin friction than a roughened surface. For
the gas, the magnitude depends on the viscosity of the air and the relative
magnitude of the viscous forces to the motion of the flow, expressed as the
Reynolds number. Along the solid surface, a boundary layer of low energy flow is
generated and the magnitude of the skin friction depends on conditions in the
boundary layer. We can also think of drag as aerodynamic resistance to the motion
of the object through the fluid.
The coefficient of drag is

Where,
CD is the Overall drag coefficient
CD0 is the zero-lift coefficient
CL is the aircraft lift coefficient
is the circumference to diameter ratio of the
circle e0 is the Oswald efficiency factor
AR is the aspect ratio

Fig.10.2 Drag Vs Airspeed

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Calculation:
e - Oswald efficiency factor is value between 0.7 to0.85
-glide angle
=(16)2/[1+(16)2]

= 0.95

i) DRAG AT CRUISE:
=12()2[,0+()2.]
= 0.445 (at the cruising altitude of 10800m)
V = 250.83m/s
2
S =113.65m
2
D=0.5*0.445*(250.83) *113.65*0.0021
D=3308.19N
ii) DRAG AT TAKE-OFF:
=12()2[,0+()2.]
= 1.225 (at sea altitude)
V= 39.66m/s
2
S =113.65m
2
D =0.5*1.225*(39.66) *113.65*0.848
D=92871.84N
iii) DRAG AT LANDING:
=12()2[,0+()2.]
= 1.22(at sea altitude)
V=42.97m/s
2
S = 113.65m
2

D =0.5*1.225*(42.97) *113.65* 0.0510

D=6557.64N

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11. UNDERCARRIAGE SELECTION

Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and is often
referred to as such.
For aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing it
to take off, land and usually to taxi without damage. Wheels are typically used but
skids, skis, floats or a combination of these and other elements can be deployed
depending both on the surface and on whether the craft only operates vertically
(VTOL) or is able to taxi along the surface. Faster aircraft usually have retractable
undercarriage, which folds away during flight to reduce air resistance or drag.

For launch vehicles and spacecraft landers, the landing gear is typically
designed to support the vehicle only post-flight, and are not used for takeoff or
surface movement.
Landing Gear Arrangement types:
Three basic arrangements of landing gear are used:
Tail Wheel-Type Landing Gear
Tandem Landing Gear

Tricycle-Type Landing Gear

The tri-cycle type landing gear are suitable for our 18 passenger aircraft.

Tricycle-type landing gear is used on large and small aircraft with the
following benefits:
1. Allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when
braking, which enables higher landing speeds.
2. Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially during landing and
ground maneuvering.
3. Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft center of gravity is
forward of the main gear, forces acting on the center of gravity tend to keep

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the aircraft moving forward rather than looping, such as with a tail wheeltype landing gear.
The nose gear of a few aircraft with tricycle-type landing gear is not
controllable. It simply casters as steering is accomplished with differential braking
during taxi. However, nearly all aircraft have steerable nose gear. On light aircraft,
the nose gear is directed through mechanical linkage to the rudder pedals. Heavy
aircraft typically utilize hydraulic power to steer the nose gear. Control is achieved
through an independent tiller in the flight deck.
The main gear on a tricycle-type landing gear arrangement is attached to
reinforced wing structure or fuselage structure. The number and location of wheels
on the main gear vary. Many main gear have two or more wheels.
Multiple wheels spread the weight of the aircraft over a larger area. They
also provide a safety margin should one tire fail. Heavy aircraft may use four or
more wheel assemblies on each main gear. When more than two wheels are
attached to a landing gear strut, the attaching mechanism is known as a bogie. The
number of wheels included in the bogie is a function of the gross design weight of
the aircraft and the surface type on which the loaded aircraft is required to land.
The tricycle-type landing gear arrangement consists of many parts and
assemblies. These include air/oil shock struts, gear alignment units, support units,
retraction and safety devices, steering systems, wheel and brake assemblies, etc. A
main landing gear of a transport category aircraft is illustrated with many of the
parts identified as an introduction to landing gear nomenclature.

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48 |
Page

Fig.11.1 Tri-Cycle Landing Gear

12. THREE VIEW DIAGRAM OF AIRCRAFT

Fig.12.1 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM OF AIRCRAFT

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13. CONCLUSION

This aircraft project has shown how, for a relatively simple aircraft, the design
process is taken from the initial consideration of the operational requirements to
the end of the concept design phase. The intervening stages have shown how the
aircraft design evolves during this process. This showed that the initial
configurationally assumptions for weight and wing loadings, based on data from
existing aircraft, were found to be in error because of the unique operational
performance of the aircraft. A more efficient aircraft layout was identified.
In this conceptual stage, several technical aspects of the design have not been fully
analyzed. These include:

The stability and control analysis of the aircraft.

Engine selection.

Structural design and material selection.

Fuselage and wing load distribution.

These make calculations much complicated which may be laborious. Also there
might arise many debatable topics in our design and hidden loose strings. The
overall design was relatively successful. Most of the characteristics that were
initially proposed were closely met in the design and should be a competitive one
the market of comparable aircraft.

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14. REFERENCES

www.grc.nasa.gov/

www.airliners.net

www.checksix.com

www.Avionslegendaires.net

www.wikipedia.com

www.faa.gov/
www.icao.int/

Cessna, Gulfstream, Beechcraft, Bombardier, Embraer, Dassault

aviation official websites.

Aviation
Explorer

Experimental Aircraft info

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