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Youth Agripreneurs

Agriculture is the future

A reference manual on

Plantain
Cultivation in
West Africa

Produced by

IITA Youth Agripreneurs

A Reference Manual
on

Plantain Cultivation
in
West Africa

Plantain/Banana

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 2014

Abstract
Plantain (Musa spp.) occupies a strategic position for rapid
food production in Nigeria. It is ranked third among starchy
staples. The countrys output doubled in the last 20 years.
Production, which is concentrated in the Southern part of the
country, still remains largely in the hands of small scale farmers
who, over the years,
have ingeniously integrated it into various cropping systems.
Production is male dominated, while women essentially handle
marketing. The inadequate knowledge of improved cultural
practices of the crop by the farmers, an inefficient system of
extension services and skewness of specialization in areas of
research are part of the reasons why yield potential of plantain
is still low in the country. Contributions of plantain to the
income of rural households in major producing areas in Nigeria
continue to increase tremendously in the last few years through
research and extension services conducting by International
Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and involvement of
Youth Agripreneurs of IITA . Unlike some other starchy staples
whose demand tend to fall with rising income, demand for
plantain increases with increasing income. With the potential
for industrial processing of plantain, which has recently been
adopted, and the increased interest in production by small and
large scale farms in the country, it is believed that Nigeria will
continue to be one of the worlds largest producers of plantain.

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Contents
Part One
Plantains and their environment .................................................1
Morphology..................................................................................2
Cultivars ......................................................................................3
Sources of planting material .......................................................3
Climate ........................................................................................4
Mulch ..........................................................................................4
Fertilizer ..................................................................................... 5
Weed control................................................................................6
Disease and pest control.............................................................6
Fallow ..........................................................................................9
Part Two
How to grow plantains ..............................................................10
Selecting the site.......................................................................10
Preparing the field .....................................................................11
Spacing .....................................................................................11
Selecting cultivars .....................................................................11
Preparing suckers .....................................................................12
Planting .....................................................................................12
Choosing the time to plant.........................................................13
Mulching....................................................................................13
Fertilizing ..................................................................................14
Controlling weeds .....................................................................14
Intercropping ............................................................................15
Propping ...................................................................................15
Harvesting..................................................................................16
Postharvest Handling16
Storage16
Distribution and Marketing of Plantain in Nigeria.16
Thinning ....................................................................................17
Controlling high mat...................................................................18
Managing the fallow period.......................................................18
Conclusion.................................................................................19
Glossary.....................................................................................20
References.................................................................................28
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Part One

Plantains and their environment


Introduction
Plantains (Musa spp., AAB genome) are plants producing fruits
that remain starchy at maturity (Marriot and Lancaster, 1983;
Robinson, 1996) and need processing before consumption.
Plantain production in Africa is estimated at more than 50%
of worldwide production (FAO, 1990). The majority (82%) of
plantains in Africa are produced in the area stretching from
the lowlands of Guinea and Liberia to the central basin of
the Democratic Republic of Congo. West and Central Africa
contribute 61 and 21%, respectively (FAO, 1986). It is estimated
that about 70 million people in West and Central Africa derive
more than 25% of their carbohydrates from plantains, making
them one of the most important sources of food energy
throughout the African lowland humid forest zone (Swennen,
1990).
Nigeria is one of the largest plantain producing countries in the
world (FAO,2006). Despite its prominence, Nigeria does not
feature among plantain exporting nations because it produces
more for local consumption than for export. National per capita
consumption figures show its importance relative to other starch
staples (FAO, 1986).
However, these figures do not show regional reliance, which is
often very important for highly perishable crops that are usually
consumed in or near areas of production. The consumption
of plantain has risen tremendously in Nigeria in recent years
because of the rapidly increasing urbanization and the great
demand for easy and convenient foods by the non-farming
urban populations. Besides being the staple for many people

in more humid regions, plantain is a delicacy and favored


snack for people even in other ecologies. A growing industry,
mainly plantain chips, is believed to be responsible for the
high demand being experienced now in the country. This study
reviews the trend of plantain production, its problems and
prospects in Nigeria in the last two decades.
1. Morphology
Bearing plants consist of :
(a) Bunch or inflorescence. Composed of many flowers, the
bunch emerges between the leaves and is attached to the plant
by a rachis or fruit stalk. The many protuberances on the rachis
are called glomerules. Each glomerule bears a group of flowers,
also called a hand. Edible fruit (or fingers) develop from female
flowers located at the first 10 glomerules of the bunch. Neutral
flowers (also called hermaphrodite or intermediate flowers)
appear next but do not develop into fruit as their ovaries cannot
swell to form pulp. The purple bud at the end of the bunch is
called the male bud and consists of bracts covering groups of
so-called male flowers. This male bud may be absent or present
when the bunch reaches maturity.
(b) Pseudo stem with foliage leaves. The cylindrical structure
rising from the soil and carrying the foliage is not a stem in the
true sense. It is a false stem or pseudostem because the
growing tip (or meristem) of the plant remains near soil level. As
the false stem consists of overlapping leaf sheaths, plantains
are like giant herbs and not like trees. The leaf sheaths render
support to the rachis of the mother plant. Young suckers (shoots
from the main plant which can develop into bearing plants)
have narrow, lanceolated leaves which are called scales and
are easily distinguishable from the large foliage leaves.
(c) Underground corm with suckers and roots. The corm,
sometimes wrongly called a bulb, is the true stem of the plant.

Numerous roots emerge from the corm, most of which grow


horizontally at a depth of 0 to 15 cm. Roots are whitish if
young and healthy and become brown with age. If infested by
nematodes, they become brown or even black and/or show
protuberances.
The growing tip (or meristem) at the top of the corm
continuously forms new leaves and later becomes the
inflorescence. The corm produces many branches, called
suckers, and the whole unit is often referred to as the mat or
stool. After the plant crop has been harvested, the mother
plant is cut down and the suckers are thinned. Although all
suckers are followers or daughter plants, the cultivator selects
one (the ratoon) to continue the next cycle of production. The
second harvest from the plantain mat is called the first ratoon
crop. The third harvest is the second ratoon crop, and so on.
2. Cultivars
At least 116 plantain cultivars have been identified in West and
Central Africa. Plant size and bunch type are the most important
characteristics for production purposes.
Plant size depends on the number of leaves produced before
flowering: giant more than 38 foliage leaves; medium between
32 and 38 foliage leaves; small fewer than 32 foliage leaves.
When the plantains flower, leaf production has ended.
3. Sources of planting material
Several types of conventional planting material exist:
Peeper: a small sucker emerging from the soil;
Sword sucker: a large sucker with lanceolated leaves, the best
conventional planting material;
Maiden sucker: a large sucker with foliage leaves;
Bits: pieces of a chopped corm.

A new and most promising planting material consists of in-vitro


plants which are small maiden suckers produced from meristem
culture.
Planting material can be collected from:
(a) An existing field, preferably an old field which is becoming
unproductive. Otherwise damage to the roots may be caused
when the suckers are being dug out and many mother plants
may later tip over.
(b) A multiplication plot, which is planted only for the production
of suckers and not to produce bunches. Plant density (2 m x
2 m) is much higher than in production fields and suckers are
obtained by either decapitation or false decapitation. Both
methods consist of removing the growing point. In the first
method, the pseudo-stem is removed to get to the growing
point. Only a small hole or window is cut for the second method.
The foliage can remain active for up to 3 months after the
removal of the meristem by the second method.
(c) A tissue culture laboratory, where in vitro plants which look
like small maiden suckers are produced from meristems. Invitro plants are healthy, vigorous, free from pests and diseases
(figure 4) and have a great future.
4. Climate
Plantains, like other bananas. require a hot and humid
environment. Ideally, the average air temperature should be
about 30C and rainfall at least 100 mm per month. Rainfall
should be well distributed throughout the year and dry seasons
should be as short as possible. Irrigation is not suitable nor
economically worthwhile for plantains grown by the family
farmer. but may become necessary when larger fields are
cultivated in areas with a long dry season.
5. Mulch
Organic matter is essential for plantain cultivation . External
sources of mulch can consist of elephant grass (Pennisetum
purpureum), which is rich in potassium, or cassava peelings,
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wood shavings, palm bunch refuse, dried weeds, kitchen


refuse, and so on. Collecting and transporting mulch are
expensive in time and labor. The most convenient source
consists of plants growing inside the plantain fields if they
produce a great deal of organic matter without competing with
the plantains.
Suitable mulch material can be obtained from trees which were
slashed when the fields were cleared and which are growing
again; or from a deep-rooted legume shrub called Flemingia
congesta or F. macrophylla. F. congesta is seed drilled in the
middle of the 3 m plantain alley. It can be difficult to establish,
but from the second year onwards it grows vigorously. It can
reach a height of approximately 2.5 to 3 m if left unpruned, but
in the field it is cut back 4 times a year to a height of about 1.5 m.
The prunings are spread over the soil. Flemingia is not
fertilized as it benefits from fixed nitrogen and leached fertilizers
applied to the plantains. Grass growing between the plantains
is not suitable as a mulch source because it competes with the
plantains.
6. Fertilizer
The plantain crop always benefits from the use of fertilizer
(table 1). The yield from fertilized plants can be up to 10
times higher than that from unfertilized plants. The amount of
fertilizer needed depends on soil fertility and soil type. General
recommendations cannot be made as these should be based
on soil or leaf analysis and the results of fertilizer experiments.
Since potassium and nitrogen are easily leached, they should
always be applied at regular intervals (split applications)
during the growing (rainy) season. Other important nutrients
are phosphate, calcium and magnesium which are provided in
one application. In some exceptional cases, micro-nutrients (for
example, zinc or sulfur) have to be applied.

Control
Plant crop
0.6
First ratoon
0.6

Fertilizer Mulch
11.9
14.1
2.8
10.2

Mulch + fertilizer
18.8
10.4

A. 550 kg of potassium oxide and 300 kg of


nitrogen per hectare
B. 80 tons per hectare of Pennisetum
purpureum (elephant grass)

7. Weed control
Weeds can be hand-pulled or chemically controlled. Paraquat
and simazine are appropriate herbicides since they control
the weeds without affecting the plantains, unless leaves are
accidentally sprayed. Glyphosate, diuron and gramuron are not
recommended as they can be phytotoxic to plantains.
8. Disease and pest control
Black sigatoka is the major disease attacking plantains;
nematodes and stemborers are the major pests.
Black sigatoka is a leaf spot disease caused by the fungus
Mycosphaerel/a fijiensis. All known plantain cultivars are
susceptible to this wind-borne fungus. Leaves first show yellow
spots which later turn brown and black. Ultimately the leaf
tissue becomes necrotic and dies. In this way entire leaves
become nonfunctional and in many cases, bearing plants are
left with hardly any green leaves at maturity. Photosynthesis
is reduced and small bunches (sometimes with undeveloped
fingers) are produced. Yield losses are estimated at between 30
and 50 percent.
Black sigatoka can be controlled with aerial applications of
fungicides belonging to the groups of the benomyl, benzimidazoles, chlorothalonils, dithiocarbamates, flusilazoles,
imazaliles, imidazoles, methylthiophanates, nuarimols, prochloraz, propiconazoles, triazoles and tridemorph, or soilapplied fungicides such as triadimefon and triadimenol. In any
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case, at least two types of fungicide should be used alternately


to prevent the fungus from developing resistance to the active
ingredient.
Plantain cultivars resistant to black sigatoka provide the
only effective means of control since the fungicides are very
expensive and can pose health hazards when applied in
backyards. Breeding for resistance began at the Onne station of
the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria
during 1988. For the time being, cooking bananas (Fougamou
1 , Bom, Gia Hui, Foulah 4 and Nzizi) are available
from IITA as a substitute for plantain.
These varieties are
resistant to black sigatoka and can be prepared and consumed
in the same ways as plantains.
Nematodes are minute worms which live in the soil and infest
plant roots. Several types of nematodes can extensively
damage the plantain root system if the land was previously
cropped with plantains or if they were introduced with infected
planting material. Nematodes impair the transport of nutrients
and water to the main stem, causing a reduction in yield and
weakening of the plant. As a result, many plants may be lost
through tip-over whenever winds become strong.
Nematodes can be controlled by applying nematicides in a
circle, 25 cm in diameter, around the plant.
Some of these nematicides are:

Nematicides

Rate per plant (grams)

Isazophos
Carbofuran
ethoprophos
phenamiphos

2.5 a.i.
4.0 a.i.
4.5 a.i.
3.0 a.i.

a.i. = active ingredient


7

No. of applications per year


3
3
3
3

As carbofuran is effectively degraded by microorganisms, it


should be used alternately with other nematicides.
The stem borer or banana weevil Cosmopolites sordid us lays
its eggs near the corm of the main plant. The larvae attack the
underground part of the plant; feeding on the corm and boring
channels in it Plants become very weak, especially during the
dry season, and tip over. Yield can be drastically reduced.
Stem borers can be controlled by leaving the land under fallow,
by the application of coffee husks and by insecticides.

Nematicides
HCH (50%)
Chlordecone
Isofenphos
aldicarbe
Carbofuran

Rate per plant (grams)


40
1
1.2
1.5
2

c.p.
a.i.
a.i.
a.i.
a.i

c.p = Commercial product

No. of applications per


year
3
2
3
3
3

a.i. = active ingredient

The cost of insecticides should determine whether they should


be used. The use of traps provides an alternative method for
controlling banana weevils which is cheap but time-consuming
and not as effective as the use of insecticides. Traps are made
by cutting pseudo-stems in half longitudinally and laying the
pieces cut side down on the soil near the plantains. One trap
for every 20 to 30 plants is the current practice. Traps should be
inspected daily early in the morning. The adult black weevils are
then retrieved from between the soil and the cut surface of the
pseudo-stem and killed. Traps remain effective for about 1 or
2 weeks and are renewed at harvest when an ample supply of
pieces of pseudo stem is available.

9. Fallow
A field that becomes unproductive should be left fallow when
the plantain mats have been destroyed. Good results can be
obtained with the use of kerosene, glyphosate or 2-4 0 but
the plantain mats can only be completely destroyed by hand.
This ensures that no live material remains to harbor pests and
reinfect the field.
To restore fertility, the organic matter in the soil should be
raised as high as possible during the fallow period by planting
an improved fallow (for example, a leguminous cover crop).
Otherwise the fallow crop can consist of trees which were cut
down at planting time and are growing back or of Flemingia
congesta which was grown between the plantain rows as a
source of mulch. In addition to restoring fertility, the fallow
crop should by itself completely eliminate all kinds of weeds,
especially grasses. A grass fallow is not suitable as grass easily
grows again and becomes a noxious weed.

Part Two

How to grow plantains


Plantain and Banana are staple crops grown throughout the
tropics. In Africa, plantain and Banana are also an important
source of carbohydrate in the diet of more than 70 million
people. Plantain and Banana are also an important source of
revenue for farmers who produce the crops in small-scale field
plantations and Backyards. Backyard soil is very rich in organic
matter and nutrients from household refuse which is dumped
there. Such gar-dens are permanently in use for plantains which
grow there luxuriantly, become very large and produce heavy
bunches. They grow in groups or clusters as each bearing
plant produces many suckers which are not pruned out. Human
activity is limited to manuring, propping and harvesting.
Since the demand and thus the price for this crop are
continuously increasing, many farmers want to grow more
plantains in order to raise their income. However, backyards
cannot be readily extended since they are enclosed by houses
or fences. The only way, therefore, to expand production is
to grow plantains in fields at some distance from the village.
In most cases such field-grown plantains are very poorly
maintained. The result is a very modest yield from the first year
onwards. Different methods of cultivation should accompany
the change in site to achieve and sustain high-level yields for
several years.
1. Selecting the site
The site should be easily accessible, especially if the
establishment of a large field is being planned. It should be
well drained but not too steeply sloped. Plantain cultivation is
impossible if the land becomes flooded from time to time, or has

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a water table at a depth of only 50 cm or less. The soil should


be rich in organic matter (black soil). Hence fields in a long
natural fallow, under an improved established fallow or with a lot
of mulch are recommended.
2. Preparing the field
Fields are to be prepared with minimum disturbance to the
soil (no-tillage farming). In consequence, manual clearing
should be preferred to mechanical deforestation because
bulldozers always remove topsoil with the important organic
matter and compact the remaining soil. When an old natural
fallow is cleared, the debris from the forest should be burned
if plantain cultivation is planned for 1 or 2 cycles only. If
perennial cultivation is being considered, planting should be
done through the mulch .Young fallows of about 3 to 5 years
or improved legume fallows should be simply slashed and left
without being burned. Trees must be cut but the stumps are not
to be removed, and the trees should be left to grow again. They
can be pruned only when they start to obstruct field activities or
shade the plantains. Once the fallow crop is slashed, the field
is ready for pegging. Drains should be dug if some spots in the
field tend to waterlog after heavy rains.
3. Spacing
The recommended spacing is 3 m between the plantain
rows and 2 m within the row (in other words. 3 m x 2 m). An
alternative is 2.5 m x 2.5 m. If spaced 3 m x 2 m, 1 hectare
should contain 1667 plants, but with a spacing of 2.5 m x 2.5
m, it should contain 1600 plants. Rows should be straight in flat
fields to give plants the maximum amount of sunlight. However,
on sloping land, rows should follow the contour lines in order to
decrease soil erosion.
4. Selecting cultivars
For field cultivation, medium plantains should be preferred
to giant ones even though giant plantains produce heavier
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bunches. Giant plantains take longer to produce and are more


likely to be damaged by strong winds because of their size.
The decision whether to grow a French or a False Horn plantain
cultivar should depend on which type the consumers prefer.
Horn plantains should never be cultivated as their yield is very
low.
5. Preparing suckers
Suckers are separated from their mother plant with a spade or
machete. The sucker corm must not be damaged or chipped.
Consequently the corm should be carefully peeled with a
machete. The pseudo stem of the suckers should be cut off a
few centimeters above the corm. Peeling of the corm delays
the development of nematode infestation, while cutting of the
pseudo stem reduces bulkiness and improves early growth of
the newly planted sucker.
The
peeling process is just like that for cassava. A freshly peeled
healthy corm ought to look white, but corms infected by stem
borers and nematodes show brown and black spots which have
to be removed until only white tissue remains. If the infestation
is severe, with many brown and black spots, the sucker should
be destroyed. Sucker preparation (peeling) is carried out in
the field where the planting material is collected. This is to
avoid contamination of the new field with roots infested with
nematodes or corms with stem borers. Prepared corms are
transported to their destination where they are left to dry for a
few days (not in the sun). Suckers have to be planted within two
weeks. Storage of suckers for more than 2 weeks will adversely
affect future yields.
6. Planting
Suckers are planted immediately after field preparation. Plant
holes are prepared with a minimum size of about 30 cm x 30
cm x 30 cm. Care should be taken to separate the topsoil from
bottom soil. The sucker is placed in the hole and its corm is
covered, first with the topsoil and then with the bottom soil. In
the plant hole, the side of the sucker corm which was formerly
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attached to the corm of its mother plant is placed against the


wall of the hole. The opposite side of the sucker corm is placed
towards the middle of the plant hole, where the soil is loose.
The best sucker (the future ratoon) will emerge at the side
opposite to where the planted sucker was previously attached
to the mother plant. If the land is sloping, the sucker should be
so oriented that its follower will emerge against the slope. That
will delay the development of the so-called high mat when the
ratoon crop grows out of the soil and exposes the corm.
7. Choosing the time to plant
Plantains can be planted throughout the rainy season. However, they should grow vigorously and without stress during the
first 3 to 4 months after planting, and therefore they should not
be planted during the last months of the rainy season. Planting
with the first rains seems agronomically sound but not financially
advantageous. Most farmers will plant at the onset of the rains,
causing the market to be flooded with bunches 9 to 12 months
after planting, when prices will be very low. Planting in the
middle of the rainy season is a better proposition as plantains
will then be produced off-season and get high prices.
8. Mulching
Organic matter is essential for plantain cultivation if the field is to
be very productive for a long time. A high level of organic matter
in the soil is beneficial because it stimulates root development,
improves soil drainage, de- creases soil temperature
fluctuations, and increases soil porosity and biological life.
Organic matter decays under the influence of microorganisms
in the soil, heavy rainfall and high soil temperature. The amount
of organic matter will gradually decrease once the field has
been cleared and cause a decrease in yield. Therefore newly
established plantains which receive only fertilizer will produce
a high yield only in the first year. In the second year the yield
will drop because the organic matter will have decomposed.
To compensate for this continuous decrease in the amount of
organic matter, the field needs mulch from plants and/or manure
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from animals. There are many sources of mulch. It can be either


carried into the field or produced between the plants; but to
be effective, it should cover the soil completely. Once the field
is mulched, weeds are controlled and the topsoil is protected
against heavy rainfall and intense sun- shine. Poultry, pigs and
cows produce suitable manure which is applied only at the
base of the mat.
9. Fertilizing
To produce a heavy bunch, plantains always need some extra
nutrients. These can be applied in the form either of inorganic
fertilizers or organic fertilizers (mulch, manure or ash from wood
fires). Inorganic fertilizers have the advantages of easy handling
and concentrated nutrients. Organic fertilizers are very bulky,
yet they manifest many important characteristics. They improve
soil moisture retention, weed and erosion control, soil porosity
and biological activity.
The application of fertilizer should start 1 month after planting of
plantains or with the first rains in an already existing field. The
fertilizer is applied around the main plant in a circle about 50 cm
in diameter. Fertilizer is not worked into the soil as that causes
extensive damage to the superficial root system. No fertilizer is
applied in the dry season.
10. Controlling weeds
Plantains should always be weed-free. Weed control starts
during field preparation. Weeds are initially controlled about
every 6 to 8 weeks; but when the plantain canopy closes,
about 5 to 6 months after planting, weed infestation declines
due to shading. Any plant with a superficial root system
should be considered a weed and therefore eliminated.
Grasses or herbs are the most pernicious weeds because
they derive their nutrients from the same level of the soil as
the plantains. Tree seedlings are not considered to be weeds.
Weeds can be controlled through mulching, chemically or

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manually. Mulching is the most efficient means, because a


mulch layer can impede or prevent weed growth. Chemical
control is expensive and in some circumstances also
dangerous. Manual weeding is not recommended, although
the weeds are thereby effectively controlled, because slashing
or hoe weeding inevitably damages the plantain root system.
However, sometimes manual weeding is the only possible
method.
11. Intercropping
Plantain fields are arranged in rows spaced 3 m x 2 m. As the
canopy closes only some 5 to 6 months after planting, a fair
amount of inter-row space remains un exploited during the first
months. This space can be used for plants which have a short
life cycle and which do not compete with plantains. Groundnut,
yam , cocoyam and maize are suitable intercrops although
maize effectively delays the plantain harvest by about 2 months.
Cassava and cowpea are not suitable, because their yields are
reduced under the shade of plantain rows. Plantains can be
used as a shade crop for young cocoa and coffee plants.
12. Propping
The heavy weight of the plantain bunch bends all bearing plants
and can cause doubling (pseudo stem breaks), snap- off (corm
breaks, leaving a part in the ground) or uprooting, also called
tip-over (the entire corm with roots comes out of the ground).
Plants are generally weak during the dry season and strong
winds, nematodes and stem borers also increase the rate of
loss. For these reasons, bearing plants always need support
from 1 or 2 wooden props, usually made of bam- boo. If a
piece of bamboo is used, the support is placed alongside the
bearing plant and the top of the plant is tied to the bamboo. A
lateral branch at the top of the bamboo prop sometimes forms
a natural fork which can be used to support the plantain without
being tied to it. When 2 pieces of bamboo are used, the bunch
and not the plant is supported in the first place. The bamboo
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props are crossed and form a fork. This fork is tied together with
a rope and placed just underneath the bunch.
13. Harvesting
The bearing plant is cut and the bunch, 3 to 4 months old, is
harvested when 1 or 2 fingertips of the first hand start yellowing.
The bunch usually then ripens within a week. Care has to be
taken that the bunch does not drop on the ground when the
main plant is cut. The whole of the pseudo stem and foliage of
the main plant is then chopped and spread over the soil as a
mulch for the ratoon crop. If this is not done, weevils may live
and multiply on the intact pseudo stem.
14. Postharvest Handling.
High postharvest losses are among the major problems limiting
the availability of plantain in the country. As a result of poor
handling, postharvest diseases are commonly seen on fruits
sold in the country (Bayeri and Nwachukwu, 2003).
The fact that most large farms are always located inside the
forests, far away from road access, makes the produce to
stay on heaps for several days by the road side. In the late
1980s, transportation of this crop by rail to other non producing
regions was common, but the absence of a current rail system
and adequate road network to most farms now hampers easy
distribution to non producing areas.
15. Storage.
Environmental factors, such as temperature, relative humidity
and air composition, do affect the shelf-life of plantain. Coupled
with inadequate storage systems, insufficient distribution and
lack of ripening techniques, environmental factors always result
in a large proportion of the produce being wasted.
16. Distribution and Marketing of Plantain in Nigeria
Plantain distribution is rather complex in Nigeria. In the first
place, farmers whose farms are nearer to major roads harvest

16

the crop at the mature green stage and display it at the


roadside or move them to a nearby market, where small scale
wholesalers, retailers and consumers can purchase directly. On
the other hand, trade collectors move around farms, collect the
produce from farmers and transport it to the cities where they
hand them over to wholesalers, which in turn pass it on to
retailers/vendors for sale to consumers. Movement/distribution
to major cities and other non producing regions is usually
performed by the wholesalers.
In Nigeria, like most other West African countries, plantain
transportation is by road, usually in open or partially closed
vehicles. Fruits are packed in bunches or hands, and stacked
without any form of protection. Small-scale wholesalers and
retailers transport fruits by bicycles, wheelbarrows, trucks,
pick-ups and taxis. Wholesalers used to transport plantain to
more distant markets using trains, lorries and trailers in the
1980s but have been only using lorries and trailers in the last
few years. Generally, postharvest distribution and marketing of
plantain in the last 20 years has not been very efficient, as there
are no established quality and quantity standards for plantain
transportation and marketing (Adesope et al., 2004).
Studies on plantain marketing have shown that plantain fruits
are subjected to adverse conditions during handling and
transportation. Rough handling, usually leading to splitting,
vibration, abrasion and compression, coupled with late delivery,
often affects plantain quality during distribution (Chukwu, 1997).
17. Thinning
Unlike those of most other bananas, plantain suckers develop
very slowly. After harvest, all suckers start to grow at the same
time and most have to be eliminated to stop competition. The
tallest is left to guarantee the follow up and maintain the density.
Thinning usually has to be repeated a month later, as new
suckers will have emerged by that time. Suckers are thinned
17

with a machete. The sucker pseudo stem is cut off near its corm
and the point of the machete is twisted in the growing tip, thus
killing it.
18. Controlling high mat
After production of several ratoon crops, the upper surface of
corms in aging plantain fields can be seen above soil level. The
exposure of the corms, which is called high mat, is believed to
have several causes. The nature of ratooning in plantains seems
to be particularly important. High mat exposes the roots which
dry out. The plants become weak and tip over easily because
they are no longer firmly based in the soil. Earthing up (adding
soil around the plant) does not help much. However, mulch
protects the roots which would otherwise dry out and improves
the ramification and stability of the plants.
19. Managing the fallow period
A field which becomes unproductive should be left fallow. If
plantains are to be planted again after a fallow period, the
following points should be considered.
At the beginning of the fallow, all plantain mats should
be entirely destroyed. Otherwise, remaining plants could
maintain nematode and stem borer populations which
would readily infest newly planted plantains after the fallow
period.
Only manual destruction guarantees the complete
elimination of the existing plantain mats.
The level of organic matter in the soil should be raised as
high as possible during the fallow period in order to restore
fertility. This can be done by allowing trees to re-grow and /
or by planting a legume cover crop.
The fallow period should last at least 2 to 3 years.

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Conclusion
Plantain production in Nigeria is still very much in the hands
of small scale farmers who incorporate it into different farming
systems. The effort of these farmers should be collaborated
with a good and adequate social infrastructure, like better roads
and transport and efficient extension services. Future research
on plantains should address the issue of intensive cropping
and nutrient and water requirements to increase productivity
both on-station and on-farm with farmers participation. This will
assist in meeting the ever increasing demand of this crop by
both household consumers and the new small scale industries.
With the recent interest in establishment of plantain farms,
as evident by the increase in cultivation/harvested areas, the
countrys productivity will be tripled in the next few years. It
is believed that the country will for a long time be one of the
highest producers of plantain around the world.

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Glossary
C: degrees Celsius, Centigrade 2,4 D: a herbicide
aldicarbe: an insecticide
anchorage: stability of plantains in the soil
backyard: compound garden
banana weevil: an insect that damages the plantain corm
benomyl: a fungicide
benzimidazole: a fungicide
bits: pieces of chopped corm used in planting
black sigatoka: severe leaf spot disease of plantains and
bananas
80m: a variety of cooking banana resistant to black sigatoka
bottom soil: soil from the bottom of a hole dug for planting
bract: a purple modified leaf covering a flower cluster
breeding: plant improvement
canopy: cover formed by leaves
carbofuran: a nematicide and insecticide
chlordecone: an insecticide
chlorothalonil: a fungicide
cm: centimeter

20

contour line: a line connecting the points on a land surface that


have the same elevation
cooking bananas: starchy bananas which have to be cooked
corm: the (underground) stem of a plantain or banana which
produces suckers and roots
Cosmopolites sordidus: see banana weevil
cultivar: cultivated variety
daughter plant: sucker succeeding the bearing plant
decapitation: the process of eliminating the growing tip after
cutting the pseudo stem; used in sucker multiplication
dithiocarbamate: a fungicide
diuron: a herbicide
doubling: breaking of the pseudo stem
drainage: the gradual disappearance of water in the soil
earthing up: heaping soil in mounds at the base of the main
plant
ethoprophos: a nematicide
fallow: previously cultivated land that is al- lowed to lie idle,
usually in order to re-cover its fertility
false decapitation: the process of eliminating the growing
tip after an opening (a win- dow) has been made in the base
of the pseudostem; used in sucker multiplica- tion. See also
decapitation
False Horn plantains: plantains with an in- complete inflorescence at maturity; hands consisting of large fingers followed by
few hermaphrodite flowers, no male bud at maturity
21

female flowers: those flowers on the bunch whose ovaries


develop into fruit
fertilizer: a chemical mixture used to supply nutrients to the soil
finger: a single plantain or banana fruit
Flemingia congesta (F. macrophyl/a): a legume shrub used
as an alley crop in plantain fields; cut regularly to supply mulch
flowering: producing flowers
flusilazole: a fungicide
foliage leaves: the big leaves of a plantain or banana follower:
sucker, daughter plant succeeding the bearing plant
Fougamou 1 , Foulah 4 : varieties of cooking banana
resistant to black sigatoka
French plantains: plantains with a complete inflorescence at
maturity. This type has many hands consisting of many, rather
small fruits followed by the inflorescence axis covered with
persisting hermaphrodite flowers and male flowers; the male
bud is large and persistent
fungicide: chemical used to kill fungi
fungus: any of a major group of saprophytic and parasitic
lower plants that lack chlorophyll and include molds, rusts and
mushrooms, among others
g: gram
Gia Hui: a variety of cooking banana resistant to black
sigatoka
giant plantains: tall plantains which produce more than 38
foliage leaves before flowering

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glomerule: proluberance on the rachis of a bunch


glyphosate: a herbicide
gramuron: a herbicide
hand: a cluster of fingers borne on the same glomerule
HCH: an insecticide
hectare: area of land 100 m by 100 m
herbicide: chemical used in killing weeds
hermaphrodite flowers: intermediate or neutral flowers which
persist on the bunch but do not develop into fruit
high mat: the upper portion of the corm grows out of the soil,
exposing a considerable area of root-bearing tissue
Horn plantains: plantains with an incomplete inflorescence
at maturity. This type has few hands consisting of few but very
large fingers, no hermaphrodite flowers and no male bud
imazalil: a fungicide
imidazole: a fungicide
inflorescence: a floral axis with clusters of flowers
insecticide: chemical used in killing insects intermediate
flowers: see hermaphrodite flowers
in vitro plant: plant produced from a meristem and cultivated
temporarily in a laboratory
isazophos: a nematicide
isofenphos: an insecticide

23

lanceolated: tapering to a point at the top and sometimes at


the base leaf sheath: the lower part of the leaf which forms the
pseudostem of the plantain plant
legume: a plant which fixes nitrogen from the atmosphere by
interaction with bacteria
m: meter
maiden sucker: a large sucker with foliage leaves
male bud: the big purple terminal protuberance of the plantain
bunch
male flowers: flowers which are found in the male bud
manure: organic mulch from animal origin; e.g. poultry manure
mat: corm with suckers; stool
meristem: growing tip which is found on the corm medium
plantains: plantains producing between 32 and 38 foliage
leaves before flowering
methylthiophanate: a fungicide
micronutrient: nutrient needed in very small amounts for good
plant development
microorganism: an organism of microscopic size; e.g. fungus,
bacterium
mm: millimeter
morphology: form, structure
mother plant: a plantain plant with a bunch
mulch: organic matter of plant origin used to cover soil and
improve fertility
24

Musa: genus name of bananas which includes dessert bananas, cooking bananas and plantains, and their wild relatives.
Mycosphaerel/a fijiensis: wind-borne fungus causing black
sigatoka disease
nematicide: chernical used in killing nematodes
nematode: minute parasitic worm which damages plant roots
neutral flowers: see hermaphrodite flowers
no-till farming: farming without soil disturbance
nuarimol: a fungicide
Nzizi : a variety of cooking banana resistant to black sigatoka
ovary: the basal portion of the flower which develops into a fruit
in female flowers, but not in hermaphrodite and male flowers
paraquat: a herbicide
peduncle: see rachis peeper: a small sucker emerging from the
soil
pegging: using pegs to mark a field or planting holes
Pennisetum purpureum: elephant grass
phenamiphos: a nematicide
photosynthesis: synthesis of chemical com- pounds with the
aid of light
phytotoxic: poisonous to plants
plant crop: the crop which is harvested from the planted sucker
porous: having small holes through which liquids can pass

25

prochloraz: a fungicide
propiconazole: a fungicide
propping: the action of supporting bearing plants
protuberance: a lump or projection
pseudostem: false stem consisting of enclas- ping leaf sheaths
pulp: the edible part of the fruit
rachis: the peduncle, a stalk which bears fruit
ramification: branching
ratoon: the sucker succeeding the harvested mother plant
scales: narrow leaves which are produced by peepers and
sword suckers
simazine: a herbicide small
plantains: plantains producing fewer than 32 foliage leaves
before flowering
snap-off: corm breaks, leaving a part in the ground
split application: the application of identical amounts of a substance (e.g. fertilizer) at regular intervals
Stem borer: see banana weevil
stool: see mat
sucker: a shoot from the main plant which can develop into a
bearing plant
sword sucker: a large peeper with lanceo-lated leaves
thinning: the process of eliminating all but one sucker to avoid
competition
26

tip-over: entire corm with the roots comes out 0f the ground
ton: 1000 kilograms
topsoil: soil at the top or on the surface of the field which is
usually darker and richer in nutrients than the bottom soil underneath it
triadimefon: a fungicide
triadimenol: a fungicide
triazole: a fungicide
tridemorph: a fungicide
uprooting: see tip-over
waterlogging: when water remains on the field after rain; this is
caused by bad drainage

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References
Barker W. 1969. Growth and development of the banana plant.
Gross leaf emergence. Annals of Botany 33:
Stover RH, Simmonds NW. 1987. Bananas, 3rd edition. Tropical
Agricultural Series. Longman, Essex, UK..
Swennen R, De Langhe E. 1985. Growth parameters of yield of
plantain (Musa cv. AAB)
Swennen RL, Rosales F. 1994. Bananas In: Encyclopedia of
Agricultural Science, Volume 1
B.Faturoti, A. Tenkouano, J. Lemchi, and N. Nnaji. Rapid
Multiplication of Plantain and Banana. Macropropagation
Techniques .

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