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Briggs/Cochran/Gillett
Calculus Single Variable
Study Card
Limits
Limit Laws

2.1.

lim xn = q when n is even

x: ;q

lim xn = q and lim xn = - q when n is odd

Assume lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist. Then the following properties

2.2.

hold, where c is a constant and m 7 0 and n 7 0 are integers.

1
2.3. lim n = lim x-n = 0
x: ;q x
x: ;q

x:a

1.
2.
3.

x:a

Sum lim 1 f (x) + g(x)2 = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

x :a

x :a

x :a

Difference lim 1 f (x) - g(x)2 = lim f (x) - lim g(x)

x: a

x: a

Constant multiple lim 1c f (x)2 = c lim f (x)

x: a

Product lim 1 f (x) g(x)2 = A lim f (x) B A lim g(x) B

5.

Quotient lim a

x: a

x: a

x: a

f (x)
g(x)

3.

x: a

4.

6.

2.4.

x: a

b =

x: a

lim f (x)

x: a

lim g(x)

= A lim f (x) B , provided

x: a
f (x) 0 for x near a if m is even and n/m is reduced to lowest

7.

Fractional power lim 1 f (x)2

8.

terms.
Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions Assume p and
q are polynomials and a is a constant.

3.1. If m 6 n, then lim f (x) = 0, and y = 0 is a horizontal

x: ;q
asymptote of f.

n/m

x: a

3.2. If m = n, then lim f (x) = am/bn, and y = am/bn is a

x: ;q
horizontal asymptote of f.
3.3. If m 7 n, then lim f (x) = q or - q , and f has no
x: ;q
horizontal asymptote.

8.1. Polynomial functions lim p(x) = p(a)

x:a

x:a

p(a)

p(x)
=
q(x)

q(a)

3.4. If m = n + 1, then lim f (x) = q or - q , f has no

x: ;q

, provided q(a) Z 0

Useful Limits
1.

4.

Limits of Linear Functions Let a, b, and m be real numbers.

For linear functions f (x) = mx + b,
lim f (x) = f (a) = ma + b.

Limits at Infinity of Powers and Polynomials Let n be a

positive integer and let p be the polynomial (with an Z 0)
p(x) = anxn + an - 1 xn - 1 + + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0. Then

horizontal asymptote, but f has a slant asymptote.

3.5. Assuming that f (x) is in reduced form (p and q share no
common factors), vertical asymptotes occur at the zeros
of q.
1
+ q (n even)
lim
= e
, where n is a positive integer
x : a ; (x - a)n
; q (n odd)

5.

Limits of composite functions If lim g (x) = L exists, and f

6.

is continuous at L, then lim f (g (x)) = f (lim g (x)).

x:a
x:a
Trigonometric Limits

x:a

2.

End Behavior and Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Suppose f (x) = p(x)
q(x) is a rational function, where

with am Z 0 and bn Z 0.

x: a

8.2. Rational functions lim

lim p(x) = q or - q , depending on the degree of the

x: ;q
polynomial and the sign of the leading coefficient an.

q(x) = bnxn + bn - 1 xn - 1 + + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0

x:a

x: a

n/m

x: -q

p(x) = amxm + am - 1 xm - 1 + + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and

, provided lim g(x) Z 0

Power lim 1 f (x)2 n = A lim f (x) B n

x: a

x: q

x:a

lim

x:0

Continuity Checklist
In order for f to be continuous at a, the following three conditions must hold:
1.
2.
3.

f (a) is defined (a is in the domain of f ).

lim f (x) exists.

x:a

lim f (x) = f (a) (the value of f equals the limit of f at a).

x:a

SC-1

sin x
= 1
x

lim

x:0

cos x - 1
= 0
x

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Differentiation
Derivatives

Useful Derivatives

The derivative of f is the function

f (x + h) - f (x)
f (x) = lim
,
h:0
h
provided the limit exists. If f (x) exists, we say f is
differentiable at x. If f is differentiable at every point of an open
interval I, we say that f is differentiable on I.

Finding the line tangent to a curve

Rates of Change and the Tangent Line The average rate of
change in f on the interval [a, x] is the slope of the
corresponding secant line:
f (x) - f (a)
.
msec =
x - a
The instantaneous rate of change in f at x = a is
f (x) - f (a)
,
mtan = lim
x:a
x - a

1.

d
(sin x) = cos x
dx

2.

d
(cos x) = - sin x
dx

3.

d
(tan x) = sec2 x
dx

4.

d
(cot x) = - csc2 x
dx

5.

d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx

6.

d
(csc x) = - csc x cot x
dx

7.

d x
(e ) = e x
dx

8.

d x
(b ) = b x ln b
dx

9.

d
1
(ln x) =
x
dx

10.

11.
13.

which is also the slope of the tangent line at (a, f (a)) provided
this limit exists. This tangent line is the unique line through
(a, f(a)) with slope mtan . Its equation is
y - f (a) = mtan (x - a).

Differentiation Rules

19.

d
(tanh x) = sech2 x
dx

d
(coth x) = - csch2 x
dx

d
(sech x) = - sech x tanh x 22.
dx

d
(csch x) = - csch x coth x
dx

d
1
(cosh-1 x) =
2
dx
2x - 1
d
1
(tanh - 1 x) =
dx
1 - x2

d
1
(sinh-1 x) =
2
dx
2x + 1
d
1
(coth - 1 x) =
dx
1 - x2

17.

21.

3.

Constant Multiple Rule If f is differentiable at x and c is a

d
(c f (x)) = c f (x).
constant, then dx

23.

d
dx

( f (x) ; g(x)) = f (x) ; g(x)

5.

Product Rule If f and g are differentiable at x, then

d
dx

( f (x) # g (x)) =

6.

Quotient Rule

7.

Chain Rule

d
dx

d
dx

f (x)
g(x) B

25.

f (x) g(x) + f (x) g(x) .

27.
=

g(x) f (x) - f (x)g(x)

2

(g (x))

1f (g(x))2 = f (g(x))g (x) =

dy du
du dx

14.

d
1
(cos-1 x) = dx
21 - x 2
d
1
(cot-1 x) = dx
1 + x2
d
1
(csc - 1 x) = dx
x 2x 2 - 1
d
(cosh x) = sinh x
dx

d
(c) = 0.
Constant Rule If c is a real number, then dx
d
Power Rule If n is a real number, then dx (x n) = n x n - 1.

Sum/Difference Rule:

12.

d
1
(sec-1 x) =
16.
dx
x 2x 2 - 1
d
(sinh x) = cosh x
18.
dx

15.

1.
2.

4.

d
1
(sin-1 x) =
dx
21 - x 2
d
1
(tan-1 x) =
dx
1 + x2

d
1
(logb x) =
dx
x ln b

28.

20.

24.
26.

d
1
(sech-1 x) = dx
x 21 - x 2
1
d
(csch-1 x) = dx
x 21 + x 2

if y = f (u) and u = g(x)

Applications of Derivatives
Test for Intervals of Increase and Decrease

If f changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through

c, then f has a local minimum at c.
If f is positive on both sides near c or negative on both sides
near c, then f has no local extreme value at c.

Suppose f is continuous on an interval I and differentiable at every

interior point of I. If f (x) 7 0 at all interior points of I, then f is
increasing on I. If f (x) 6 0 at all interior points of I, then f is
decreasing on I.

Test for Concavity

First Derivative Test

Suppose that f exists on an interval I.

Suppose that f is continuous on an interval that contains a critical

point c and assume f is differentiable on an interval containing c,
except perhaps at c itself.
If f changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through
c, then f has a local maximum at c.

If f 7 0 on I, then f is concave up on I.

SC-2

If f 6 0 on I, then f is concave down on I.

If f is continuous at c and f changes concavity at c (from up to
down or vice versa), then f has an inflection point at c.

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Applications of Derivatives (continued)
Second Derivative Test for Local Extrema

LHpitals Rule

Suppose that f is continuous on an open interval containing c with

f (c) = 0.

Suppose f and g are differentiable on an open interval I containing a

with g(x) Z 0 on I when x Z a. If lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0, then
x:a
x:a
f (x)
f (x)
lim
= lim
,
x : a g(x)
x : a g(x)

If f (c) 7 0, then f has a local miminum at c.

If f (c) 6 0, then f has a local maximum at c.

provided the limit on the right exists (or is ; q ). The rule also
applies if x : a is replaced by x : ; q , x : a + , or x : a- .

If f (c) = 0, then the test is inconclusive.

Linear Approximation to f at a
Suppose f is differentiable on an interval I containing the point a.
The linear approximation to f at a is L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x - a), for
x in I.

Integration
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Part 1 If f is continuous on [a, b], then the area function

9.

sec x tan x dx = sec x + C

10.

csc x cot x dx = - csc x + C

11.

tan x dx = ln sec x + C

12.

cot x dx = ln sin x + C

13.

sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + C

14.

csc x dx = - ln csc x + cot x + C

15.

A(x) =

f (t) dt, for a x b,

La
is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). The area function
satisfies A(x) = f (x); or, equivalently,
x

d
f (t) dt = f (x),
dx La
which means that the area function of f is an antiderivative of f.
A(x) =

Part 2 If f is continuous on [a, b] and F is any antiderivative of f on

[a, b], then
b

f (x) dx = F(b) - F(a).

La

Integration by Parts Formula

L

u dv = uv -

v du

ex dx = ex + C
bxdx =

17.

L 2a - x

Useful Integration Formulas

1.

k dx = kx + C

(any number k)
18.

2.
3.
4.

L
L

( f (x) + g(x)) dx =
x p dx =

xp+1
+ C
p + 1

f (x) dx +

g(x) dx

dx
2

= sin-1

x
+ C
a

dx
1
x
= tan-1 + C
2
a
a
Lx + a
2

dx

1
x
sec-1 ` ` + C
a
a

19.

L x 2x2 - a2

20.

sin2 x dx =

sin 2x
x
+ C
2
4

cos2 x dx =

x
sin 2x
+
+ C
2
4

sec3 x dx =

1
1
sec x tan x + ln sec x + tan x + C
2
2

(p Z - 1 real)

dx
= ln x + C
Lx

bx
+ C, (b 7 0, b Z 1)
ln b

16.

21.

sin x dx = - cos x + C

6.

cos x dx = sin x + C

22.

7.

sec2 x dx = tan x + C

23.

sinh x dx = cosh x + C

8.

csc2 x dx = - cot x + C

24.

cosh x dx = sinh x + C

5.

SC-3

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Volume of Solid of Revolution

Length of Curves and Surface Area

Disk Method

V =

p f (x)2 dx

La

Washer Method

V =

La

p1 f (x)2 - g(x)22 dx

Shell Method

V =

La

L =

Length of x g (y)

L =

S =

La

2p f (x) 21 + f (x)2 d x

Trapezoid Rule
b

n-1
1
1
f (x) dx L T(n) = a f (x0) + a f (xk) + f (xn) b x,
2
2
k=1
La
b - a
where x =
and xk = a + kx, for k = 0, 1, , n.
n

Simpsons Rule
b

x
f (x) dx L S(n) = 1 f (x0) + 4 f (x1) + 2 f (x2) + 4 f (x3) + + 4 f (xn -1) + f (xn)2 ,
3
b - a
, n is even and xk = a + kx, for k = 0, 1, , n.
n

If the trapezoid approximations T(2n) and T(n) are known, then

S(n) =

4T(2n) - T(n)
3

Polar Coordinates
Equations Relating Polar and Cartesian Coordinates
x = r cos u

and

y = r sin u;

x2 + y2 = r2

and

u = tan-1

y
x

Slope of the Curve r f (U)

dy
dx

f (u0) sin u0 + f (u0) cos u0

=
( f (u0), u)

f (u0) cos u0 - f (u0) sin u0

provided the denominator is nonzero at ( f (u0), u0).

Length of Polar Curve

b

L =

2f (u)2 + f (u)2 du

La

Lc

21 + g(y)2 dy

Surface Area of Surface of Revolution

A(x) dx, where A(x) is the area of a cross section at x.

where x =

2f (t)2 + g(t)2 dt, where x = f (t), y = g(t), a t b.

La

Numerical Integration

La

21 + f (x)2 dx

L =

La

La

Length of Parametric Curve

2pxf (x) dx

Volume by General Slicing Method

V =

Length of y f (x)

Area of Region Between Polar Curves

b

1
( f (u)2 - g(u)2) du,
La 2
where f (u) g(u) 0 on 3a, b4.
A =

SC-4

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Infinite Sequences and Series
Factorial Notation
0! = 1, 1! = 1, 2! = 1

2, 3! = 1

#2#

3, n! = 1

#2#3#

4n

Useful Convergent Sequences

1.
2.
3.
4.

lim 2n = 1

n: q

lim r n = 0 ( r 6 1)

n: q

lim a 1 +

n: q

lim

n: q

x n
b = ex
n

xn
= 0
n!

Growth Rates of Sequences

5lnq n6 V 5n p6 V 5n p lnr n6 V 5n p + s 6 V 5bn6 V 5n!6 V 5nn6,

for positive real numbers p, q, r, and s, and b 7 1.

Sequence of Partial Sums

n

Let Sn = a1 + a2 + + an = a ak.
k=1

(a) a ak converges to L if lim Sn exists and is equal to L.

n: q
k=1
q

(b) a ak diverges if lim Sn does not exist.

n: q
k=1

Geometric Series
q

a
k
a ar converges to 1 - r , if r 6 1, and diverges if r 1.
k=0

The Divergence Test

q

ak Z 0 or fails to exist.
a ak diverges if klim
:q

k=1

The Integral Test

Suppose that ak = f (k), for k = N, N + 1, , where f is a continuous, positive decreasing function for all x N (N a positive integer).
q

Then the series a ak and the improper integral

k=N

LN

f (x) dx both converge or both diverge.

p-Series
q

1
a k p converges if p 7 1, and diverges if p 1.

k=1

Comparison Test
Let a ak and a bk be series with positive terms.
1.

If 0 6 ak bk and a bk converges, then a ak converges.

2.

If 0 6 bk ak and a bk diverges, then a ak diverges.

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Infinite Sequences and Series (continued)
Limit Comparison Test
Let a ak and a bk be series with positive terms.
Let L = lim

ak

k: q

bk

1.

If 0 6 L 6 q (that is, L is a finite positive number), then a ak and a bk either both converge or both diverge.

2.

If L = 0 and a bk converges, then a ak converges.

3.

If L = q and a bk diverges, then a ak diverges.

The Ratio Test

If ak 7 0, and lim

k: q

ak + 1
= r, then a ak converges if r 6 1, diverges if r 7 1, and the test is inconclusive if r = 1.
ak

The Root Test

k
If ak 7 0, and lim 2a
k = r, then a ak converges if r 6 1, diverges if r 7 1, and the test is inconclusive if r = 1.
k: q

Alternating Series Test

a (-1)

k+1

ak converges if 0 6 ak + 1 ak for k greater than some index N, and lim ak = 0.

k: q

Absolute Convergence Test

If a ak converges, then a ak converges.

Taylor Series
Let f be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout some interval containing a as an interior point. Then the Taylor Series generated
by f at x = a is
q

k=0

f (k)(a)
k!

(x - a)k = f (a) + f (a)(x - a) +

f (a)
2!

(x - a)2 + +

f (n)(a)
n!

(x - a)n + .

If a = 0, we have a Maclaurin Series for f (x).

Useful Power Series

1.
2.
3.

1
= a x k, x 6 1
1 - x
k=0
q
1
= a (-1)kx k, x 6 1
1 + x
k=0
q
k
x
ex = a , x 6 q
k = 0 k!

4.

q
(-1)k x 2k + 1
sin x = a
, x 6 q
k = 0 (2k + 1)!

5.

cos x = a

q
k=0

(-1)k x2k
(2k)!
q

6.

ln(1 + x) = a

k=1

7.

k=0

( -1)k x 2k + 1
2k + 1

, x 1

8.

x 2k + 1
sinh x = a
, x 6 q
(2k
+ 1)!
k=0

9.

x 2k
, x 6 q
cosh x = a
k = 0 (2k)!

p
10. (Binomial Series) (1 + x) p = a a b x k , for x 6 1,
k=0 k
q

p (p - 1) (p - k + 1)
p
p
where a b = 1, a b =
0
k
k!

, x 6 q

( -1)k + 1 xk

tan - 1 x = a

, -1 6 x 1

SC-6

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Infinite Sequences and Series (continued)
Tests for Convergence of Infinite Series
1.

Geometric series: a ar k converges if r 6 1; otherwise it diverges.

2.

p-series: a 1k p converges if p 7 1; otherwise it diverges.

3.

Series with nonnegative terms: Try the Integral Test, Ratio Test, or Root Test. Try comparing to a known series with
the Comparison Test or the Limit Comparison Test.

4.

Series with some negative terms: Does a ak converge? If yes, so does a ak because absolute convergence implies convergence.

5.

Alternating series: a ak converges if the series satisfies the conditions of the Alternating Series Test.

Improper Integrals
Integrals with infinite limits of integration are improper integrals.
b

1.

If f is continuous on [a, q ), then

2.

If f is continuous on (- q , b], then

3.

If f is continuous on (- q , q ), then

La

f (x) dx = lim

b: q L
a

f (x) dx.

L- q

f (x) dx =

a: -q

La

f (x) dx.

L- q

lim

f (x) dx =

L- q

f (x) dx +

Lc

f (x) dx,

where c is any real number.

Integrals of functions that become infinite at a point within the interval of integration are improper integrals.
b

4.

If f is continuous on (a, b] with lim+ f (x) = ; q , then

5.

If f is continuous on [a, b) with lim- f (x) = ; q , then

x:a

f (x) dx = lim+

La

c:a

b
x:b

La

f (x) dx.

Lc
c

f (x) dx = limc:b

La

f (x) dx.
b

If f is continuous on [a, b] except at the interior point p where f is unbounded, then

SC-7

f (x) dx =

f (x) dx +

f (x) dx.
La
La
Lp
In each case, if the limit is finite we say the improper integral converges and that the limit is the value of the improper integral. If the limit
does not exist, the integral diverges.

6.