A Survey on the Wireless Technology Li-Fi.

Joseph Stanton Katuru

Dept. of Computer Science
Central Michigan University - CMich
Mt. Pleasant, USA
E-Mail: katur1j@cmich.edu

Abstract Li-Fi is the latest advancement in the field of data

transmission which uses LED bulbs as wireless access points.
This technology uses the Visible Light Waves of the
Electromagnetic Spectrum which was previously not used in data
transmission to provide us with incredibly high data rates at up
to 1Gb/s. Li-Fi uses less amount of energy for transmission, and
needs no new infrastructure for implementing it but just simple
modifications to the existing ones. How Li-Fi can be used in
constructing Smart Cities, which relay data in a green and
efficient manner. This paper also discusses the coexistence of
Wireless Fidelity and Light Fidelity in the long run.
Index TermsLi-Fi, Light Fidelity, Smart City

Rakesh Kumar Chinthala

Dept. of Computer Science
Central Michigan University - CMich
Mt. Pleasant, USA
E-Mail:chint1r@cmich.edu

the brainchild of Harald Haas of University of Edinburgh, UK

- which uses solar cells and LEDs to transmit data at
incredible speeds[1]. The data sent through Li-Fi is secure and
encoded by the varied brightness of the LED. In radio
transmission, when we send data, we send a stream of binary
bits (0s or 1s) normally as a sine wave. But in Li-Fi, the
LED bulb transmits the data with very fast flickering of the
bulb where OFF represents a 0 and ON represents a 1[2]. This
all happens so fast that it is very difficult for a human eye to
notice it. Li-Fi can provide a high data rate of 1Gb/s. A
Mexican company by the name Sisoft has achieved rates of up
to 10Gb/s in 2014[3]. Fig. 1 illustrates a Li-Fi integrated
environment.

I. INTRODUCTION.
The human civilization is built on the knowledge that has
been passed down the generations. The knowledge is the
written information that was contributed by authors,
historians, poets, old age scientists carved on stones to written
on papyrus leaves which is a form of communication. But in
this modern age of living, communication has become the
most important aspect of the human civilization. With people
being all around the world, we use various technologies to
transmit information from one point to another. From military
intelligence to medical emergencies to normal small talk, tap
into technologies that are used for data transmission. We have
used copper cables to transmit data for years. But with need
for mobility and the advancements in technology, we now
have gone the wire-less path. This has caused an exponential
rise in mobile devices. Millions of devices are connected to
the internet which require a lot of energy. The radio spectrum
has been used to cope up with the wire-less technology. But
with increasing demand in using the radio spectrum and
serving for it has been challenging. However, the radio
spectrum above 10GHz could be made use of to satisfy this
growing need[1]. But we face a possible scenario where the
free space path loss increases with the increase in the
frequency and obstructions in the path of the radio frequency
signal can interfere with the original signal that was
transmitted[1]. This effectively means that the energy used in
sending out the data has been wasted. So instead of building
new infrastructures to transmit data, we could make use of
existing infrastructures to ensure smooth data transmissions.
Since every aspect of our world is filled with LEDs, using
them as a wireless access point made sense and hence Light
Fidelity or Li-Fi was born Li-Fi is an ingenious idea that is

Fig. 1: Li-Fi Integrated Environment.[7]

II. HOW LI-FI WORKS.
Li-Fi has two major components that are the lamp driver and
the other being the photo detector[2]. In this setup, the lamp
driver is connected to a power source for its energy purposes
and the internet. The packets received by the internet are
passed on to the lamp driver which controls an LED lamp
which in turn encodes and sends the data as light output with
varying intensity at high speeds
The photo detector will identify the changes in light
intensity and then converts them into electrical impulses
which are amplified and processed to extract the binary stream
and then sent to the attached mobile device. Anything
blocking the solar cell which is used as a photo detector can
interfere with the data transmission. Although, a press release
in September 2013 has indicated that Li-Fi would not require
line-of-sight conditions[4].

III. ADVANTAGE OF USING LEDS.

Laser sources used in IR are more expensive than a

humble LED.[5]
Research suggests that LEDs will reach 7W and
10001m, which is brighter than the existing 60w
bulb, but the current can be provided by 4 D-sized
batteries.[5]
The visible light spectrum offers better security than
the existing Wi-Fi systems and can maintain its
performance even when a plethora of computers are
connected to it at an instance.
A Visible Light Communication (VLC) receiver has
at least 1 LED source. The same cannot be said for
most IR transmitters.
IV. APPLICATIONS OF LI-FI.

Fig. 2: Implementation of Li-Fi[5].

A. Aeroplanes
With the notion that RF waves might/can interfere with
other technological instruments disrupting their function and
sometimes providing with false data, Li-Fi would be a fresh
breath of air to these fields which can now integrate data
transmission without any side effects.
Aeroplanes use a number of instruments on-board which
work using RF waves. Radar, which is used for locating
obstructions nearby uses RF waves. It is also used in air to
ground communication. Other devices such as FLARM also
uses the ISM band radio spectrum. Therefore integrating LiFi, which does not interfere with the RF waves, aboard the
plane to provide internet access to the customers is now a
possibility. Also, LEDs through which Li-Fi is provided are
easy to install with low power consumption (25 lm/W) and
long life-time (30,000 hours).[6]
We can also use Multi-chip LEDs which consists of the 3
primary colours. By changing the ratio of these three primary
colours, we can achieve different colours. With the different
colour of LEDs, we can identify individual user and also use
this property to multiplex.[6]
To implement Li-Fi on an aeroplane, we need a hybrid
system which will make use of both the power-line
communications and the LED bulbs. The Fig. 2 is a
representation of the integration of Li-Fi and power-line. Now,
this would require:
PLC transmitter which consists of a PLC module,
automatic voltage regulator and level shifter.[5]
PLC Receiver and VLC transmitter which is made in
similarity with the PLC transmitter. Driving circuitry
and amplification are added to the LED transmitter.
The power of the LED can be changed with respect
to the analogous signal of the data stream.[5]
A VLC receiver.[5]

B. Smart City
A smart city can has gained a lot of traction in the recent
years. Normally, a smart city can be defined as a city that is
committed to the environment and contains infrastructure that
is rigged with the state-of-the-art technological solutions from
the Information and technological field so that is can fulfill the
challenges faced by a city in terms of energy sustainability,
and be able to provide real time information to different
technologies that have emerged in this age (cloud computing,
wearables, cloud computing)[8].
The solution for this is mainly concentrated and is often
limited to WiFi which is increasing the demand for higher data
rates. To combat this, many network providers have been
researching future technologies such as 5G. And since most of
these technologies use the RF spectrum, it is being congested
with the constant and immense mobile traffic. This in-turn is
increasing the demand for more bandwidth. Also, fears among
the general public about negative effects of the base stations
on their health has retarded any further research into RF
waves. Therefore, this has led to extensive research in Optical
Wireless Communication(OWC) systems.
In a normal wired networking, PLCs are used to provide
high speed data. Therefore, the combination of PLC and VLC
can be used for wireless networking. And hence, we look into
how streetlights can be used to provide data to mobile devices.
In this proposed idea, a PLC connected to the streetlight
will provide it with the data required, which is then modulated
and sent in the form of light pulses by the LED bulb[9]. The
receiver is a phone camera which is integrated with a
photodiode. For the uplink, Li-Fi is integrated with
technologies that are already in use such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth
etc. Since a road is mostly filled with streetlights, it is possible
to achieve full connectivity as well as communicate with
devices like vehicles, mobiles etc. Fig. 3 illustrates
amalgamation of streetlights and Li-Fi.

Fig. 3: Using streetlights as access points[9].

Li-Fi Physical layer
The specified IEEE 802.15.7 standard media access
control (MAC) and physical layers are used for Li-Fi. The
physical layer and the MAC later are defined such that high
data rates are achieved in audio and video transmissions
without affecting the illumination functionality.
In accordance to the standard, we can find 3 types of
physical layers which have different combinations of digital
modulation and coding schemes. The data rates differ for each
of the layer with 11.67kb/s to 266.6kb/s for Physical layer 1,
1.25 Mb/s to 96Mb/s for Physical layer 2. Although physical
layer 1 is best suitable for streetlights, physical layer 2 is used
for the current implementation[9].
Two types of modulation schemes are used which are
Variable Pulse Position Modulation (VPPM) and On-OffKeying (OOK). Also, Convolution encoders and Reed
Solomon encoders are suggested by the standard for correcting
channel errors and to improve the link reliability[9].
Channel Model
For communication purposes, it is of paramount
importance that we understand a channel. A channels design
and implementation are to be characterized. This
characterization can be performed by channel impulse
response, which is used to analyze and combat the effects of
channel distortions[9].
For this model, the transmitter is a streetlight and the
receiver is a mobile phones camera. Therefore, the channel
through which data flows is the atmosphere. So, there are two
types of configurations that have to be taken into
consideration. 1) The degree of directionality of transmitter
and receiver 2) Existence of the line of sight (LOS) path
between the transmitter and the receiver. If we consider that
the transmitter and the receiver are in direct line of sight to
each other, then the signal does not experience multipath
fading but can reflect from obstructions and can also scatter[9].
Hardware
The required components, transmitter and receiver, are
mainly implemented on two separate FPGAs. The receiver

FGPA will include larger memory than compared to the

transmitting FGPA so as to store performance measurements[9].
The transmitting FGPA is made up of the Development kit
board of Diligent which acts as the Li-Fi modulator. This kit
also includes a circuit which will drive the LED and contains a
commercially available LED as the light emitting source. The
data is provided to the streetlight with the help of the PLC
which is connected via an Ethernet port to the FGPA. The data
stream is encoded and modulated with the mentioned
modulation and encoding techniques. This signal is then fed
into the circuit which controls the LED. The light from the
streetlight is varied in accordance to the data stream being fed
to the circuit[9].
The hardware of the receiving end which is the phones
camera is made up of Altys platform. The external circuit is
modified in such a way that Light-dependent resistor (LDR) is
used to capture the signal given out by the streetlight[9].
Software
The software used to simulate each subsystem and function of
each component is VHDL. The Xilinx ISE design suite 14.7
was used[9].
In a recent article[12], plans of Li-Fi being implemented in
up to 100 streetlights in Dubai Silicon Oasis have been made.
This is being implemented by Zero.1, a Dubai based company.
The proof of concept was demonstrated to the media. The
reason for starting a Smart City in Dubai is that it provides a
better platform in terms of infrastructure and latest
technology.
By implementing Li-Fi, there is an addition advantage of
adding cameras for safety purposes, security and transport
control. This can also help in monitoring the pollution levels
and provide data storage solutions. Li-Fi can also be used in
malls to target advertising and show information to the
customers roaming through the malls[12].
Museums can also benefit from Li-Fi since most of them
are high-density areas. And Wi-Fi cannot be used underwater
as it is extremely dangerous, but Li-Fi can be used underwater
as it poses no threat.
The company has been able to use the cameras of the latest
phones like the Samsung S6 and iPhone 5s to connect to Li-Fi.
But a dongle will have to be used for older phones. As the LiFi technology gets popular still, then the manufactured phones
will come with pre-equipped Li-Fi sensors just like how they
have pre-installed Wi-Fi and Bluetooth sensors[12].
Li-Fi at home option is also being pursued. The company
expects to roll out high-end design lamps that cost under
$1000 and are also looking into packages which have different
configurations and cost less. It is predicted that many of the
homes will include Li-Fi enabled LEDs which would be
supplied by the telecom operators which will be the source of
the Internet[12].
C. Li-Fi in hospitals
Anytime we imagine a patient, the first thing that comes to
mind is the robe and the next thing is the tangle of wires the
patient has to endure during their stay. Although these wires
are used to monitor the vital signs of the patient, they present a

non-negligible risk of falling over and joining the same

hospital or even worse, interfering with the patients treatment.
To overcome this, data can be transmitted wirelessly. But since
most of the machines that are in a hospital can be effected by
the electromagnetic interference, it is unwise to do so.
A group of researchers in South Korea have been working
on transmitting electroencephalograph (EEG) data over Li-Fi
over 50 centimeters. The EEG, which measures activity of the
brain, which are very weak that have a power range between
0.5 to 100mV and the frequency of which are between 0.5 to
45hertz. As these signals cannot drive the Li-Fi themselves,
they are amplified sufficiently to control the red, green, and
blue LEDs to transmit data over Li-Fi[12].
Since the transmitting the data over a single channel had
been producing data with error bits. The researchers have used
color filters and photodiodes that matched the three LED
colours. Therefore, by comparing the signals at each of the
photo diode has resulted in bits that were correct[12]. As
keeping the error rate to the minimum is a key when it comes
to gathering the data of the brain activity as mistakes are
literally the line between life and death.
Furthermore, other readings such as the electrocardiogram
readings and electrooculography reading, which tracks the eye
movements so that paralyzed patients can control computers,
are also being transmitted over Li-Fi[12].
V. FUTURE ASPECTS
A. Coexistence of Wi-Fi and Lifi towards 5G
Now a days internet connected mobile devices are rapidly
increasing, by accessing cloud based services and watching
HD streaming, it requires a high data capacity. The data
consumption occurs in space such as aircrafts and also
outdoors [10]. We imagine multi-level HetNets that utilize a
mix of macrocells giving wide lower-rate services, RF small
cells (RF-SCs) giving enhanced scope at areas involved by
users, and LiFi small cells that give extra limit through
utilization of the optical range. Indoor RF-SCs, including
authorized femtocells and/or unlicensed Wi-Fi access focuses
(APs), sent under scope of macrocells, can assume control
over the association while moving inside. In this way, Wi-Fi
empowers activity offloading from these limit focused on
authorized macrocells or RF-SCs. According to Cisco Visual
Networking Index (Global Mobile Data Traffic Forecast
Update (2014-2019)), about 50% of this traffic is expected to
be offloaded to Wi-Fi in 2016.
B. The State of Wireless and Mobile Communications
In general, Wi-Fi networks contention is possible with
high signal strength in indoor and as an indicator of fast and
reliable internet connection. Accordingly, if in one room the
signal strength is much attenuated, Wi-Fi users experience
poor connectivity and slow speed. Slow connectivity is also
caused by high interference signal from neighboring Wi-Fi
APs and multiple active users sharing the limited bandwidth
of a Wi-Fi AP [10]. The Wi-Fi evolution considers higher
frequencies with new spectrum to reach multi Gb/s peak data
rates (60 GHz) indoors and to serve multiple users in parallel.

Fig. 4: The proposed Li+WiFi HetNet.

Majority of Wi-Fi evolution consider higher frequencies
with the new spectrum to achieve high peak data rates.
Wireless Local area network implementations begun the
revolution in consumer market major in tri-band products and
systems. The integrated architecture for 5G mobile networks
with enhanced Wi-Fi as the sustainable performance can be
reduced as the multiple carrier as collision avoidance for only
one link to be active on once the demand driven. In any case,
if there is an interest from another client having a superior
channel at some later time, such request cant be served in
light of the fact that the first connection is not hindered due to
the CSMA/CA principle that the following transmission
begins just if the channel is free. In this way, simultaneous
multiuser transmission is utilized as a part of Wi-Fi as a next
stride, like the empowered multiuser various info and different
yield (MU-MIMO) in Long-Term Evolution (LTE). A major
institutionalization exertion is required to characterize such
another method of concurrent transmissions to various clients
that must remain in reverse good. In addition, there are some
limits with bigger quantities of receiving signals. Because of
these institutionalization, versatility, and many-sided quality
issues, and because of the expanding interest for Wi-Fi,
versatility is restricted and there is a method of reasoning to
consider different wireless media. Getting High Capacity and
Density Additional wireless capacity is needed the most
indoor luminaries which was modeled as a three-layer network
formed by RF macrocells, RF-SCs, and O-SCs are deployed.
Security enhancement is obvious output but it may not
penetrate through the walls and for better resolution
centimeter range is compared with other RF based
technologies. As shown in Fig. 4, stationary and quasistationary mobile users are provided data access via LiFienabled light fixtures, or luminaires, in lighting parlance. This
approach can alleviate congestion and free RF resources to
serve users who are more mobile or outside the LiFi coverage
area. Challenges to overcome upward link alignment and
energy consumption are defined in handset. In this paper we
define preliminary results using high level LiFi transceivers in
proof of concept hybrid Li+ Wi-Fi theory.

A HetNet Vision Incorporating VLC and Current Research

Activities
Focal issues in outlining and dealing with a Li+WiFi
system incorporate managing how a UD connects to the
network, how mobility is upheld as a device moves from cell
to cell and amongst networks, and how various users are
obliged. At last, the consolidated execution of the LiFi and
Wi-Fi network total to coordinate accessible ability to where
devices need it. In this segment, we depict the proposed
Li+WiFi network with an objective to give consistent network
and to ideally disperse resources among users. Additionally,
we consider the absolute most applicable recent works tending
to present difficulties.

measured at various focuses far from the focal point of the

light beam representing to the horizontal separation inside the
scope zone of the O-SC. Figure 4 represents the received
throughput is 74 Mb/s and 25 Mb/s at 2 m and 5 m of vertical
distance respectively [10]. Note that the vertical separation will
be in this extent for the greater part of the indoor applications.
The information rate offered by our LiFi devices is as of now
reduced at such separation because of the wide transmitter
shaft framed by the 1 inch opening lens. Results are further
decreased by utilizing a white LED and measuring the
throughput at the application layer. In [11], monochromatic
LEDs were utilized with a 2-inch lens so that a higher
throughput was measured at the physical layer. Figure 5.
Vertical and horizontal distance between LiFi transceivers.

A Prototype System Proof of Concept and Results

Researchers from the Fraunhofer Heinrich Hertz Institute,
the New Jersey Institute of Technology, Chicago State
University, and Boston University, they have implemented a
proof-of- concept Li+WiFi HetNet prototype system. In this
section, we describe the various components of the system and
show performance results from experimental data gained from
the prototype [10].
Capabilities of the Lifi Transceivers
The proposed Li+WiFi HetNet is tried utilizing
bidirectional fast LiFi transceiver devices that fulfill ongoing
information delivery and accomplish layers 1 and 2 of the OSI
protocol stack. A restrictive LED driver is utilized to empower
an analog modulation bandwidth capacity of up to 180 MHz.
At the receiver side, a large area range rapid silicon PIN
photodiode is utilized together with a trans-impedance
amplifier (TIA). A Plano convex 1; lens is utilized at both the
LED and the photodiode to think the shaft and to amplify the
receiving zone, separately.
To convert Ethernet packets into DC biased (OFDM)
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing signals, a digital
baseband unit is used behind the analog transmitter and
receiver, the bandwidth of OFDM have 70 MHz. The BBU
performs pilot-helped channel estimation and recurrence area
adjustment to recreate the received symbol constellations.
From the received pilot succession, the error vector magnitude
(EVM) is measured, and this data is fed back to the
transmitter. Contingent upon the channel quality as an element
of recurrence, the bit stacking is adjusted. The information
rate is expanded however much as could be expected so that
no errors happen after forward error rectification. The
relationship between the illumination level and data rate is
given in [11]. RJ45 1 Gb/s Ethernet connector and an external
power supply equipped with an each transceiver.
Performance of Indoor and Outdoor Li-Fi Link
Indoor and outside experiments are led to measure the
achievable throughput of the LiFi frontends. The separation
between the transmitter and receiver is changed in the scope of
215 meters and 210 meters for the indoor and outdoor tests,
individually. In an indoor arrangement, separation represents
the vertical scope of the O-SC. The throughput is likewise

Fig. 5: Vertical and horizontal distance between Li-Fi

transceivers.
Proof of Concept Experiment
A proof-of- idea hybrid Li+WiFi setup in which there is a
solitary Wi-Fi AP and a solitary Li-Fi AP is actualized. Here,
three systems are compared. In the main system, the Wi-Fi is
just used to interface with the Internet. The second system,
referred to as a hybrid system, is the same as the first, however
the downlink of one of the user is associated through a Li-Fi
link. In the third system, referred to as a collected system, one
user is associated with both Wi-Fi and Li-Fi in parallel. Figure
5 portrays the designs of the hybrid system (a) and the
aggregated system (b). In the hybrid system, the unidirectional
Li-Fi connection is misused to supplement the conventional
Wi-Fi downlink, while in the aggregated system, both bidirectional Wi-Fi and Li-Fi connections are completely used
to enhance the achievable throughput and give vigorous
system availability. The hybrid system dramatically increases
the throughput close to the Li-Fi AP, while degrading rapidly
as the separation increments. The aggregated system triples
the achievable normal throughput, and its most reduced bound
is higher than the normal throughput of Wi-Fi as it were. In
this way, the aggregated system procedure not only enhances
the availability of integrated bandwidth, as well as gives
dependable network communication. Due to the characteristic
short-run property of Li-Fi, much better execution can be
achieved near the Li-Fi AP for individual users [10]. Note
additionally that Li-Fi and Wi-Fi clients can be served in
parallel inside and outside this restricted scope region.

Limitations of Li-Fi
Light cannot penetrate opaque objects, therefore, a
user must be present in the LOS of the transmitting
bulb, unless the light is being reflected.
If the receiver is covered by something, then the
signal cannot be received.
Since there is no particular standard for Li-Fi,
equipment made by various vendors would differ.
No clear way of differentiating between Li-Fi
enabled bulbs and normal bulbs. Other light sources
like the Sun can also cause interference.
Conclusion
Ever since the first telephone was invented in 1800, the
technology grew exponentially. The number of people
benefitting by using the technology has also grown in sync.
Therefore, this paper has surveys a different path in satisfying
the growing need for mobile connectivity of the public. The
paper also discusses the ongoing projects on Li-Fi and how
they are implemented to make Smart Cities which provide
connectivity all over the region.
The integration of existing technology like PLC and LEDs
can be used to provide Li-Fi rather than coming up with new
technologies in both, Smart City and Aeroplane Li-Fi,
scenarios. Because 4G is the integration of independent
communication systems, this mixture of PLC and Li-Fi can be
considered a 4G system that is inexpensive, easy-toimplement solution. And due to the availability of LEDs
virtually everywhere, this will provide an infrastructure for the
upcoming Internet of Things (IoT)[1].
REFERENCES
[1] H. Haas and C. Chen, "What is LiFi", Proc. 41st Eur. Conf. Opt.
Commun., pp. 1-3, 2015
[2] TEDtalksDirector. "Forget Wi-Fi. Meet the New Li-Fi Internet |
Harald Haas | TED Talks." YouTube. YouTube, 02 Dec. 2015.
Web. 03 Aug. 2016.

[3] Vega, Anna (14 July 2014). "Li-fi record data transmission of
10Gbps set using LED lights".
[4] pureVLC (10 September 2013). "pureVLC Demonstrates Li-Fi
Using Reflected Light". Edinburgh.
[5] K. Pujapanda, "LiFi integrated to power-lines for smart
illumination cum communication", Proc. Int. Conf. CSNT, pp.
875-878, 2013.
[6] M. Kavehrad, Z. Hajjarian and A. Enteshari "Energy-Efficient
Broadband Data Communications using White LEDs on Aircraft
Powerlines", 2008 ICNS Conference.
[7] B. Crew, "Li-Fi has just been tested in the real world, and its
100 times faster than Wi-Fi," ScienceAlert, 2015. [Online].
Available: http://www.sciencealert.com/li-fi-tested-in-the-realworld-for-the-first-time-is-100-times-faster-than-wi-fi.
Accessed: Aug. 4, 2016.
[8] A. Zanella, N. Bui, A. Castellani and L. Vangelista, "Internet of
Things for smart cities", IEEE Internet Things J., vol. 1, no. 1,
pp. 22-32, 2014
[9] Monzon Baeza, V.; Sanchez-Fernandez, M.; Garcia Armada, A.;
Royo, A., Testbed for a LiFi system integrated in streetlights,
in Networks and Communications (Eu-CNC), 2015 European
Conference on , vol., no., pp.517-521, June 29 2015-July 2
2015.
[10] M. Ayyash et al., "Coexistence of WiFi and LiFi toward
5G: concepts, opportunities, and challenges,"in IEEE
Communications Magazine, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 64-71, February
2016.
[11] Grobe et al., High-Speed Visible Light Communication
Systems, IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 51, no. 12, 2013.
[12] E. 24 and Home, "Find WiFi a bit slow in Dubai? 100 times
faster LiFi is here," Emirates 24|7, 2016. [Online]. Available:
http://www.emirates247.com/business/technology/find-wifi-abit-slow-in-dubai-100-times-faster-lifi-is-here-2016-03-211.624756. Accessed: Aug. 4, 2016.
[13] N. Savage, "Li-Fi in the ER," IEEE Spectrum: Technology,
Engineering, and Science News, 2015. [Online]. Available:
http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/telecom/wireless/lifi-in-the-er.
Accessed: Aug. 4, 2016.