Unit 01

1.

September

RATIONAL NUMBERS.
A Rational number is any number that can be expressed as the quotient

two integers, where the denominator b is not equal to zero. , ;

of

1 3
,
2 4

NOTE: A set is a collection of objects, these objects are called elements.

The set of all rational numbers is usually denoted (for quotient). Natural

numbers, whole numbers, integers and fractions are rational numbers.

A Decimal number is a rational number if it can be written as a fraction. Those

are decimals that either terminate or have a repeating block of digits.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.1

Unit 01

September

Terminating decimals: 4.8; 3.557; 24.997897

Recurring decimals: 4.888888..; 34.345345345...
NOTE: We can write a recurring decimal in different ways:
1
= 0.333 = 0. 3 = 0. 3
3

All the rational numbers can be shown in a number line. To do this we generally
divide each segment using the theorem of Thales.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.2

Unit 01

September

MATH VOCABULARY: Rational number, Integer, Denominator, Set, Elements, Decimal

number, Terminating decimals, Recurring decimals, Number line, Thales theorem,
Theorem, Segment.

2.

IRRATIONAL NUMBERS.
An Irrational number is a number that cannot be written as a simple fraction.

Equivalently, irrational numbers cannot be represented as terminating or recurring

decimals (the decimal part goes on forever without repeating). There are infinite
irrational numbers. Here you are some of the most interesting ones:
2.1.

NUMBER .

(pi)

is

an

irrational

number.

The

value

of

is

3.1415926535897932384626433832795 (and more). There is no pattern to the

decimals, and you cannot write down a simple fraction that equals . Remember that
is the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle. In other words, if you
measure the circumference, and then divide by the diameter of the circle you get the
number .

MATH VOCABULARY: Irrational Numbers, Ratio, Circumference, Diameter, Circle,

Pattern.
Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.3

Unit 01

2.2.

September

THE SQUARE ROOT OF 2.

Pythagoras theorem shows that the diagonal of a square with sides of one unit

of length is equal to 2:

= 12 + 12 = 2
The computer says that 2 = 1.414213562373095048801688724. .. , but

this is not the full story! It actually goes on and on, with no pattern to the numbers.
You cannot write down a simple fraction that equals 2 .

How can we prove that 2 is an irrational number? The proof that 2 is indeed

irrational is a proof by contradiction (if 2 WERE a rational number, then we would

get a contradiction):

PROOF:
Lets suppose 2 were a rational number. Then we can write it as a quotient of

two integer numbers:

2 =

We also suppose that is the simplest fraction, that is, a and b have no common
factors. Squaring on both sides gives:
Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.4

Unit 01

September

2
2
2
2 = 2 = 2 22 = 2 2

If 2 is an even number, then is also an even number. If were an odd

number, then = 2 + 1.

2 = (2 + 1)2 = (2)2 + 2 2 1 + 12 = 42 + 4 + 1 = 2(22 + ) + 1

2 = 2(22 + ) + 1

2 ,

So we have that is an even number, that is, we can write = 2

(2)2
2
42
2= 22=
2 = 2 22 = 42 2 = 22

2 = 22 2
Therefore, and are both even numbers. This is a contradiction because we

started our proof saying that and have no common factors.

Then 2 is an irrational number.

Many square roots, cube roots, etc. are also irrational numbers. If is not a

square number, then is an irrational number. In general, if is not an exact nth

power, then is an irrational number.
3

3, 11, 15, 10
MATH VOCABULARY: Pythagoras theorem, Diagonal, Square, To Prove, Proof, Proof
by contradiction, Simplest fraction, Even number, Odd number, Square root, Cube root.
Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.5

Unit 01

2.3.

September

THE GOLDEN NUMBER.

In a regular pentagon the ratio between a diagonal and a side is the irrational

number:
=

5 + 1
2

This number is called , the Golden number (or the Golden ratio).

If you divide a line into two parts so that: The whole length divided by the
longest part is equal to the longest part divided by the smallest part, then you will have
the golden number.

In this case we say that a and are in the Golden ratio. The golden ratio

appears many times in geometry, art, architecture and other areas.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.6

Unit 01

September

A rectangle, in which the ratio of the longest side to the shortest is the golden
ratio, is called Golden rectangle. A golden rectangle can be cut into a square and a
smaller rectangle that is also a golden rectangle.

Some artists and architects believe the golden ratio makes the most pleasing
and beautiful shape. Many buildings ant artworks have the Golden Ratio in them, such
as the Parthenon in Greece, but it is not really known if it was designed that way.

MATH VOCABULARY: Pentagon, Side, Golden ratio, Golden number, Length, Geometry,
Rectangle, Shape.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.7

Unit 01

2.4.

September

THE NUMBER e.
The number e is a famous irrational number, and one of the most important

numbers in mathematics. It is often called Eulers number, after Leonhard Euler. The
first few digits are:
.
There are many ways of calculating the value of , but none of them ever give

an exact answer. Nevertheless, it is known to over 1 trillion digits of accuracy. For

example, the value of

approaches as gets bigger and bigger.

MATH VOCABULARY: Eulers number, Accuracy, To Approach.

3.

REAL NUMBERS.
The set of the rational numbers and the irrational numbers is called the set of

the Real numbers. It is usually denoted .

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.8

Unit 01

September

Natural numbers are a subset of integers. Integers are a subset of rational

numbers. Rational numbers are a subset of real numbers.

MATH VOCABULARY: Real numbers, Subset.

3.1.

THE REAL NUMBER LINE.

The real number system can be visualized as a horizontal line that extends from

a special point called the origin in both directions towards infinity. Also associated with
the line is a unit of length. The origin corresponds to the number . A positive number
corresponds to a point away from the origin to the right, and a negative
number corresponds to a point on the line away from the origin to the
left.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.9

Unit 01

September

This horizontal line is called the Real number line. Any point on the number line
is a real number and vice versa, any real number is a point on the number line. To plot
irrational numbers like , we use the Pythagoras theorem. For irrational numbers

like , , we plot them approximately.

MATH VOCABULARY: Horizontal, To Extend, Point, Origin, Real number line.

4.

APPROXIMATION AND ROUNDING.

Rounding a number is another way of writing a number approximately. We

often dont need to write all the figures in a number, as an approximate one will do.
The population of Villanueva de la Serena is 28,789. Since populations change
frequently, we use a rounded number instead of the exact number. It is better to
round up and say 29,000.
To round a number to a given place:

Find the place you are rounding to.

Look at the digit to its right.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.10

Unit 01

September

If the digit is less than 5, round down.

If the digit is 5 or greater, round up.

Round 83,524 to the nearest ten:

The digit to the right is 4. 4 < 5. Round down to 83,520

Round 83,524 to the nearest hundred:

The digit to the right is 2. 2 < 5. Round down to 83,500

Round 83,524 to the nearest thousand:

The digit to the right is 5. 5 = 5. Round up to 84,000

To round 718.394 to 2 decimal places, look at the thousandths digit.

The thousandths digit is 4, so round down to 718.39.

718.394 718.39 ( 2 )

Numbers can be rounded:

To decimal places 4.16 = 4.2 to 1 decimal place

To the nearest unit, 10, 100, 1000,

Remember that a method of giving an approximate answer to a problem is to

round off using significant figures. The first non-zero digit in a number is called the

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.11

Unit 01

September

first significant figure it has the highest value in the number. When rounding to
significant figures, count from the first non-zero digit.
54.76 55 ( 2 )
0.00405 0.0041 ( 2 )
6.339 6.34 ( 3 )
0.000000338754 0.000000339 ( 3 )

You can estimate the answer to a calculation by rounding the numbers:

Estimate the answer to
6.23 9.89
18.7
You can round each of the numbers to 1 significant figure:
6 10
6.23 9.89
=3
3
20
18.7

dp and sf are abbreviations for decimal places and significant figures. When
a measurement is written, it is always written to a given degree of accuracy. The real
measurement can be anywhere within half a unit.
A man walks 23 km (to the nearest km). Write the maximum and minimum
distance he could have walked.

Because the real measurement has been rounded, it can lie anywhere between
22.5 km (minimum) and 23.5 (maximum).
Another way of approximating a number is called Truncating a number, is a
method of approximating a decimal number by dropping all decimal places past a
certain point without rounding.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.12

Unit 01

September

3.14159265... can be truncated to 3.1415

MATH VOCABULARY: Rounding, Approximation, Population, Frequently, Exact number,
Round up, Round down, Thousandths, First significant figure, Estimate, Truncate.

5.

APPROXIMATION ERRORS.
Absolute and Relative error are two types of error. The differences are

important.
Absolute error is the amount of physical error in a measurement, period. Given
some value and its approximation , the Absolute error is:
= = =
Relative error gives an indication of how good a measurement is relative to the
size of the thing being measured. The Relative error is:

= =

=
=

||
||

This error can be converter in a percentage by multiplying by 100

called Percent Error:
=
In words, the Absolute error is the magnitude of the difference between the
exact value and the approximation. The Relative error is the absolute error divided by
the magnitude of the exact value. The Percent error is the relative error expressed in
terms of per 100.
If the exact value is 50 and its approximation 49.9, then the absolute error is:
= |50 49.9| = |0.1| = 0.1
Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.13

Unit 01

September

and the relative error is:

=

0.1
=
= 0.002
|v| 50

so the percent error is:

= 100 = 0.002 100 = 0.2%

Sometimes a maximum assumable error is given; this error is called

Error bound. This error can be absolute or relative.
Absolute error bound is 0.005 cm
Relative error bound is 5 %
An upper bound for the absolute error is half a unit of the last significant figure
in the approximate value.
3.14 is the approximation of the number to 3 significant figures, that is, to the
hundredths. An upper bound for the absolute error of this approximation is: half one
hundredth, that is:
0.01
= 0.005 | 3.14| < 0.005
2
MATH VOCABULARY: Error, Absolute error, Relative error, Percent error, Error bound.

6.

INTERVALS.
An Interval is a set formed by the real numbers between, and sometimes

including, two numbers. They can also be non-ending intervals as we are going to see.
It can also be thought as a segment of the real number line. An endpoint of an interval
is either of the two points that mark end on the line segment. An interval can include
either endpoint, both endpoints, or neither endpoint.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.14

Unit 01

September

There are different notations for intervals:

Let and be real numbers such that < :

The Open interval (, ) is the set of real numbers between and , excluding
and .

The Closed interval [, ] is the set of real numbers between and , including
and .

The Left half-open interval (, ] is the set of real numbers between and ,
including but not a.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.15

Unit 01

September

The Right half-open interval [, ) is the set of real numbers between and ,
including but not .

The Infinite intervals are those that do not have an endpoint in either the
positive or negative direction, or both. The interval extends forever in that
direction.

Examples:

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.16

Unit 01

September

MATH VOCABULARY: Interval, Endpoint, Square bracket, Round bracket, Notation,

Open interval, Closed interval, Left half-open interval, Right half-open interval, Infinite
interval.
6.1.

UNION AND INTERSECTION.

We can to join two sets using "Union" (and the symbol ). There is also

"Intersection" which means "has to be in both". Think "where do they overlap?". The
Intersection symbol is "".

Example: 2 > 3. On the number line it looks like this:

And interval notation looks like this:

(, 2] (3, +)

Example: (, 6] (1, ). The first interval goes up to (and including) 6. The second
interval goes from (but not including) 1 onwards.

The Intersection (or overlap) of those two sets goes from 1 to 6 (not including
1, including 6):
MATH VOCABULARY: Union, Intersection.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.17

Unit 01

September

7.

PERCENTAGES.

7.1.

FINDING A PERCENTAGE OF A QUANTITY.

You often need to calculate a Percentage of a quantity :
% =
Example: 9% of 24 m.
9% 24 =

7.2.

9
100 = 2.16
100

PERCENTAGE INCREASE AND DECREASE.

Percentages are used in real life to show how much an amount has increased
or decreased.

To calculate a Percentage increase, work out the increase and add it to the
original amount.

To calculate a Percentage decrease, work out the decrease and subtract it from
the amount.

Alan is paid 940 a month. His employer increases his wage by 3%. Calculate
the new wage Alan is paid each month.
Increase in wage = 3% of 940 = 0.03 940 = 28.20
Alans new wage = 940 + 28.20 = 968.20
A new car costs 19 490. After one year the car depreciates in value by 8.7%.
What is the new value of the car?
Depreciation = 8.7% of 19 490 = 0.087 19490 = 1695.63
New value of car = 19490 1695.63 = 17 794.37

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.18

Unit 01

September

You can also calculate a percentage increase or decrease in a single calculation:

% =

% =

In a sale all prices are reduced by 16%. A pair of trousers normally costs 82.
What is the sale price of the pair of trousers?
= 82

100 16
= 82 0.84 = 68.88
100

MATH VOCABULARY: Percentage increase, Percentage decrease.

7.3.

MULTIPLE PERCENTAGES.
Sometimes we need to calculate Multiple percentages simultaneously. We

have to apply the above formulas several times:

During Christmas, a phone shop prices up 21%. On January, during sales, prices
fell 19%. Before Christmas a phone cost 645. How much cost in January?
January cost = 645

100 + 21
100 19

= 632.16
100
100

MATH VOCABULARY: Multiple percentages, Formulae.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.19

Unit 01

8.

September

SIMPLE INTEREST.
You earn Interest when you invest in a savings account at a bank. However, you

pay Interest if you borrow money for a mortgage. The original sum you invest is called
the principal.
Simple interest is money you can earn by initially investing some money (the
principal). A percentage (the interest) of the principal is added to the principal, making
your initial investment grow!
To calculate simple interest, use the interest rate to work out the amount
earned. If simple interest is paid for several years, the amount paid each time stays the
same, because the interest is paid elsewhere and the principal stays the same.
=
= ; = ; = ; =
Usually:

Calculate the interest when 1,000 is invested for 4 years at a 5% simple

interest (I).
5
= 1,000
4 = 200
100
= + = 1,000 + 200 = 1200
MATH VOCABULARY: Interest, Saving account, to Invest, Mortgage, Principal, Simple
interest.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.20

Unit 01

9.

September

COMPOUND INTEREST.
The addition of interest to the principal sum of a loan or deposit is called

compounding. Compound interest is interest on interest. It is the result of reinvesting

interest, rather than paying it out, so that interest in the next period is then earned on
the principal sum plus previously-accumulated interest. Compound interest is standard
in finance and economics.
To calculate compound interest, work out the interest in the same way, but
add the interest earned to the principal. If compound interest is paid for several years,
the amount of interest earned each year increases, because the principal increases.

= +

= ;

= ;

= ;

= ;
=

2,000 is invested at 6.5% compound interest. Find the principal after 15 years.
A = 2,000 1 +

0,065 115

= 2,000 (1,065)15 = 5,143.68

1

If you have a bank account whose principal is $1,000, and your bank
compounds the interest twice a year at an interest rate of 5%, how much money do
you have in your account at the year's end?
0,05 21
A = 1,000 1 +
= 1,000 (1,025)2 = $1,050.63
2

MATH VOCABULARY: Compound interest, to Reinvest.

Axel Cotn Gutirrez

Mathematics 4 ESO

1.21