Engg Phy Lab Manual

AURORA'S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Bhuvanagiri, Nalgonda Dist.-508116.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LAB MANUAL
B.Tech. 1st Year
(As per 2013 Academic Regulation)
Department of
HUMANITIES & SCIENCES
COMMON TO
CSE, ECE, EEE, IT, MECH & CIVIL
Physics Lab Manual
Auroras Engineering College
CODE OF CONDUCT
1.
Students should report to the concerned lab as per the time-table

schedule.
2.
Students who turn up late to the labs will in no case be permitted to

perform the experiment scheduled for the day.
After completion of the experiment, certification of the concerned staff incharge in the observation book is necessary.
4.
Students should bring a note book of about 100 pages and should enter
the readings / observations into the note book while performing the
experiment.
5.
The record of observations along with the detailed experimental procedure

of the experiment performed in the immediate last session should be
submitted and certified by the staff member in-charge.
6.
The group-wise division made in the beginning should be adhered to, and
no mix up of students among different groups will be permitted later.
7.
The components required pertaining to the experiment should be collected

from stores in-charge after duly filling in the requisition form.
8.
When the experiment is completed, students should disconnect the setup

made by them, and should return all the components/instruments taken for
the purpose.
9.
Any damage to apparatus that occurs during the experimentation, should

be brought to the notice of lab in-charge, consequently, the cost of the
repair or new apparatus should be brought by the students.
10.
Students should be present in the labs for the total scheduled duration.
11.
Students are required to prepare thoroughly to perform the experiment

before coming to Laboratory.
12.
Procedure sheets/data sheets provided to the students groups should be

maintained neatly and to be returned after the experiment.
Physics Lab Manual
CONTENTS
S.No
Name of the Experiment
Page No.
1.
DISPERSIVE POWER OF THE MATERIAL OF A

PRISM SPECTROMETER.
3.
DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF A
SOURCE DIFFRACTION GRATING.
NEWTONS RINGS - RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF
PLANO CONVEX LENS.
4.
MELDES EXPERIMENT TRANSVERSE AND

LONGITUDINAL MODES.
20
5.
TIME CONSTANT OF AN R-C CIRCUIT.
27
6.
L-C-R CIRCUIT.
34
2.
9
14
9.
MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF

CURRENT CARRYING COIL STEWART AND
GEES METHOD.
STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LED AND
LASER SOURCES.
STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF P-I-N AND
AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE DETECTORS.
10.
BENDING LOSSES OF FIBRES.
63
11.
EVALUATION OF NUMERICAL APERTURE OF

GIVEN FIBRE.
69
12.
ENERGY GAP OF A MATERIAL OF P-N

JUNCTION.
75
13.
TORSIONAL PENDULUM.
81
14.
SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION USING LASER.
88
15
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOLAR CELL
95
7.
8.
42
48
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Physics Lab Manual
1. DISPERSIVE POWER OF THE MATERIAL OF A PRISM

SPECTROMETER.
AIM: - To determine the dispersive power of the material of a given prism by the
spectrometer
APPARATUS: - Spectrometer, Prism and Mercury Vapour Lamp
PRINCIPLE: - The Dispersive power of the material of the given prism is

expressed as
(2 1 )
(1)
Where 1 and 2 are the refractive indices of two colors
(1 + 2 )
=
2
Usually the colors chosen are blue and red so that
( )
=
,
( 1)
Where
( + )
2
PROCEDURE: 1.
The usual adjustments of the spectrometer are made .The refractive angle
of the Prism is found.
2.
Then the prism is mounted on the prism table and the position of prism is
adjusted to observe the spectrum of the mercury vapor.
3.
Observing the blue line in the spectrum through the telescope, the prism is
adjusted for minimum deviation position.
Physics Lab Manual
4.
Working with the tangent screw of the telescope, the position of the prism is
Adjusted so that the blue line is just one point of refracting its path after
coming to the point of intersection of the cross wires.
5.
The readings of the telescope for the minimum deviation of red line are
noted.
6.
The telescope is brought in line with the collimator and removing the prism,
the direct readings on both verniers are noted.
7.
The respective differences give the minimum deviations for blue and red
colors.
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Their refractive indices are found by
( +2 )
=
(/2)
( +2 )
& =
(/2)
The Dispersive power of the material of the prism, for blue and red colors is
found by the relation
( )
=
,
( 1)
OBSERVATIONS: The observations of the above experiment are as follows

V1 = MSR0+ (LC) VC
Spectral
Line
Direct
Reading
LHS
V1
RHS
V2
Minimum
Deviation
Position
LHS
V1
RHS
V2
Angle of Min. Deviation
Dm(LHS)
|1 1 |
Dm(RHS)
|2 2 |
AVG
Dm
( +2 )
=
(/2)
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Dispersive power
( )
(1)
Physics Lab Manual
PRECAUTIONS: 1.
The prism should be adjusted for each colour separately.
2.
Readings are noted without any parallax error.
RESULT: - The Dispersive power of the material of the prism =----------------
REFERENCE BOOKS:1.Fundamentals of physics D.Halliday,R.Resnick and J. walker,John

wiley and sons.New York 2001
2.PHYSICS,M.Alonso and E.J.Finn,Addison Wesley, 1992
3.LABORATORY MANUAL IN APPLIED PHYSICS -Second editionH.Sathyaseelam-New age International
Physics Lab Manual
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Physics Lab Manual
2. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF A SOURCE

DIFFRACTION GRATING.
AIM: - To determine the wavelength of light using a plane diffraction grating by
measuring the Angle of minimum deviation.
APPARATUS: - Plane diffraction grating, spectrometer, reading lens, sodium

vapor lamp.
PRINCIPLE: - If a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident on a grating,

such that the angle of deviation is minimum, the relation gives the wavelength of
the light.
2 sin(2)
=
Where D is the angle of minimum deviation

n is the order of the spectrometer and
N is the number of lines per cm
PROCEDURE: 1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are done. The slit is

illuminated with Sodium light.
The grating is clamped to the prism table. The plane of the grating is
adjusted to be Vertical and perpendicular to the axis of the collimator.
The direct image of the slit is observed through telescope and by fine
adjustment of the tangent Screw of the telescope, the point of intersection of
the cross wire is set on the image of the slit. The readings of the two
verniers are noted.
The telescope is moved to the left to observe the diffracted image of the first
order.
The prism table is released and is rotated to the left. Then the first order
image moves. To the right, reaches a limiting position, and then tries to
retrace its path.
The telescope is fixed in this limiting position such that the point of
intersection of the Cross wire is on the D1 line. The readings on both the
verniers are noted.
The respective difference on the verniers gives the minimum deviation for
the D1 line. Similarly the experiment is repeated on the right hand side for
the first order D1 line. The experiment is repeated for D2 line.
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Physics Lab Manual
OBSERVATIONS: - The observations of the experiment are as follows

1
Least count of spectrometer =

No. Of lines per cm. on the grating (N) =
Table
Spe
ctral
line
n
Direct
reading
Minimum deviation
position
Left side
R1
A
R2
B
R1
C
R2
D
Right
side
R1 R2
E
F
Angle of minimum deviation

Dm
| |
G
| |
H
| |
I
Mean
Dm=
| |
J
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Calculations
2 sin(2)
=
Where D is the angle of minimum deviation

n is the order of the spectrometer and
N is the number of lines per cm
PRECAUTIONS: 1.
The grating should be adjusted for each order separately.
2.
Readings are noted without any parallax error.
RESULT: Wave length of sodium is -----------------A0 (Ist order)

Wave length of sodium is -----------------A0 (IInd order)
REFERENCE BOOKS:1.THE FEYNMAN LECTURES IN PHYSICS,R.P.Feynman,R.B. Leighton and

M.Sands,Addison Wesley ,1963
2.FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS,4th edition ,F.A.Jenkins and H.E.White,
1981
3.OPTICS,A.GHATAK, Tata McGraw Hill ,New delhi,1992
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3. NEWTONS RINGS - RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF PLANO

CONVEX LENS.
AIM: - To determine of Radius of curvature of a Plano convex lens by Newtons
rings method.
APPARATUS: - A convex lens is focal length about 100 cm, two optically plane
glass plates, and traveling micro scope, a condensing lens and sodium Vapor
lamp.
DESCRIPTION: - The convex lens is placed on the optically plane plate B as
shown in the below fig .On the platform of the traveling microscope. A black
paper is placed under the glass plate.
The condensing lens C is placed at a distance equal to the focal length of
the lens from the sodium Vapor lamps. The emergent parallel beam of the light is
directed towards the glass plate A kept directly above the center of the lens and
inclined at 450 to the vertical. The beam of light is reflected on the lens L. As a
result of interference between the light reflected from the lower surface of the
lens and the top surface of the glass plate B. Newtons rings with alternate bright
and dark rings are formed having a black center. The microscope can focus
these rings. (It may happen that the center of the ring system is bright. This is
due to the presence of dust particles between the lens and the thick glass plate.
In such a case the surface of the lens and the glass plate has to be cleaned.)
PROCEDURE: - The microscope is focused at the center of the ring system. The
microscope is moved so that the cross wires pass over 16 or 17 dark rings. Then
the microscope is moved back until the vertical cross wire is set at the middle (or
end) of the 15th dark ring. The reading of the main scale and the number of
Vernier coincidences are noted from which the reading of the microscope can be
determined. The microscope is moved so that the vertical cross wire is set at the
middle of the 14th dark ring. The readings of the microscope are noted. Similarly
the readings of the microscope with crosswire set Successively at the middle of
13th, 12th, 11th etc..5th dark ring. The microscope corresponding to 5th,
6th, 7th . 15th dark ring on the other side of the center are noted. From these
observations the diameters of the 5th, 6th, etc15th dark rings can be found.
The convex lens L is removed and its radius of curvature R is
determined either by a spherometer or by Boys method.
A graph is drawn with number of the dark ring on the x-axis and the
square of the diameter (D2) on the y-axis. The graph is a straight line passing
through origin. From the graph the values of Dm2 and Dn2 corresponding to nth
and mth rings are found.
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Physics Lab Manual
Microscope
Reflecting
slide, A
Light source
Lens, L
Glass
slide, B
Centre
line, C
Figure 1: Apparatus
The wavelength of sodium light is found by the formula
D2n D2m 0
=
A
(
)
4R n m
Radius of curvature can be obtained by
D2n D2m
R=
4(n m)
On taking the standard wave length of sodium light, the radius of
curvature of the lens can be calculated.
The value of the radius of the curvature of the lens is verified using
spherometer.
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OBSERVATIONS: 1
Least count =
S.NO
Number of
the dark
ring
14
12
10
Microscope Reading
Left side
A
Right side
b
Diameter
D= b - a
D2
CALCULATIONS: -
R=
D2n D2m
4(nm)
or R =
slope
4
Wavelength of sodium light = 5893 A0.

PRECAUTIONS: 1.
2.
3.
While taking the observations the microscope should be moved only in

one direction to avoid error due to back lash.
The lens L and the glass plate P should be perfectly clean.
The slow motion tangent screw alone should be moved in taking the
observations.
RESULT: Radius of curvature of the lens= .. cm.
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Physics Lab Manual
REFERENCE BOOKS:1.FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS,D.Halliday,R.Resnick and J.Walkar,John

wiley and sons,New York,2001
2.VIBRATIONS AND WAVES,A.P.French,Arnold-Heinemann,New Delhi,1972
3.BASIC ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT Hand Book ,C.F.Coombs,McGraw-Hill
,1972
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4. MELDES EXPERIMENT TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL

MODES.
AIM: - To determine the frequency of an electrically driven tuning fork.
APPARATUS: - An electrically maintained tuning fork ,a light smooth pulley fixed
to a stand, a light scale pan, thread, a storage cell, rheostat, plug key and
connecting wires.
DESCRIPTION: - A fork can be maintained in the state of continuous vibration
electrically. One terminal of the coil of an electromagnet is connected to the
make and break arrangement and the other end of the coil to the cell, rheostat
and plug key connected in series. In the normal position when the circuit is
closed, the electromagnet attracts the prong of the fork towards it. This breaks
electrical circuit and the prong moves back closing the circuit. The electromagnet
again attracts the prong towards it. This is repeated again and again and the fork
is maintained in a state of continuous vibration. One end of the thread of length
about 3 meters is joined to a screw attached to one prong of the fork and the
other end is passed over a small pulley and a light pan is fixed at the other end of
the thread. When the fork is vibrated electrically, stationary waves of well-defined
loops are formed.
Meldes apparatus can be arranged in two modes of vibration,
TRANSVERSE MODE
When the direction of motion of the prong is at right angles to the length of
the string, the vibrations of the thread represent the transverse mode of vibration.
PROCEDURE: 1) The apparatus is arranged in transverse mode of vibration of the thread as
shown above. A suitable load is placed in the scale pan. The tuning fork is
excited electrically. The length of the thread is adjusted by moving the pulley until
well defined loops are formed in it. The distance between a definite numbers of
well-defined loops is measured with a meter scale from which the average length
l of a single loop is determined.
2) The total load attached to the thread inclusive of the mass of the pan is noted.
If it is M gm, the tension applied on the string is T= Mg = (M+M) g. Where g is
acceleration due to gravity. M is the mass added in the pan and M is the mass
of pan.
3) The mass of the thread (about 5 mts in length) is determined correct to a
milligram. The mass per unit length of the string (m) is then determined. The
frequency of the tuning fork is found by the relation
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Physics Lab Manual
1
2l
T
1
T
m 2 m l
4) The experiment is repeated for various tensions and the observations are
tabulated in table (i) and N is calculated
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OBSERVATIONS:
S.No
T=Mg
= (M+M)g
No. of
loops P
Total length L
Length of
each loop
l = L/P
T
l
T
=
l
M = mass kept in the pan in grams
M = mass of the pan
m = linear density
1
Formula for calculation =

( )
2
Average
Longitudinal Mode
When the direction of motion of the prong is along the length of the thread,
the vibrations of the thread represent longitudinal mode of vibration.
PROCEDURE: 1) The apparatus is arranged in longitudinal mode of vibration of the thread. The
experiment is done in similar manner as in 1. The average l of the loop, the
tension T applied to the thread and the mass per unit length of the thread (m) are
found. The frequency of the tuning fork is found by the relation
1 T
1 T
l m
m l
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Physics Lab Manual
The experiment is repeated with different tension and the observations are
tabulated in table (ii) and are calculated.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No
T=Mg
= (M+M)g
No.of
loops P
Total length L
Length of
each loop
l = L/P
T
l
T
=
l
Mass per unit length of the thread (m) = gms.
Average
M = mass kept in the pan in grams

M = mass of the pan
m = linear density
1
Formula for calculation =

( )
PRECAUTIONS: 1)
2)
A thin long and inelastic thread should be used.

The loops should be well defined and confined to a single plane.
RESULT: The frequency of the tuning fork in transverse mode = Hz

The frequency of the tuning fork in longitudinal mode = Hz
The mean of the two average frequencies in the transverse and longitudinal
modes gives the correct frequency of the tuning fork.
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Physics Lab Manual
REFERENCE BOOKS:1.LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS IN COLLEGE PHYSICS,C.H.Bernard and

C.D.Epp.John Wiley and Sons Inc.,New York 1995
2.THE FEYNMAN LECTURES IN PHYSICS,R.P.Feynman,R.B.Leighton and
M.Sands,Addison Wesley,1963
3.OPTICS,A.Ghatak, Tata-McGraw Hill,New delhi,1992
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5. TIME CONSTANT OF AN R-C CIRCUIT.

AIM: -To study the exponential decay of current in a circuit containing Resistance
and Capacitance and to determine the R.C. time constant.
APPARATUS: - Source of e.m.f (battery eliminator), Resistors 10 K, 30K, 5K
ohms, Electrolytic Capacitors 470, 1000, 2000 microfarads, Galvanometer (500-50), Stop clock, tap key, connecting wires.
DESCRIPTION: The ability of a conductor to hold electric charge is called the capacity of a
conductor. Different conductors at the same potential have different capacities for
holding charge, depending o their size and shape. The capacity or capacitance of
a conductor may be defined as the charge required to raise its potential by unity.
The unit of capacity is a farad. Capacitors serve as devices for storing electrical
energy. Capacitors are classified into different types depending upon the type of
dielectric medium present between the plates; types of charges induced at the
plates.
Resistance is the characteristic of a particular specimen of the material. Its
unit is an Ohm. Resistivity is the characteristic of the nature of the material.
In an electric circuit, when a capacitor and a resistor are connected as
shown in figure 1, electric charges build up across the capacitor. The discharge
of the condenser takes place when the circuit is disconnected from the source of
e.m.f.
When the tap key (K) in figure 1 is pressed, a constant e.m.f. works in the
circuit, the condenser plates receive the charge till the potential differences
across them becomes equal to E. When the key is released, the discharge of the
condenser takes place. Let q be the charge on the capacitor at a timet after the
key is released. The instantaneous value of the p.d. across the capacitor is given
by q/c and E=0; i.e.,
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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Physics Lab Manual

MODEL GRAPH:
Integrating
= 0 .1
+ =0
,
=
t
B
RC
.(2)
Where B is the constant of integration.

At t = 0; q = q0 ; hence B = loge q0
Substituting this value of B in equation (2), we get
e
q
t
. ..(3)
q 0 RC
Or,
= 0 / ...(4)
Rate of discharge is
dq
e t / RC
q
dt
0 RC
PROCEDURE: The circuit is connected as shown in figure 1, taking one set of R and C.
The capacitor C is charged for a short time till the deflection in the galvanometer
is maximum, but within the scale. The tap key is then released. The capacitor
now starts discharging through the resistor R. The deflection decreases steadily.
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Physics Lab Manual
The stop clock is started at a suitable initial point (need not be maximum) and the
deflection is noted at suitable intervals of time. It is continued till the deflection
falls below 0.36 of starting value. The experiment is repeated for the other sets of
R and C and the observations are tabulated in Table 1. The time constant is
calculated theoretically from the values of R & C used, and also from the graphs;
as shown in figure. 2.
OBSERVATIONS:
Table.1
Time
S.No.
sec
Set 1
R1= ------
C1=------f
Voltage or
current
Time
Sec
Set 2
R2 = ------
C2 =------f
Voltage or
current
Time
sec
Set 3
R3 = -----
C3 =------f
Voltage or
current
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Physics Lab Manual
= 0 (1)
= 0.36 0
Thus, it is to be observed.
(i) Smaller is the time constant; more rapid is the discharge of the capacitor
(ii) The current in a R.C. Circuit falls exponentially with time.
PRECAUTIONS:1. The circuit connection should be done properly.
2. switching on the stop clock and discharging of the capacitor should be done
simultaneously
RESULT: RC time constant
Ttheoretical= RXC
Ppractical(from
Graph)
R1= ------
C1=------f
R2= ------
C2=------f
R3= ------
C3=------f
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REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. .BASIC ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT Hand Book ,C.F.Coombs,McGraw-Hill
,1972
2.PRACTICAL PHYSICS,G.L.Squires,Cambridge University Press,1988
3.FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS,4th edition ,F.A.Jenkins and H.E.White, 1981
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6. L-C-R CIRCUIT.
AIM: - To design LCR resonant circuit and plot the resonance circuit of L, C and
R components when connected in series and parallel.
APPARATUS:
Capacitor,resistor,voltmeter,ammeter,frequency,generator,inductor,connecting
wires
PRINCIPLE: - If the value of the frequency of applied signal is so adjusted that
the impedance of the circuit becomes minimum. The current flowing through the
circuit will be maximum. This particular frequency at which the impedance of the
circuit becomes minimum and therefore the current becomes maximum is called
the resonant frequency.
SERIES RESONANCE: -
PROCEDURE: 1.
Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Connect resistance R, capacitor C

and inductor L in the circuit.
2.
Connect function generator across input of the circuit as shown in figure.
3.
Switch ON the function generator using ON/OFF switch provided on the

front panel.
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Physics Lab Manual
4.
Set the output of function generator to sine wave signal of approximately

3VAC RMS and set the frequency at 100Hz.
5.
Increase the frequency in small steps towards 10 KHz and every time note
down the observations in the table no.1. At a particular frequency, current
starts decreasing. The frequency at which current starts decreasing is the
Resonance Frequency.
6.
Repeat the procedure for different values of R and C.
7.
Plot a graph between frequency Vs current by taking frequency along Xaxis and current along Y-axis as shown in plot.1.
MODEL GRAPH
TABLE.1
S.N
Frequency Current
Voltage
PARALLEL RESONANCE: -
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PROCEDURE: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Connect the circuit as shown in above fig. by using Resistance R,

Capacitor C and Inductor L.
Connect function generator across input of the circuit as shown in above
fig.
Switch ON the function generator using ON/OFF switch provided on the
front panel.
Set the output of function generator to sine wave signal of approximately
3VAC RMS and set the frequency at 100Hz.
Increase the frequency in small steps towards 10 KHz and every time
note down the observations in the table no.2. At a particular frequency,
current starts increasing. The frequency at which current starts increasing
is the Resonance Frequency.
Repeat the procedure for different values of R and C.
Plot a graph between frequency vs. current by taking frequency along Xaxis and current along Y-axis as shown in plot.2.
FORMULAE: Quality Factor
In series resonant frequency
In parallel Resonant frequency
1
2
1
2
()
Band width = ( 2 1 )Hz

MODEL GRAPH
TABLE.2
S.N
Frequency Current
Voltage
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OBSERVATIONS: Series resonant circuit

Capacitance (C) = .
Resistance (R) =..
Inductance (I) = .
Frequency
Current
Frequency
Current
Parallel resonant circuit

Capacitance (C) = .
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Resistance (R) =..

Inductance (I) =
Frequency
Current
Frequency
Current
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CALCULATIONS:1.
Calculation from the graph(series resonant circuit)

a. Resonant frequency fr =
b. Band width = |1 2 |
c. Quality factor =
|1 2 |
d. Resonant frequency
2.
= 2
Calculation from the graph (parallel resonant circuit)

a. Resonant frequency fr =
b. Band width = |1 2 |
c. Quality factor =
|1 2 |
d. Resonant frequency
1
2
()
PRECAUTIONS:1. The circuit connection should be done properly.

2. increasing of frequency and identification of resonant frequency should be
done properly
RESULT: - LCR Resonance circuit is designed in both series and parallel modes
and hence graphs From the tabulated readings are plotted.
Parameters
Resonant frequency
LCR Series
Th:
Pr:
LCR Parallel
Th:
Pr:
Band width
Quality factor
REFERENCE BOOKS:1.EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS,A.C.Melisson,Academic Press,N.Y.

1966
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7. MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF CURRENT CARRYING

COIL STEWART AND GEES METHOD.
AIM: - To study variation of magnetic field with distance on the axis of a circular
coil carrying current
APPARATUS: - Stewart Gee type galvanometer, battery plug key, commutator,
rheostat and ammeter.
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DESCRIPTION: Stewart and Gee galvanometer is shown above. Its construction

resembles that of tangent galvanometer and deflection magnetometer. It consists
of a circular coil in a vertical plane fixed to a horizontal bench at its middle point.
The ends of the coil are connected to binding screws. A magnetic compass box
is arranged such that it can be sided along a horizontal scale passing through the
center of the coil. The length of the scale is perpendicular to the plane of the coil.
The compass box consists of a short magnetic needle and a long aluminum
pointer attached at its midpoint perpendicular to it and they are pivoted at the
center of a horizontal circular scale graduated in diagrams. The circular scale
consists of four quadrants each of which measures angles from 0 0 to 90 0. A
plane mirror is provided below the pointer so that the deflections can be provided
without parallax.
PROCEDURE: 1.
The circuit is constructed as shown in fig. The primary adjustments of the

instrument are made.
2.
The coil of the instrument is set along the magnetic meridian. The aluminum
pointer is made to read 00 - 00 with no current. The ends of the coil are
connected to the commutator and through it to the battery rheostat and
ammeter.
3.
When the circuit is closed with the plug key, a current flows through the
circular coil. A magnetic field is produced on the axis of the coil.
The magnetic needle in the compass is subjected to the horizontal
component earths magnetic field (H) and magnetic field (F) due to the
circular coil carrying current. Those two magnetic fields are acting at right
angles to each other.
4.
5.
The magnetic needle dings along the direction of resultant magnetic field.
The magnetic needle is deflected through an angle from the direction of
(H) the Horizontal component of earths magnetic field. Then we get the
equation
= tan
6.
The current in the circuit is adjusted such that the deflection lies between
300 to 600 using the rheostat.
7.
The compass box is displaced by 5cm or 10cm along the horizontal seal of
the deflection of the needle is measured at every distance by reading both
ends of the pointer. Let the readings be 1 and 2. The readings 3 and 4
are observed after reversing the direction of current.
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8.
The experiment is repeated for points on the other side of the coil. If is the
average of the four deflection readings tan B.
9.
A graph is drawn with tan along x-axis. This graph shows the variation of
magnetic field on the axis of circular coil with distance. It is symmetrical
about y-axis and the magnetic field is maximum at the center of the coil.
FORMULA: - The magnetic field B at a point on the axis of a circular coil of a

turns and radius a is given by the equation
=
Where
0 2
3
2
2( 2 + 2 )
I = current passing through the coil

X = distance of the point from the center of the coil.
OBSERVATIONS: -
S.N Positio Distance

n
x
magnet
o main
BH = 0.38x10-4 Tesla
0 = 4X107
Current I = ------ amp.
n = ..
Deflection
Avera
ge
1 2 3 4
Tan
B = BH tan
B=
Left
(-)
West
of the
coil
Right
(+)
East of
the coil
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Physics Lab Manual
The values of F calculated from equation B = BH tan and should be equal.
0 2
3
2
2( 2 + 2 )
As B tan, B vs. graph resembles tan vs. x graph.

The graph of Tan B = BH tan vs. x is shown below
PRECAUTIONS: 1. Galvanometer should not be disturbed after making primary adjustments.

2. The deflection should be observed without parallax.
3. From objects should be kept away from the coil.
4. The current measured in amperes is converted in to emu. and used in the
formula
RESULT: - The variation of magnetic field with distance on the axis of a circular
coil carrying current is verified.
REFERENCE BOOKS:1.OPTICS,A.GHATAK, Tata McGraw Hill ,New delhi,1992
2. PRACTICAL PHYSICS,G.L.Squires,Cambridge University Press,1985
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46
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8. STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LED AND LASER

SOURCES.
AIM: - To study V-I characteristics of LED and laser diode
APPARATUS: - LED and laser trainer kit, digital multimeter, power supply.
PRINCIPLE: - The light emitting diode (LED) and Laser diode are popular
electronic devices which work on the principle of electroluminescence.
Characteristics of LED and LASER diodes:
PROCEDURE:
V-I characteristics of LED
1) Switch on the power supply.

2) Adjust the set P0 Knob to extreme anti clock position to give minimum
output power and observe the power in the power meter.
3) Slowly turn set Po knob clockwise a little and then note load voltage (VL)
across the LED, output terminal also note the readings in ammeter IL.
4) Repeat step 3 for noting various values of voltage and current
5) Plot graph of VL and IL.
Current-Power (I-P) Characteristics of LED and LASER diode
The I-P characteristics of laser diode may be well utilized for the
determination of quantum efficiency of the light emitting device the differential
slope efficiency (dt/dl) is the slope of the L-I characteristics at a particular current.
The light emitted by LED is coupled to the power meter through the optical
fiber cable. The power received is measured by the digital millimeter. The driving
current is supplied using a continuous variable linear regulated DC power supply
of 0- 32 volts through a series resistance of 100.
P-I characteristics of LED
1) Adjust the set Po knob to extreme anticlockwise position to give the

minimum output in the power meter and observe the output power in the
power meter.
2) Slowly turn the set Po knob clockwise a little and then note current (IL)
through the LED terminals. Also note the reading in the power meter (P o).
3) Repeat step 2 for noting various values of IL and Po.
4) Plot a graph between IL and Po take closer reading to plot a fine graph.
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To study the I-P characteristics of LASER :The above procedure can be followed with change to laser to study the I-P
characteristics of laser.
OBSERVATIONS:V-I characteristics of LED
S.NO.
Voltage (V)
Current (I) mA
I-P characteristics of LED

S.NO.
Current (I) mA
Optical power (mW)
V-I characteristics of LASER

S.NO.
Voltage (V)
Current (I) mA
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Physics Lab Manual
I-P characteristics of LASER

S.NO.
Current (I) mA
Optical power mW
PRECAUTIONS:1. Adjusting of knob should be done properly.

2. Increasing of voltage to LED and laser diode should be done gradually.
RESULT:The laser and LED characteristics are observed with different current, voltage
and power readings and the graphs are drawn.
REFERENCE BOOKS:1.BASIC ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT Hand Book ,C.F.Coombs,McGraw-Hill

,1972
2.EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS,A.C.Melisson,Academic Press,N.Y.
1966
3.RELIABLE
KNOWELDGE,J.Ziman,
Press,Cambridge,1978
Cambridge
university
50
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51
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52
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9. STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF P-I-N AND AVALANCHE

PHOTODIODE DETECTORS.
AIM: - To study the characteristics of PIN DIODE in forward bias and reverse
bias.
APPARATUS: - PIN DIODE (or NIP DIODE) characteristic study kit, milli
ammeter, micro ammeter, voltameter, variable power supply
DESCRIPTION:-Photodiodes are diodes in which charge carriers are generated
in responsive to light incident on photodiode. It is a semiconductor which
converts photon energy of light into electric signal by releasing and accelerating
current conducting carriers with in the semiconductor. P-i-n diodes and
avalanche photo diodes (APD) are the most common devices used to convert
light at the output of fiber in to electric current. With the rapid development of light
wave communications, low cost, high performance optical photodiodes are
required for a variety of applications. Photodiodes are used in optical
communication networks to convert optical signals to electrical signals. The
photo diodes can also be used as light receiving element of a mouse, photo
coupler, a remote controller or a wireless transmission device.
The mechanism of the photodiode is like that of a (miniaturized) solar cell. As

light detectors, they reverse biased and the reverse current is linearly
proportional to illuminance striking the diode. They are not as sensitive as
phototransistor but their linearity can make them useful in simple light meter. The
basic structure of p-i-n diode and avalanche diodes are given below.
What is a p-i-n diode?
A p-i-n diode consists of an intrinsic region of semiconductor material
sandwiched between end regions of heavily doped p+ and n+ type materials. The
device was originally proposed as a low frequency, high power rectifier because
it could support a high reverse voltage. The resistance of a reverse biased p-i-n
diode is very high. However, under large forward bias, a large number of
electrons and holes are injected into the central intrinsic region and modulate the
conductivity of this region. As a result the diode resistance becomes very low and
can be controlled by the forward bias. Because of this property, the diode can be
used as a switch or a variable attenuator at microwave frequencies.
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What is an avalanche diode?

The avalanche photodiode has a number of different characteristics when
compared to the normal p-n, p-i-n photo diodes, making them more suitable for
use in some other applications. The main advantages of avalanche diode is
greater level of sensitivity. The structure is more complicated than that of the p-in device. There are n+, p, un-doped and p+ regions. Light absorption takes place
in un-doped region. The avalanche region occurs between the n+ and p-regions.
Light enters the un-doped region of the avalanche photodiode and caused the
generation of electron-hole pairs. Under the influence of the electric field the
electron migrate towards the avalanche region. The electric field causes their
velocity to increase to the extent that collisions with the crystal lattice create
further electron-hole pairs. In turn these electrons may collide with the crystal
lattice to create even more number of electron-hole pairs. In this way a single
electron created by light in un-doped region is responsible for the creation of
more number of electrons.
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What are the differences between p-i-n diode and avalanche diode?
The avalanche photodiode has a number of differences with when compared to
the p-i-n diode. The avalanche process means that a single electron produced by
light in the un-doped region in multiplied several times by the avalanche process.
As a result the avalanche diode far more sensitive when compared to p-i-n diode.
In avalanche process the signal is more noisier compared to the p-i-n diode. Ntype guard type ring is also required around the p-n junction to minimize the
electric field around the edge of the junction. In avalanche diode the current gain
is dependent not only on the bias applied, but also thermal fluctuations.
The Photo diode are characterized by quantum efficiency, responsivety, gain,
dark current etc, they are briefly described below
Quantum efficiency: - It is defined as the fraction on incident photons having
sufficient energy to liberate electrons. It depends both on the wavelength of the
incident light and the photo diode material.
Responsivity: - It is a practical measure of output current for a given optical
power input. It is defined as average output current divided by average incident
optical power. Its units are A/W.
Dark current: - In the absence of light a small dark current flows in a photo diode
which is caused due to leakage in the reverse bias. It is very small and it can be
ignored.
Photo detectors are used in various different applications, such as
radiation detection, smoke detection, and flame detection. They are also used in
switching the street lights on or off, depending on the surrounding light.
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PROCEDURE: 1. To study the forward biased characteristics of PIN DIODE:

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1

Using variable power supply set LED current (IL) to about 5mA
Using the variable power supply of pin diode, slowly increase the
forward. Voltage (VF) and note the forward current (IF) for various
values of (VF) Note the readings in Table 1.
Repeat the above steps by increasing LED. Current in steps of
5mA.
Plot graph for VF Vs IF as shown in fig.
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2. To study the reverse biased characteristics of Pin diode:

a. To study the LED forward current Vs Pin diode reverse current
characteristics:
i.
Connect the circuit as shown in fig.3.
ii. Using the variable power supply of pin diode, set the reverse
voltage (VR) constant at 5V.
iii. Using variable power supply of LED, increase LED current (I L) to
about (5mA) and not the Pin diode reverse current (IR) for various
values of IL.
Note the readings in Table 2
iv. Repeat the above steps by increasing reverse voltage (V R0 in steps
of 1V.
v. Plot a graph for IL Vs IR as shown in fig.4
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b. To study the Pin diode reverse voltage Vs Pin diode reverse current
characteristics:
i.
Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
ii.
Using variable power supply set LED current (IR) to a value of
5mA.
iii. Using variable power supply of Pin diode, slowly increase the
reverse voltage (VR) and note the reverse current (IR) for various
values of (VR). Note the readings in Table 3.
iv. Repeat the above steps by increasing reverse voltage (V R) in steps
of 1V.
v.
Plot a graph for a VR Vs IR as shown in fig. 5.
OBSERVATIONS:Table -1: Forward biased characteristics of Pin diode. (VF Vs IF)

LED current IL=4mA
Forward
Forward
Pin
Pin current
voltage.
IR(A)
VF(V)
LED current IL=5mA

Forward
Forward
Pin
Pin current
voltage.
IR(A)
VF(V)
LED current IL=6mA

Forward
Forward
Pin
Pin current
voltage.
IR(A)
VF(V)
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Physics Lab Manual
Table-2: Reverse biased characteristics of pin diode

LED current IL=4mA
LED current IL=5mA
Reverse
Reverse
Reverse
Reverse
Pin
Pin current Pin current Pin current
voltage.
IRA
VRIV)
(IR(A)
VR(V)
(VR Vs IR)
LED current IL=6mA
Reverse
Reverse
Pin
Pin current
Voltage
(IRA)
(VR(V)
Table 3: Reverse biased pin diode characteristics. LED current Vs PIN

reverse current (IL Vs IR)
Reverse Voltage
VR = I V
Reverse voltage
VR=2v
Reverse voltage
VR 3V
PRECAUTIONS:1. Biasing should be done properly.

2. Connections should be made carefully.
3. No external light should be incident on photo diode.
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RESULT: Hence, by the above graphs the forward and reverse

characteristics are verified.
biased
REFERENCE BOOKS:1.VIBRATIONS AND WAVES,A.P.French,Arnold-Heinemann,New Delhi,1972

2.BASIC ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT Hand Book ,C.F.Coombs,McGraw-Hill
,1972
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61
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10. BENDING LOSSES OF FIBRES.

AIM: - To determine the losses in optical fibers in dB due to macro bending of the
fiber.
APPARATUS: - Step index F.O. Cable of lengths (a) 1 m (b) 2 m (c) 3 m (d) 4 m
(e) 5 m; digital multimeter, Adaptors, D.C. power supply, Fiber optic trainer
module, mandrel etc.
DESCRIPTION: The schematic diagram of the fiber optics trainer module is shown in
figure1.
The circuit comprises of three parts

(i)
Electrical to optical (E/O) converter
(ii)
Optical to Electrical (O/E) converter and
(iii)
Optical power meter
The E/O converter converts an input voltage to an optical output, Po, by
driving the fiber optic light emitting diode (Fo LED) current linearly using a
negative feedback operational amplifier circuit. Direct current LED (DC LED)
current setting is done by rotating the knob SET / Po. The optical power is
coupled to the optical fiber through the connector. The LED current can be
measured by monitoring the voltage with a digital multi-meter. A.C. input is given
to the Vin (Vr / 100) given the LED current in milli amperes.
The optical to electrical converter accepts the input optical power (Pin) from
the optical fiber connected through the connector and provides an output voltage
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Physics Lab Manual
(Vo). For D.C. measurements, a multi-meter may be used. For A.C.

measurements are made.
The optical power meter converts the optical power coupled to it through an SMA
terminated optical fiber and facilitates display of the optical power Po in Db. The
optical power in dB, is given by the (multi-meter reading / 10) in dB referred to 1
mw.
As in the case of any transmission medium, an optical fiber also suffers
from transmission loss as signal propagates through it. Losses in an optical fiber
is a result of a number of effects, like fiber to fiber joints, splicing due to axial
displacement of fibers, angular displacement of fibers, mismatch of core
diameters of fibers, mismatch of N.A.s, improper cleaving and cleaning at the
ends of the fibers, macro and micro bending losses, connector losses etc.
However, in the present experiment, we confine to the study of the attention in a
fiber due to macro bending of the fiber and the adaptors connecting the two fiber
patch cords.
If Po represents the power launched at the input of a fiber of length L,
then the power at the output end of the fiber is given by Bougers Law.
PL = P0 e-L .............................................................................................................. (1)
Where is the attenuation coefficient in nepers pre unit length , in practice the
attenuation is expressed in dB / km and is defined as
P0

P
= 10 10 L ............................................................ (2)
L
L
= 0 10
............................................................ (2)
10
The typical attenuation coefficient value for a step index fiber used in the
experiments is 0.3 dB per meter for light at a wave length of 660 mm.
Loss in fibers expressed in decibels is given by:
=
P
0
PF
....................................................... (4)
Where P0 = Power launched

PF = Power at the far end of the fiber
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Physics Lab Manual
The loss at each connector junction may vary from 0.3 dB to 0.8 dB.
The above two losses are to be determined in the present experiment.
PROCEDURE: The schematic diagram of the optical fiber loss measurement is shown in
figure 2.
One end of the one meter fiber optic cable is connected to the P 0 and the
other end is connected to the Pin of the loss measurement module. The output
power is calibrated in terms of the milli-volts. Hence, the two wires of the power
output is connected to the digital multi-meter (DMM). The DMM is set into 2000
mv range. The input of the device is now connected to the A.C. mains. The SET
P0 knob is set to a suitable value, say -15 dBm (the DMM is calibrated to read
150 mv). This value is noted as P01.
.
Figure 2: Experimental setup for loss measurement

To determine the bending losses
1) Connect one end of the 1m long optical cable to the output end of the LED
and other end to the Photo detector.
2) Turn the set Po knob clock wise a little. Insert the leads of the dB meter at
the output terminals of the optical power meter circuit and then note the
output power (PF1) in the dB meter.
3) Without disturbing the set knob Po wind one turn of optical fiber cable on
the mandrel and measure the output power (PF2) in the dB meter, as
described above.
4) Repeat the steps 2 and 3 by increasing the set P o knob and measure the
corresponding PF1 and PF2 values and note in table1 . the loss due to
bending the OFC= PF1-PF2
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OBSERVATIONS:-
S.No.
Output
without
PF1 dB
power Output
power Loss= PF1- PF2
bending with bending PF2
dB
PRECAUTIONS:1. Optical fiber cables should be connected appropriately.

2. Power meter values should be increased gradually.
RESULT: The transmission loss in the given optical fiber cable is dB.
REFERENCE BOOKS:1.PRACTICAL PHYSICS,G.L.Squires,Cambridge University Press,1988

3.PHYSICS,M.Alonso and E.J.Finn,Addison Wesley, 1992
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67
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11. Evaluation of numerical aperture of given fiber.

AIM: - To determine the numerical aperture of the given optical fiber.
APPARATUS: - One or two meters of a step index optical fiber, digital
multimeter, Adaptors, Connectors, D.C. Power supply, Fiber optic trainer module,
N.A. measurement jig.
DESCRIPTION: - The schematic diagram of the fiber optics trainer module is
shown in figure1.
The circuit comprises of three parts

(i) Electrical to optical (E/O) converter,
(ii) Optical to Electrical (O/E) converter and,
(iii) Optical power meter.
The E/O converter converts an input voltage to an optical output, P 0, by
driving the fiber optic light emitting diode (Fo LED) current linearly using a
negative feedback operational amplifier circuit. Direct current LED (DC LED)
current setting is done by rotating the knob
SET / P O The optical power is
coupled to the optical fiber through the connector. The LED current can be
measured by monitoring by voltage with a digital millimeter. A.C. input is given to
the Vin (Vr / 100) given the LED current in milliamp.
The optical to electrical converter accepts the input optical power (P in)
from the optical fiber connected through the connector and provides an output
voltage (Vo). For D.C. measurements, a multi meter may be used. For A.C.
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measurements an oscilloscope may be used. In the experiment only D.C.

measurements are made.
The optical power meter converts the optical power coupled to it through
an SMA terminated optical fiber and facilitates display of the optical power P o in
dB. The optical power in dB, is given by the (multimeter reading/10) in dB
referred to 1 mw.
The numerical aperture of an optical system is a measure of the light
collected by an optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the
incident
Numerical Aperture (, ) =
For air
=
= 1
. . = . .(1)
For a step index fiber, the N.A is given by :
2
2
. . = (ncore
ncladding
)1 / 2 (2)
For small differences in refractive indices between the core and cladding,
equation (2) reduces to:
N.A. = ncore (2)1 / 2 ..(3)
Where is the fractional differences in the refractive indices of the core

and the cladding; i.e.,
ncore nclad
ncore
Light from the fiber end A falls on the screen BD. Let the diameter of the
light falling on the screen = BD = W.
Let the distance between the fiber end and the screen = AO = L
Therefore from geometry,

BD = W, AO = L , BO = OD = W/2
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1
2 + 2 2
= (
)
4
=
Therefore
[ (4 L2 +
W 2)1/2 ] / 2
42 + 2
Knowing the values of W & L the N.A. can be calculated.

PROCEDURE: The twists or the micro bends on the fiber, if any are to be
removed first. In order to remove the twists, the optical fiber is wound on a
mandrel. An adhesive tape may be used to hold the windings on the mandrel in
the proper position.
The experimental set up for the N.A.measurement is shown in figure 2 .
One end of the optical fiber is connected to the N.A. jig through the connector,
and the other end of the fiber is connected to the power out Po of the N.A.module
.
The A.C. mains is switched ON and the light passing through the cable at the
other end (coming to the N.A.jig) of the fiber is observed to ensure proper
coupling is made or not. The Set Po knob is turned in the clock wise direction
to get maximum intensity of light through the fiber. The Set Po is to be left free
at this stage.
A screen with concentric circles of known diameter is kept vertically at a distance
(L) from the fiber end and the red spot is seen on the screen. The diameter of the
red spot can be varied by varying the distance (L)
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The experiment is repeated for the subsequent diameter of the circles by

adjusting the length L. The diameter of the circle is determined using a travelling
microscope.
For each set of observations, the N.A. is calculated using the equation (4).
Using the value of N.A. from (4) in equation (1), the acceptance angle is
calculated. The results are tabulated in table1.
OBSERVATIONS:S NO
L (mm)
W(mm)
= 42
+ 2
= . .
PRECAUTIONS:1. Optical fiber cables should be connected appropriately.

2. Power meter values should be increased gradually.
RESULT: Numerical Aperture of the given optical fiber is .
REFERENCE BOOKS:1. PRACTICAL PHYSICS,G.L.Squires,Cambridge University Press,1988

3.PHYSICS, M.Alonso and E.J.Finn, Addison Wesley, 1992
4.LABORATORY MANUAL IN APPLIED PHYSICS-Second editionH.Sathyaseelam-New age International
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73
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12. Energy gap of a material of p-n junction.

AIM:- To determine the energy band gap of a p-n junction
APPARATUS:- p-n junction diode, thermostat, volt meter, ammeter,
thermometer and battery.
DESCRIPTION:- P-N junction is made up of semiconducting materials. It
consists of valence and conduction band which is separated with a small
distance. Semiconductor material have almost empty conduction band nearly
filled valence band with a narrow band gap of. 1 eV. The narrow band gap which
is separated is called energy gap of the semiconductors. The semiconductors are
of two types intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. Intrinsic semiconductors are
pure semiconductors. By adding very small amount of impurities, such as one
part in a million to a pure semiconductor in a controlled manner, a large increase
in conductivity can be achieved. Extrinsic semiconductors are formed by adding
impurity (doping) to pure semiconductor. Similarly p-type of semiconductor is
formed by adding trivalent impurity to pure semiconductors. The schematic
diagrams of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors are as shown in figure 1.
The p-n junction is a device made with p- and n-type of semiconductors. P-n
junctions are of two types. Homo junctions and hetero-junctions. Homojunction is
made up with the same material which is available in both n-and p-type
conductivities (eg. Si junction made with n-and p-types). Heterojunctions are
made with two types of materials having n- and p- type of conductivities (eg.
GaAs). In the present experiment p- n junction which made with the same
material, but available in both the conductivities (homojunction) is used.
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The current I through a p-n junction for both signs of applied voltage V
I = I0 = [(exp)eV) / (kT0-1] ..(1)
Where e = fundamental electronic charge,
K = Boltzmanns constant,
T = Absolute temperature.
For the silicon p-n junctions and positive values of V the exponential term
becomes greater than 1. The current through the junction will increase
exponentially with V. the dependence on energy gap occurs through the factor I 0.
I0 is due to the thermal excitation of electrons across the energy gap after which
they flow freely across the junction. A complete treatment of the problems that I0
is proportional to the factor f which is given by
f T
3/ 2
e Eg / kT
Eg = energy gap of the semiconducting material. The I 0 can be determined by a

simple measurement with a negative bias applied to the junction. However, I 0 is
so small and careful measurement is necessary. It is essential to generate
curves representing equation (1) at several temperatures in order to obtain
several values for I0,
PROCEDURE:The circuit diagram of the experimental setup for the measurement of energy gap
in shown in figure.
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1. The point contact diode connected in a reverse bias as shown in the

diagram.
2. It is placed in an oil bath and heated uniformly.
3. Saturation current is noted for various temperatures.
4. The bias voltage is maintained at constant value.
5. The readings in the micro-ammeter is noted a function of temperature in
steps of 5 0C.
6. A graph is drawn between with log (1/T) in Kelvin on X-axis and log I0 is on
Y-axis
7. The slope of the graph is calculated and substituted in the formula.
FORMULA:Band gap energy E g
2 k slope
eV
1.6 x10 19
OBSERVATIONS:-
Temperature
(oC)
T (K)
1/T
(K-1)
I (uA)
Ln(I)
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PRECAUTIONS:1. The current flow should not be too high, if the current is high then the
internal heating of the device will occur. This will cause actual temperature
of the junction to be higher then the measured value. This will produce
non-linearity in the curve
2. There may be contact potentials, thermo emfs and meter dc offsets which
must be add and subtract from the readings.
3. Poor contacts result in huge variations in the results and must be carefully
soldered.
4. It is better to repeat a few measurements at end of each run to check the
source of error.
MODEL GRAPH:-
RESULT:The energy gap of the p-n junction material is calculated =
eV
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1.PRACTICAL PHYSICS,G.L.Squires,Cambridge University Press,1985
2. PHYSICS,A.C.Melisson,Academic Press,N.Y. 1966
3.RELIABLE KNOWELDGE,
press,Cambridge,1978
BY J.Ziman,Cambridgeuniversity

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13. Torsional pendulum.

AIM: - To determine the rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire by
dynamical method using a Torsional pendulum.
APPARATUS: - Torsional Pendulum, Stop Watch, Vertical Pointer, Screw
Gauge and Vernier Calipers.
DESCRIPTION: - Torsional Pendulum consists of a uniform metal disc (or
cylinder) suspended by a wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined. The
lower end of the wire is gripped in a chuck fixed at the center of the disc and the
upper end is gripped in another chuck fixed to a wall bracket as shown in the fig.
The disc is turned through a small angle in the horizontal plane to oscillations
about the axis of the wire. The period of oscillations given by
T 2
I
C
(I)
Where I is the moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of rotation and
C is the couple per unit twist of the wire.
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But
n a
(II)
2L
Where a is the radius of the wire L is its length and n is the rigidity modulus.
From (I) and (II) we have
8I
4
a T
(III)
In the case of a circular disc (or cylinder) whose geometric axis coincides with
axis of rotation of the moment of inertia I is given by
MR 2
I
2
Where M is the mass of the disc and R is the radius .On substituting the value of
I in the Eqn. (III),
we get
8 MR 2 L
n
2 a4 T 2
(IV)
PROCEDURE: - A meter wire whose n is to be determined is taken without any

kinks. The disc is suspended from one end of the wire .The other end of the wire
is passed through the chuck fixed to the wall bracket and is rigidly fixed .The
length L of the wire between the chucks is adjusted to a convenient value (say
50 cms). A pin is fixed vertically on the edge of the disc and a vertical pointer is
placed in front of the disc against the pin to serve as a reference to count the
oscillations.
The disc is turned in the horizontal plane through a small angle, so as to
twist the wire and released. There should not be any up and down and lateral
movements of the disc. When it is executing Torsional oscillations, time for 20
oscillations is noted twice and the mean is taken. The period (T) is then
calculated 1/T2.
The experiment is repeated for different values of L and in each case the
period is determined. The value of L/T2 is calculated for each length. The
observations are tabulated. From the observations mean the value of L/T 2 is
calculated.
The mass M of the disc is measured with a physical balance and its
radius R is calculated with Vernier calipers. The radius of the wire a is
determined very accurately with screw gauge at three of four different places and
means value is taken since it occurs in fourth power.
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Physics Lab Manual
Substituting these values in eqn (IV) n is calculated. A graph is drawn

taking the value of L on the x axis and the corresponding values of T2 on the Yaxis. It is a straight line graph passing through origin. Slope can be calculated
from the graph by inverting the slope we will get L/T2 Substituting this value n is
calculated.
Precautions: 1.The wire should be free from kinks.
2. The disc should not wobble.
OBSERVATIONS: Least count of vernier callipers

=
n= Total number of divisions in vernier scale
Least count of screw gauge

=
n= Total number of divisions on head scale
Tabular form:
1. Determination of Radius of disc
S.No.
MSR(cm)
VSR(cm)
(D) TOTAL = MSR + VSR(LC)
Diameter of disc
D=
Radius of disc
= 2 =
2. Determination of radius of wire (a)
S.No.
PSR (mm)
Diameter of Wire
Radius of Wire
Corrected HSR
(A) TOTAL = PSR + HSR(LC)
A=
a = 2 =
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Physics Lab Manual
Least count of Vernier callipers(L.C) = ------------------cms

Least count of Screw gauge (L.C) = ------------------cms
Average radius of the wire (a) = ------------------------cms
Mass of the disc (M) = -----------------------------------gms
Mean radius of the disc R = ------------------------------cms
3. Table to find time period
S.No
Time for 20 oscillations
Length
L
Trail I
Trail II
Mean
time
Time Period
T=Meantime/20
T2
L/T2
Mean value of L/T2 =

Calculations
= ( )(
= ( )(
) ( )
By table
)(
By Graph
PRECAUTIONS:1. The disc should be handled carefully.

2. The time for oscillations should be correctly noted.
3. Kinks should not be present along the length of the wire.
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Physics Lab Manual
RESULT: Rigidity modulus (n) of the wire -----------------dynes/cm2(By table)

Rigidity modulus (n) of the wire -----------------dynes/cm2(By graph)
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1.FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS,D.Halliday,R.Resnick and J.Walkar,John
wiley and sons,New York,2001
2.VIBRATIONS AND WAVES,A.P.French,Arnold-Heinemann,New Delhi,1972
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Physics Lab Manual
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14. SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION USING LASER.

AIM: - To determine the wavelength of given laser source by plotting diffraction
minimas.
APPARATUS:-Track and screen from the Basic Optics System, Laser source,
Single Slit Disk, Screen white paper, Graduated Scale.
DESCRIPTION:Since the work of Thomas Young, about 1800, light has been thought of
as a wave. One can, therefore, speak of the amplitude and phase of a light wave
at any point in space. As like any other wave, two or more light waves may
interfere at any point to give either an increase or decrease in wave amplitude at
that point. When a light wave encounters an obstacle, the light interacts with the
material of the obstacle. As a result, the amplitude and phase of the wave is
partly changed. The modified part of the wave may then interfere with the rest of
the wave, producing a pattern of light and dark. These effects are not usually
noticeable because we deal with obstacles large compared to a wavelength, and
we do not closely examine the shadows cast by such objects. In that case, a ray
picture is quite adequate. If we use a very small obstacle, or look carefully at the
shadow, we will see the effects of interference between various parts of the
wave. In the laboratory, it is possible to make a small slit. When the obstacle is
illuminated by a small light source a screen placed near the slit will show the
expected shadow pattern of a bright line on a dark background. As the screen is
moved away from the slit, the pattern becomes more complicated, due to the
interference of the parts of the wave that interact with the slit edges. At very large
distances, one sees an array of bright lines, spaced at regular intervals. Laser
light is much more coherent than light from conventional sources. So that one
may observe interference effects even when the path difference between the
interfering rays is much greater than 109 wavelengths. Figure -1 is schematic of
the apparatus used to observe this effect.
Fig. 1. Arrangement for observing diffraction with slit and point source
An exact calculation of the diffraction pattern for the situation we have been
considering more generally the angle to the maxima (bright fringes) in the
interference pattern is given by
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Physics Lab Manual
d sin m
(m 0,1,2,3,.....)
sin
Where d is the slit separation, is the wavelength of the light, and m is the order
(0 for the central maximum, 1 for the first side maximum, 2 for the second side
maximum,. . . counting from the center out?.
Since the angles are usually small, it can be assumed that
sin tan
=
Set Up:-
PROCEDURE:1. Set up the laser at one end of the optical bench and place the single slit
disk in its holder (about 3 cm) in front of the laser. Orient the optical bench
so the laser points toward the wall (see figure-3).
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Physics Lab Manual
2. Set up the white screen at the other end of the bench. Cover the screen
with a sheet of white paper.
3. Select the appropriate slit width (about 0.04mm) by rotating the slit disk
until the slit is centered in the slit holder.
4. Adjust the position of the laser beam from left-to-right and up-and-down
until the beam is centered on the slit.
5. To get perfect diffraction pattern adjust the length between source and slit
and to see the pattern clearly this should be performed in the dark room.
6. Determine the distance from the slit to the screen (D). Note that the slit is
not aligned with the center of the holder.
7. With the room lights off, mark of the positions of minima in the diffraction
pattern on the screen(graph sheet). Label the order of the minima m = 1,2,
etc. and also central maxima.
8. Sketch the diffraction pattern in the lab notebook.
9. Remove the single slit carefully and find its width of the slit using travelling
microscope without disturbing the slit width. Let it be a cm.
10. Remove the graph paper, using this measure the distances between the
first minimas and note the half of this values. Let it be r1 from first minima
where m=1.
11. Again measure the distance between the second minimas let it be r2
from second minima m=2
12. Repeat the procedure for different minimas.
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Physics Lab Manual
OBSERVATIONS:1
Least count =
To find the slit width of the first slit.
S.NO.
M.S.R.
V.C.
MSR+(LC) VC
S1 = cm
To find the slit width of the second slit.
S.NO.
M.S.R.
V.C.
MSR+(LC) VC
S2 = .cm.
To determine the wavelength of laser source
Slit width
a cm
Order of
diffraction
(m)
r cm
L CM
sin
=
sin
2 + 2
S1
S2
PRECAUTIONS:1. Under any circumstance do not look directly into the laser beam.
2. Do not shine the laser toward anyone.
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Physics Lab Manual
3. Adjustment of slit, laser must be made properly so that fringes are bright
and distinct.
4. Since the linear shift d is proportional to D, it should be fairly large (around
1 meter)
5. Make sure that a strong monochromatic source of light is used.
RESULT:-
The wavelength of given laser light is ..
REFERENCE BOOKS:1.THE FEYNMAN LECTURES IN PHYSICS,R.P.Feynman,R.B. Leighton and

2. EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS,A.C.Melisson,Academic Press,N.Y.
1966
3.OPTICS, A.GHATAK, Tata McGraw Hill, New delhi,1992
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Physics Lab Manual
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15. CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOLAR CELL

AIM: - To find out the fill factor of given solar cell.
APPRATUS: - Solar cell circuit, voltmeter, micro ammeter, digital multimeter.
DESCRIPTION:Fill Factor: Fill factor is the ratio of actual maximum obtainable power (Vm * Im)
to the theoretical (not actually obtainable) power.
PROCEDURE:1) Connect the circuit as shown in diagram.

2) Switch on the lamp.
3) Use digital multimeter as voltmeter and micro ammeter for measuring current.
4) Measure short circuit current (ISC) for zero load (i.e. RL = 0)
5) Measure open circuit voltage (VOC) when RL is maximum.
6) Now make RL = 0, vary RL and note corresponding values of voltage and
current.
7) Plot I-V curve.
8) Draw a line making an angle 450 with X-axis to meet the curve at a
Point, find its co-ordinate Im and Vm gives maximum power dissipation.
9) Calculate fill factor FF.
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Physics Lab Manual
OBSERVATIONS:Tabular column:
S.NO
Voltage
Current(A)
______ISC
______Voc
Model Graph:-
OBSERVATIONS (FROM GRAPH):1) Short circuit current Isc = ---------- A

2) Open circuit voltage Voc = ---------- V
3) Maximum current Im = ---------- A
4) Maximum voltage Vm = ---------- V
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Physics Lab Manual
CALCULATIONS:-
() =
= _________%
PRECAUTIONS:1. Connections should be made carefully.
2. No external light should be incident on photo diode.
RESULT:Fill factor of a given solar cell = ---------- %
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1.THE FEYNMAN LECTURES IN PHYSICS,R.P.Feynman,R.B. Leighton and
2. EXPERIMENTS IN MODERN PHYSICS,A.C.Melisson,Academic Press,N.Y.
1966
3.RELIABLE
KNOWELDGE,J.Ziman,
Press,Cambridge,1978
Cambridge
university
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100

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AURORA'S ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Bhuvanagiri, Nalgonda Dist.-508116.

(As per 2013 Academic Regulation)

Physics Lab Manual

Auroras Engineering College

Students should report to the concerned lab as per the time-table

Students who turn up late to the labs will in no case be permitted to

The record of observations along with the detailed experimental procedure

The components required pertaining to the experiment should be collected

When the experiment is completed, students should disconnect the setup

Any damage to apparatus that occurs during the experimentation, should

Students are required to prepare thoroughly to perform the experiment

Procedure sheets/data sheets provided to the students groups should be

Physics Lab Manual

Auroras Engineering College

Name of the Experiment

DISPERSIVE POWER OF THE MATERIAL OF A

MELDES EXPERIMENT TRANSVERSE AND

TIME CONSTANT OF AN R-C CIRCUIT.

MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF

BENDING LOSSES OF FIBRES.

EVALUATION OF NUMERICAL APERTURE OF

ENERGY GAP OF A MATERIAL OF P-N

SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION USING LASER.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOLAR CELL

Physics Lab Manual

Auroras Engineering College

1. DISPERSIVE POWER OF THE MATERIAL OF A PRISM

PRINCIPLE: - The Dispersive power of the material of the given prism is

Where 1 and 2 are the refractive indices of two colors

Usually the colors chosen are blue and red so that

Physics Lab Manual

Auroras Engineering College

Physics Lab Manual

Auroras Engineering College

Their refractive indices are found by

OBSERVATIONS: The observations of the above experiment are as follows

Angle of Min. Deviation

Physics Lab Manual

Auroras Engineering College

The prism should be adjusted for each colour separately.

Readings are noted without any parallax error.

RESULT: - The Dispersive power of the material of the prism =----------------

REFERENCE BOOKS:1.Fundamentals of physics D.Halliday,R.Resnick and J. walker,John

Physics Lab Manual

Auroras Engineering College

Physics Lab Manual

Auroras Engineering College

Physics Lab Manual

Auroras Engineering College

2. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF A SOURCE

APPARATUS: - Plane diffraction grating, spectrometer, reading lens, sodium

PRINCIPLE: - If a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident on a grating,

Where D is the angle of minimum deviation

The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are done. The slit is

Physics Lab Manual

Auroras Engineering College

OBSERVATIONS: - The observations of the experiment are as follows

Least count of spectrometer =

Angle of minimum deviation

Physics Lab Manual

Auroras Engineering College

Where D is the angle of minimum deviation

The grating should be adjusted for each order separately.