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St.

Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School

HKDSE Physics Notes

H eat M echanics

W aves E lectricity

R adioactivity

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 0


Chapter 1 Temperature and Thermometers
1.1 Temperature
Lower fixed point (ice point) Temperature of pure melting ice at normal atmospheric
pressure
Upper fixed point (steam point) Temperature of steam over pure boiling water at normal
atmospheric pressure
Celsius temperature scale Divide 100 equal divisions between the lower and upper
fixed point. Each division is 1oC
1.2 Kinetic theory
(a) All matter is made up of very tiny particles.
(b) These particles are constantly in motion.
(c) Forces between particles:
(i) When particles are close together, they attract/repel each other strongly.
(ii) When particles are far apart, they hardly attract/repel each other.
Solid Liquid Gas

(1) close together (1) close together


Particle arrangement (2) arranged in (2) not in fixed (1) very far apart
regular pattern position
Move at random at
Vibrate in fixed Can move freely from
Particle motion very high speed
positions one place to another
(~500 ms-1)
1.3 Heat and Internal energy
* Heat is the energy transferred from one body to another due to a temperature difference.

heat
warmer cooler

internal energy = kinetic energy (K.E.) + potential energy (P.E.) of all particles
K.E (depends on temperature) P.E. (depends on the state of matter)
T ↑ ⇔ K .E. ↑ solid liquid gas
(particles vibrate more rapidly at higher
temperature)
P.E. of particles increases
* Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy of the particles.

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Chapter 2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
Heat capacity (C) Specific heat capacity (c)
Definition Energy required to raise the Energy required to raise the temperature
o
temperature of a substance by 1 C of a 1 kg substance by 1oC
Formula E = C∆T E = mc∆T
o -1
Unit J C J kg-1 oC-1
C = mc

Example 1
After absorbing 1000 J of energy, the temperature of a substance increases by 4oC. If the mass of
the substance is 2 kg, find
(a) the heat capacity, and
(b) the specific heat capacity of the substance.
Solution
(a) For heat capacity, E = C∆T
1000 = C(4)
C = 250 J oC-1
(b) For specific heat capacity, E = mc∆T
1000 = (2)(c)(4)
c = 125 J kg-1 oC-1

Power = rate of energy transferred


E
P= or E = Pt
t

Example 2
2 kg of water is heated by a heater of power 1500 W. Find the time it takes for the temperature of
water to increase from 20oC to 98oC.
Given: the specific heat capacity of the water = 4200 J kg-1 oC-1
Solution
∵ E = Pt and E = mc∆T
∴ Pt = mc∆T
1500t = (2)(4200)(98 – 20)
t = 436.8 s

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Example 3
The figure below shows the variation of temperature of an object with time.
Temperature / oC

60

20
0 5 time / minute
If the power of the heater is 800 W, find the heat capacity of the object.
Solution
∵ E = Pt and E = C∆T
∴ Pt = C∆Τ
(800)(5 × 60) = C(60 – 20) [5 minutes = 5 × 60 s]
t = 6000 J oC-1

Example 4
A piece of 0.1 kg hot copper is put into a pond of water of 2 kg. If the initial temperatures of the
copper and water are 500oC and 20oC respectively, find the final temperature of the copper.
Given: the specific heat capacity of the water = 4200 J kg-1 oC-1
the specific heat capacity of the copper = 370 J kg-1 oC-1
Solution
Copper: 500 oC → T

Water: 20 oC → T

Assume no heat loss to the surroundings


Energy lost by hot object (copper) = Energy gained by cold object (water)
(0.1)(370)(500 – T) = (2)(4200)(T – 20)
18500 – 37 T = 8400 T – 16800
T = 22.1oC

Remark
Since the specific heat capacity of water is large, water can absorb a large amount of energy with
only a small temperature rise. (∆T = 22.1 – 20 = 2.1 oC)

Uses of high specific heat capacity of water


(1) coolant
(2) body temperature regulation

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Example 5
In an experiment to find the specific heat capacity of aluminium, the following results are obtained.

Mass of aluminium block = 1 kg


Initial joulemeter reading = 98 300 J
Final joulemeter reading = 104 900J
Initial temperature of aluminium block = 28.5 oC
Final temperature of aluminium block = 35.0 oC
(a) Find the specific heat capacity of aluminium.
(b) The standard value of the specific heat capacity of aluminium is 900 J kg-1 oC-1, find the
percentage error of the experiment.
(c) How to improve the accurate of the experiment.
Solution
(a) By E = mc∆T
104900 – 98300 = (1)(c)(35 – 28.5)
c = 1020 J kg-1 oC-1
1015.4 − 900
(b) Percentage error = × 100% = 12.8%
900
(c) (1) Wrap the aluminium block with cotton to reduce heat loss to the surroundings.
(2) Add a few drop of oil to the holes in the aluminium block to ensure a good thermal
contact between the heater, thermometer and the block.

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Chapter 3 Change of State
3.1 Latent heat

Heating No change in state E = mc∆T


Change in state E = ml

* E = ml, where l: specific latent heat


* Unit: J kg-1 Gas
Release latent heat (P.E.↓) Absorb latent heat (P.E.↑)
∆T = 0 (K.E. remains unchanged) ∆T = 0 (K.E. remains unchanged)

Liquid
Release latent heat (P.E.↓) Absorb latent heat (P.E.↑)
∆T = 0 (K.E. remains unchanged) ∆T = 0 (K.E. remains unchanged)

Solid

Example 1
How much energy is required to melt 2 kg of ice at 0oC and to raise the temperature to 30oC?
Given that the latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.34 × 105J kg-1, and
the specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1oC-1.
Solution
E = ml E = mc∆T

Ice (0oC) Water (0oC) Water (30oC)


Energy required = ml + mc∆T
= ( 2)(3.34 × 10 5 ) + ( 2)( 4200)(30 − 0)
= 9.2 × 10 5 J

Example 2
A coffee machine injects 0.03 kg of steam at 100oC into a cup of cold coffee of mass 0.17 kg at
20oC. Find the final temperature of the coffee.
Given that the latent heat of vaporization of ice = 2.26 × 106 J kg-1, and
the specific heat capacity of coffee = 5800 J kg-1oC-1.
Solution 100oC 100oC
Steam (0.03 kg): E = ml E = mc∆T
T (final temperature)
o
water water
Coffee (0.17 kg): 20 C
E = ml
T (final temperature)
coffee coffee
Energy lost by steam = Energy gained by coffee
6
(0.03)(2.26 × 10 ) + (0.03)(4200)(100 – T) = (0.17)(5800)(T – 20)
T = 90.0oC
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3.2 Measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ice
Procedures
(1) Set up the apparatus as shown.
(2) Fill both funnels with roughly equal
amounts of crushed melting ice.
(3) Record the initial joulemeter reading (E1).
(4) Switch on the heater for a period of time.
(5) Find the mass of ice (m) melted by the
heater and record the final joulemeter
reading (E2).
(6) Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion
of ice (lf) by E2 – E1 = mlf.

Precautions
- Ice should be crushed to increase the contact area with the heater.
- Melting ice is used so that it is at 0 °C.
- Before switching on the heater, pack the crushed ice in the two funnels so that the drip rates
are steady and about the same.
- After switching off the heater, do not remove the beakers; wait until the drip rates have
become steady and about the same.
- A small piece of wire gauze or steel wool at the neck of the funnels can prevent the crushed ice
from dropping into the beakers directly.

Example 3
The following results are obtained from the above experiment:
Mass of water in experimental cup = 0.050 kg Mass of water in control cup = 0.014 kg
Initial joulemeter reading = 15 000 J Final joulemeter reading = 29 200 J
(a) Find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
(b) Calculate the experiment percentage error. Account for any difference of the value obtained
from the standard value, 3.34 × 105 J kg-1.
Solution
(a) By E = ml
29200 − 15000 = (0.050 − 0.014)l f
l f = 3.94 × 10 5 J kg-1
3.9444 × 10 5 − 3.34 × 10 5
(b) Percentage error = × 100% = 18.1%
3.34 × 10 5
Possible sources of error include:
(1) Water dripping down the two funnels at different rates.
(2) Energy is lost to the surroundings.
[Since energy is lost to the surroundings, less amount of ice is melted by the heater.
E
By l f = , the measured lf is greater than the standard value.]
m

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3.3 Measure the specific latent heat of vaporization of water
Procedures
(1) Set up the apparatus as shown.
heater
(2) Take the reading from the electronic balance (m1) kilowatt-hour
meter
and the kilowatt-hour meter (E1) after the
water boils.
(3) Boil the water for a few minutes and turn off the
heater. electronic
balance
(4) Wait until the water becomes steady and take the
final reading of the balance (m2) and the kilowatt-hour meter (E2).
(5) Calculate the specific latent heat of vaporization of water by E 2 − E1 = (m1 − m 2 )l v from the
results.

Precaution
Do not switch on the heater unless the heating part is totally immersed in water.

Possible sources of error


(1) Steam condensing on the heater and drips back into the cup ⇒ Larger experimental lv
(2) Energy is lost to the surroundings ⇒ Larger experimental lv
(3) Some water ‘bubbles’ out of the cup ⇒ Smaller experimental lv

Example 4
The following results are obtained from the above experiment:
Mass of water boiled away = 0.10 kg
Energy supplied to the heater = 246 000 J
(a) Find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
(b) Account for any difference of the value obtained from the standard value, 2.26 × 106 J kg-1.
Solution
(a) By E = ml
246000 = 0.1l v
l f = 2.46 × 10 6 J kg-1
(b) Possible sources of error include:
(1) Steam condensing on the heater and drips back into the cup.
(2) Energy is lost to the surroundings.
[These will cause a smaller amount of water boiled away.
E
By l v = , the measured lv is greater than the standard value.]
m

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3.4 Evaporation and Boiling
(a) Common: absorb latent heat (E = ml) to change from liquid state to gas state
(b) Difference:
Evaporation Boiling
Occurs at any temperature Occurs at a definite temperature – the boiling point
Occurs at surface Occurs with liquid
No bubbles formed Bubbles appear
(c) Evaporation and particle motion
(i) Some of the particles in a liquid have greater K.E. while the
other have smaller K.E.
(ii) Some of the particles at the liquid surface may gain enough
KE to escape into the space above the liquid and become
particles of vapour.
(iii) As fast-moving particles fly away, the average KE of the
remaining particles is lowered; so the liquid becomes colder.
(d) Ways to increase the rate of evaporation
(i) increase temperature of the liquid
(ii) increase the surface area of the liquid
(iii) decrease the humidity of air
(iv) increase the movement of air

Example 5
A person is wearing a wet shirt. There is 0.1 kg of water on the shirt in total.
(a) How much energy is required to evaporate the water?
(b) Where is the energy required taken from?
Specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26 × 106 J kg–1

Solution
(a) Energy required evaporating 0.1 kg of water
E = ml
= (0.1)(2.26 × 106)
= 2.26 × 105 J

(b) The energy required is taken from the surroundings (or the skin of the person).

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Chapter 4 Heat Transfer
Conduction Convection Radiation
Description
Hot water Cold water
rises falls

– Particles at the hot end


vibrate faster. – Fluid (gas or liquid)
– The fast vibrating expands, rises and is
particles bump into the replaced by the The solar energy is
slower neighbouring surrounding cooler fluid. transferred to the earth by
particles and make – Such movement of fluid radiation
them vibrate more is called convection.
rapidly.
Medium Solid, liquid or gas Fluid (liquid or gas) No medium is required
required (Vacuum )
Rate of heat Conductor – faster Dark colour – good
transfer Insulator – slower absorber and radiator
Daily A cotton jacket traps air – Air conditioners are – Most transformers
examples (air is a poor conductor) installed high on the wall are black in colour
– Heating element is fixed – Car engines are
near the bottom of an painted black.
electric kettle – Fuel storage tanks
are painted silvery.
Example 1 Solar heater
glass
(a) What is the function of the glass?
(b) The temperature of the 0.3 kg water increases to
70oC after 30 minutes. If the initial temperature of
water is 30oC, find the power of the solar heater. water
bowl
(c) Give a suggestion to improve the design of the solar container
heater in order to obtain a greater temperature rise of water. Explain your answer briefly.
Solution
(a) The glass traps warm air to reduce heat loss by convection.
(b) ∵ E = Pt and E = mc∆T
∴ Pt = mc∆T
P(30 × 60) = (0.3)(4200)(70 – 30)
P = 28 W
(c) (1) Paint the bowl black in colour since dark colour object is a good radiation absorber.
(2) Stick slivery paper (aluminium paper) onto the inner wall of the container so that more
radiation is reflected to the bowl.

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Vacuum flask

Plastic or cork stopper


reduces heat loss by
conduction and convection.

cap
outer case

Silvery glass or stainless steel


walls reduce heat loss by
radiation.

A vacuum between the double


walls reduces heat loss by
conduction and convection.

insulated support

Vacuum cooker

Inner pot Outer pot

Inner and outer lids reduce


heat loss by conduction and Silvery steel walls reduce
convection heat loss by radiation

Outer vacuum insulated pot (the vacuum


Inner pot between the double steel walls of the
outer pot reduces heat loss by
A thin film of air between inner
conduction and convection)
pot and outer pot. Reduce heat
loss by conduction and Food is kept at a high
convection. temperature for a long time and
is cooked without a fire.

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Chapter 5 Gases
5.1 The gas laws
(a) Pressure
Force F
Pressure = or P=
area A
Unit: Nm-2 or Pa
Example 1
Find the pressure exerted on the 5 kg block in each of the following cases.
10 cm
(a) 10 cm (b)
5 cm
5 cm
R = mg cos 30o
R = mg

30o
Solution

(a) Force acting on the block (b) Force acting on the block

F = mg = (5)(9.81) = 49.05 N F = normal reaction = mg cos 30o

F 49.05 F (5)(9.81) cos 30°


Pressure P = = = 9810 Pa Pressure P = = = 8500 Pa
A (0.05)(0.1) A (0.05)(0.1)

[Note: 5cm = 0.05 m, 10 cm = 0.1 m ⇒ A = (0.05)(0.1) = 0.005 m2]

(b) The gas laws


Boyle’s law Pressure law Charles’ law
The pressure of a fixed mass of For a gas with a fixed mass For a gas with a fixed mass
gas is inversely proportional to and volume, its pressure is and pressure, its volume is
its volume at a constant directly proportional to its directly proportional to its
temperature. Kelvin temperature. Kelvin temperature.
Pressure p Pressure p Volume V

0 1/V (m-3) 0 Temperature T (K) 0 Temperature T (K)

1
p∝ p∝T V∝T
V
General gas law: pV = nRT, where R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1

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Example 2
A biscuit factory is located at sea level. Its production line is maintained at 20 °C and 100 kPa. Each
pack of biscuit contains 18 cm3 of gas to protect the biscuit from cracking during transportation.
The pack of biscuit is now transported up to a mountain where the temperature and pressure are
12 °C and 75 kPa respectively.
(Take R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1)
(a) Find the number of moles of gas inside a pack of biscuit.
(b) What is the volume of the gas inside the pack on the mountain?
Solution
(a) By pV = nRT ,
pV (100 × 10 3 )(18 × 10 −6 )
n= = = 7.39 × 10 − 4 mol
RT (8.31)( 20 + 273)
There are 7.39 × 10-4 mol of gas inside the pack.
(b)
p1V1 p 2V2
Method 1 By pV = nRT Method 2 By =
T1 T2
nRT (7.39 × 10 −4 )(8.31)(12 + 273) (100k )(18 × 10 −6 ) (750k )V
V= = =
p 75 × 10 3 ( 20 + 273) (12 + 273)
= 2.33 × 10−5 m3
V = 2.33 × 10−5 m3
Remark (1) Always use Kelvin degree for temperature.
i.e. 20 °C = (20 + 273) K, 12 °C = (12 + 273) K
3 -2 3 3 -6 3
(2) 1 cm = (10 ) m = 10 m

5.2 The kinetic theory


(a) Ideal gas
Ideal gas Obeys the general gas law for all pressures and temperatures.
Real gas Behaves like an ideal gas at high temperature and low pressure

(b) Assumptions for ideal gas


1. All the particles are identical and have the same mass.
2. All the molecules are in constant, random motion.
3. The size of each particle is negligible compared with the separation between them.
4. The duration of a collision is negligible compared with the time between collisions.
5. The collisions of molecules with the container and between the particles are perfectly
elastic.
6. Intermolecular forces are negligible.

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(c) A three-dimensional kinetic theory model

The ball bearings represent gas molecules.

Physical quantity Kinetic theory model


weight of the piston
Pressure
(and cardboard discs)
Temperature Voltage applied to the motor
Volume Height of the piston

(d) Explanation of the gas laws by the kinetic theory

Volume ↓
Boyle’s law
⇒ molecules hitting the
1
p∝ walls more frequently
V
⇒ pressure ↑

Temperature ↑
Pressure law ⇒ molecules moving
p∝T faster
⇒ pressure ↑

Temperature ↑
⇒ molecules moving
Charles’ law
faster
V∝T
⇒ volume ↑ to keep
the same pressure

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Example 3

A mildly pumped up beach-ball feels hard when pressed between two wooden boards (Fig a). If the
boards are removed, the ball feels soft again (Fig b).

Fig a Fig b

Explain why the ball feels hard when pressed between the boards using
(a) one of the gas laws,
(b) the kinetic theory.
Solution
(a) When compressed, the volume of the ball decreases.
According to Boyle’s law, pressure increases when the volume decreases.
The ball therefore feels hard.
(b) When compressed, the volume of the ball decreases.
The air molecules can only move in a smaller volume.
As a result, they hit the walls of the ball more frequently and so the pressure increases.
The ball therefore feels hard.

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(e) Pressure and molecular speed

1 3RT 3
(1) PV = Nmc r2.m.s (2) c rms = (3) KE = nRT
3 mN A 2

Example 4
On a mountain, a sealed metal bottle of volume 800 cm3 contains air at a pressure of 72 kPa and a
temperature of 5 °C. Assume that air behaves like an ideal gas.
(Take R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1, average molar mass of air = 29.0 g mol–1)
(a) Find the number of moles of air in the bottle.
(b) Find the root-mean-square speed of the air molecules in the bottle.
(c) The bottle is then brought to Hong Kong (at sea level) at 20 °C.
Find the change in the total KE of the gas molecules.
Solution

(a) By pV = nRT
pV (72 × 10 3 )(800 × 10 −6 )
n= = = 0.0249 mol [1 cm3 = 10-6 m3]
RT (8.31)(5 + 273)
29.0
(b) mNA = 29.0 g = kg = 0.029 kg
1000

3RT 3(8.31)(5 + 273)


c rms = = = 489 ms-1
mN A 0.029

3
(c) Change in total KE = nR (T2 − T1 )
2
3
= (0.0249)(8.31)( 20 − 5) = 4.66 J
2

(f) Speed of gas molecules

Xe – 132

Ar – 40

Ne – 20
He – 4

(1) cr.m.s. increases with temperature ( c r .m.s ∝ T ).

1
(2) cr.m.s. decreases with the mass of the molecule or molar mass of the gas ( c r .m. s ∝ ).
mN A

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St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 16
Chapter 1 – 2 Motion
(a) Distance and Displacement Speed and Velocity B
Example 1
A person takes 4 s to walk from A to B along the following path. 5m
Find the distance, displacement, speed and velocity
40o
A
Solution
Distance = length of the path Displacement = the length of straight line AB
10π = 10 m (N50oE)
= = 15.7m
2
Distance Displacement
Speed = Velocity =
time time
15.7 10
= = 3.93 ms-1 = = 2.5 ms-1 (N50oE)
4 4
Scalar: Distance, Speed Vector: Displacement, velocity
(b) Acceleration
change in velocity v−u
accelerati on = a=
time t
Unit: ms-2

Example 2
It takes 6 s for a racing car to attain a speed of 100 km h-1 from rest. Find the average acceleration
of the car.
Solution
Initial velocity u = 0 ms-1 (start from rest)
100 -1
Final velocity v = 100 km h-1 = ms = 27.78 ms-1
3 .6
Time t = 6 s
v−u
Acceleration a =
t
27.78 − 0
= = 4.63 ms-2
6

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(c) Motion graphs (s – t, v – t, a – t graph)
(i) Uniform velocity
s v a

0 t 0 t 0 t
Displacement changes at Velocity remains No acceleration.
a constant rate constant. a = 0 ms-2

(ii) Uniform acceleration


s v a

0 t 0 t 0 t
Displacement: Velocity increase at a Acceleration remains
Beginning: increases a little. constant rate. constant.
End: increases significantly.

(iii) Slope and area under graph


s s v

0 t 0 t 0 t
slope = velocity slope = acceleration Area under v-t graph
= displacement
(d) Equations of uniformly accelerated motion

(1) v = u + at u = initial velocity v = final velocity


(2) v 2 − u 2 = 2as a = acceleration
1
(3) s = ut + at 2 s = displacement
2
u+v
(4) s= t t = time
2

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(e) Motion of free fall
In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with an acceleration of g (9.81 ms-2)

Example 3
A stone is thrown vertically upwards from the ground with a speed of 20 m s-1.
(a) How high does the stone rise?
(b) How long does it take the stone to reach the ground?
(c) Draw a v-t graph for the stone unit it returns to the ground.
Solution
(a) Consider the motion of the stone when it is thrown upward until it reaches the highest point.
u = 20 ms-1 v = 0 ms-1 (highest point)
a = -9.81 ms-2 (uniform deceleration)
v = 0 ms -1
(momentarily at rest at the highest point) 20 ms-1
s=?
By v 2 − u 2 = 2as
0 2 − 20 2 = 2( −9.81) s
s = 20.4 m
∴ greatest height is 20.4 m
(b)
Method 1 Method 2
Consider the motion of the stone when it is Consider the motion of the stone when it is
thrown upward until it reaches the highest thrown upward until it returns to the ground.
point.
u = 20 ms-1 u = 20 ms-1
a = -9.81 ms-2 (uniform deceleration) a = -9.81 ms-2 (uniform deceleration)
v = 0 ms-1 (momentarily at rest) s=0 (return to ground)
t=? -1 t=?
v = 0 ms
By v = u + at 1
By s = ut + at 2
0 = 20 + ( −9.81)t 20 ms-1 2 20 ms-1 s=0m
t = 2.04 s 1
0 = 20t + ( −9.81)t 2
Time required for stone to reach the ground 2
= 2 × 2.04 t ( 4.905t − 20) = 0
= 4.08 s t = 0 (rejected) or 4.905t − 20 = 0
∴ t = 4.08 s
(c)
v / ms-1
20
4.08
0 2.04 t/s

-20

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Remark: Take upward direction as positive
Stage 1: upward motion Stage 2: at highest point Stage 3: downward motion
accelerate downward
decelerate uniformly Momentarily at rest
uniformly

a = -9.81 ms-2 a = -9.81 ms-2 a = -9.81 ms-2

Misconception
(1) The acceleration of the object at the highest point a = 0 ms-2. 
(2) We are certain that at the highest point, v = 0 ms-1.
(3) If at the highest point a = 0 ms-2 and v = 0 ms-1, the object will remain at rest forever and will
not fall down.

Example 4 v / ms-1
The v-t graph of a car is shown. 50
(a) Describe the motion of the car from t = 0 s to t = 80 s.
(b) Find the deceleration of the car from t = 40 s to t = 70 s. 0 40 70 80 t/s
(c) Find the total displacement of the car. -25
Solution
(a) From t = 0 s to 40 s, the car moves with a uniform velocity.
From t = 40 s to 70 s, the car decelerates uniformly and becomes momentarily at rest at t = 70 s.
From t = 70 s to 80 s, the car accelerates uniformly in opposite direction.
(b)
v−u
Method 1 by a = Method 2 a = slope of v-t graph
t
From t = 40 s to 70 s From t = 40 s to 70 s
-1 -1
u = 50 ms , v = 0 ms , t = 30 s a = slope of v-t graph
0 − 50 50 − 0
a= = −1.67 ms-2 = − = −1.67 ms-2
30 70 − 40
∴ Deceleration is 1.67 ms-2 ∴ Deceleration is 1.67 ms-2
(c) Total displacement of the car
= area under v – t graph
( 40 + 70)(50) 1
= − (10)( 25)
2 2
= 2625 m

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Chapter 3 Force and Motion
3.1 Newton’s law of motion
Newton’s 1st law Every object remains in a state of rest or uniform motion (i.e. constant
velocity) unless acted on by a net force, or an unbalanced force.
nd
Newton’s 2 law The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to, and in the same
direction as, the net force acting on it, and inversely proportional to the mass
1
of the object. [ a ∝ F , a ∝ ⇒ F = ma]
m
Newton’s 3rd law Action and reaction pair
(1) Equal in magnitude
(2) Opposite in direction
(3) Acting on different bodies.

3.2 Forces in daily life


(a) Weight (W)
(b) Normal reaction (R)
(c) Friction (f)
(d) Tension (T)

3.3 Mass m and Weight W


W = mg
Mass m Weight W
Scalar Vector
A measure of inertia Gravitational force acting on the object
Remain unchanged Vary in different planets (g is different)

3.4 Addition and resolution of forces


Addition: parallelogram of forces method Resolution: Fx and Fy are components of F
y

F2 FR (resultant force)
F
Fy

F1
θ

Fx x
Fx = F cos θ

F y = F sin θ

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 21


3.5 Typical exam questions
(a) Inclined plane
Resolve W into two components:
W sin θ
along the plane W sin θ or mg sin θ
θ perpendicular to the plane W cos θ or mg cos θ
θ
W cos θ
W
Example 1
A block is placed on the inclined plane and remains at rest.
(a) (i) Draw a free diagram of the object.
(ii) If the mass of the block is 5 kg, find the friction
acting on the block 30ο
(iii) Find the normal reaction acting on the block
(b) Now, a force of 120 N is applied on the block and pulls the block upwards along the plane. If
the friction between the block and the plane becomes 60 N, find the acceleration of the block.
Solution
(a) (i)
Normal reaction (R)

Friction (f)

Do not accept W, mg, f, R


Weight (W = mg)

(ii) R

f = W sin θ = mg sin θ
W sin θ f = (5)(9.81) sin 30°
= 24.5 N
θ
W cos θ
W
(iii) R = W cos θ = mg cos θ
= (5)(9.81) cos 30°
= 42.5 N
(b) Consider the direction along the plane
120 N By F = ma
120 – W sin θ – f = (5)(a)
W sin θ 120 – (5)(9.81)sin θ – 60 = 5a
f = 60 N a = 7.10 ms-2
θ

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 22


(b) Apparent weight in a lift

Reading of weighing machine = normal reaction = R


R When the lift
a at rest or moves with uniform velocity R=W Feel normal weight
accelerate upward R>W Feel heavier
accelerate downward R<W Feel lighter
Weight is always constant (W = mg)
Weighing machine R – W = ma (Always take upward direction as +ve)
W

Example 2
(a) A boy of mass 55 kg stands on a weighing machine in a lift. Find the reading on the weighing
machine when
(i) the lift moves upwards with an acceleration of 1 ms-2, and
(ii) the lift moves downward with a deceleration of 1.5 ms-2.
(b) When the lift moves upward and the reading on the weighing machine is 480 N, find the
acceleration of the lift.
Solution
(a) (i) The lift moves upward and accelerate, a = + 1 ms-2
R − W = ma
R − (55)(9.81) = (55)(1)
R = 595 N [The boy feels heavier]
(ii) The lift moves downward and decelerate, a = + 1.5 ms-2
R − W = ma
R − (55)(9.81) = (55)(1.5)
R = 622 N [The boy feels heavier]
(b) R − W = ma
480 − (55)(9.81) = (55)a
a = −1.08 ms-2
∴ The deceleration of the lift is 1.08 ms-2

Remark
(1) When applying R − W = ma (2) When the cable of the lift break,
upward with acceleration a = +ve
* W = mg
upward with deceleration a = – ve R
The lift moves * a = -9.81 ms-2
downward with acceleration a = – ve
* R=0
downward with deceleration a = +ve
W

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 23


3.6 The turning effect of a force
(a) Moment = Fs Unit: Nm

5N 5 sin 30o 5N

2m 2m 30o
5 cos 30o
pivot pivot

Moment = Fs = (5)(2) = 10 Ns Moment = Fs = (5 sin 30o)(2) = 5 Ns

(b) Equilibrium of a rigid body

No net force: all forces acting on the body are balanced


No net torque: clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

Example 3
The mass of the meter rule is 0.5 kg.

R School bag
Block
4 kg
10 kg

0.2 m 0.3 m
W1 W2 W3

(a) Find the distance between the school bag and the pivot to maintain balance.
(b) Find the reaction from the pivot.
Solution
(a) Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
(W2)(0.3) + (W3)(d) = (W1)(0.2)
(0.5 × 9.81)(0.3) + (4 × 9.81)(d) = (10 × 9.81)(0.2)
d = 0.463 m
(b) R = W1 + W 2 + W3
= (10)(9.81) + (0.5)(9.81) + (4)(9.81)
= 142 N

Remark
(1) Moment = Force × Distance (distance is usually measured from the pivot)
(2) Must label all forces clearly on the figure.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 24


Chapter 4 Work, Energy and Power
4.1 Work (W)
Definition: W = F// s Unit: J
Example 1
Calculate the work done by F in each of the following case.
(a) (b)
F=2N

F=2N 30o

5m 5m

Solution
(a) W = (2)(5) = 10 J (b) W = (2 cos 30o)(5) = 8.66 J
Consider only the component of F along the
direction of displacement. i.e. 2 cos 30o
4.2 Energy
Mechanic energy:
1
(1) K.E. = mv 2
2
(2) P.E. = mgh
(3) Elastic potential energy
4.3 Energy change
Conservation of energy: Energy can be changed from one form to another, but it cannot
be created or destroyed.
Example 2
Find the speed of the particle at B. Assume that the track is smooth.
2 ms-1
A

10 m
B
3m

Solution
Total mechanical energy at A = Total mechanical energy at B
P.E.A + K.E.A = P.E.B + K.E.B Common mistake
2 2
m(9.81)(10) + ½ m(2) = m(9.81)(3) + ½ m(v) cannot use the formula v 2 − u 2 = 2as
98.1 + 2 = 29.43 + ½v2 reason: not a uniformly accelerated motion
v = 11.9 ms-1

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 25


Example 3

30o

A block slides down for 8 m along the surface of a 30o inclined plane. It is given that the mass of
the block is 3 kg and the friction acting on the block is 5 N
(a) Find the P.E. loss of the block.
(b) Find the work down against friction.
(c) If the initial speed of the block is 4 ms-1, find its final speed.

Solution
(a) P.E. loss
8m
= mgh h = 8 sin 30o
= (3)(9.81)(8 sin 30o) 30o
= 117.72 J ≈ 118 J
(b) work done against friction 5N
W = fs
8m
= (5)(8) 30o
= 40 J
(c) K.E. gained = 117.72 – 40 = 77.72 J
½mv2 –½mu2 = 77.72
½(3)(v2 – 42) = 77.72
v = 8.23 ms-1

Remark: Description of energy change


K.E (77.72 J)

P.E. (117.72 J)

Heat (40 J)

P.E. changes into kinetic energy and heat (internal energy)

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 26


Example 4 High diving
A diver of 60 kg dives off a platform 10 m above the water surface.
(a) If she falls directly downwards, what is her speed when she reaches the water?
(b) If the water provides an average water resistance of 2500 N, how deep can she reach under the
water surface?
Solution
(a) By conservation of energy,
mgh = ½ mv2
v2 = 2gh

v = 2gh = 2(9.81)(10) = 14.0 ms-1

(b) A → B, the diver loses P.E. and K.E.


Total energy loss = work done against water resistance
K.E. + P.E. = fs
½ mv2 + mgh = fs
depth ½ (60)(14.0)2 + (60)(9.81)(d) = (2500)(d)
d = 3.08 m
Water resistance
(2500 N)

4.4 Power
P = Fv
Unit: W

Conclusion

Work
Energy Scalar
Power

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 27


St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 28
Chapter 5 Momentum
5.1 Momentum
Definition: mv
Unit: kg ms-1

5.2 Force and change in momentum


change in momentum mv − mu
Net force = F=
time t
Example 1
20 ms-1 A tennis ball of mass 0.05 kg flies along a horizontal speed of 20 ms-1
towards a player. The player hits the ball, which leaves the racket at
30 ms -1 30 ms-1 in the opposite direction. If the time of impact is 0.005s,
calculate the average force acting on the ball.

Solution
u = -20 ms-1 (towards the left)
v = 30 ms-1
(0.05)(30) − (0.05)( −20)
F= = 500 N
0.005

5.3 Impulse
Definition: Ft
F/N Impulse = Ft = mv – mu = change in momentum

Area under F – t graph = Ft = mv – mu

t/s
0.02 0.04

Example 2
If the area under the above F – t graph is 0.52 Ns, find
(a) the change in momentum
(b) The average force of impact.
Solution
(a) Change in momentum = area under F – t graph = 0.52 Ns
(b) Average force of impact
mv − mu 0.52
F= = = 26 N
t 0.04 − 0.02

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 29


5.4 Conservation of momentum: m1u1 + m 2 u 2 = m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 (for no external force)
Example 3
Find the final velocity for the following completely inelastic collision.

10 ms-1 1 ms-1
v
2 kg 4 kg 2 kg 4 kg

Before collision After collision


Solution
By conservation of momentum
m1u1 + m 2 u 2 = m1 v1 + m 2 v 2
( 2)(10) + ( 4)( − 1) = ( 2 + 4)v (opposite direction)
v = 2.67 ms-1

Example 4 2-dimensional impact (resolution of velocities required)


Find the final velocities of the 5 kg and 1 kg objects.
5 kg
v1
2 ms-1 o
At rest 10
30o

5 kg 1 kg 1 kg
v2
Before collision After collision
Solution
Along direction of x-axis
(5)( 2) = (5)v1 cos 10° + (1)v 2 cos 30°
5v1 cos 10° + v 2 cos 30° = 10 ---- (1)
Along direction of y-axis
0 = (5)v1 sin 10° − (1)v 2 sin 30°
v 2 sin 30°
v1 = ---- (2)
5 sin 10°
Sub. (2) into (1)
 v sin 30° 
5 2  cos 10° + v 2 cos 30° = 10
 5 sin 10° 
v 2 = 2.70 ms-1
Sub. v 2 = 2.70 ms-1 into (2):
v1 = 0.576 ms-1

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 30


Example 5 Conservation of energy and energy changes
A bullet of 4 g shoots into a piece of 200 g plasticine. Find the initial velocity of the bullet if the
plasticine rises by 3 cm.

u
200 g
4g 3 cm

Solution
Stage (1) Stage (2)
1
impact: m1u1 + m 2 u 2 = m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 energy change: mv 2 = mgh
2

u v v
M = 200 g
m=4g 3 cm
Before impact After impact K.E. → P.E.

Consider stage (2): K.E. → P.E.


1
( M + m )v 2 = ( M + m ) gh
2
v 2 = 2 gh = 2(9.81)(0.03) [3 cm = 0.03 m]
v = 0.7672 ms-1
Consider stage (1): m1u1 + m 2 u 2 = m1 v1 + m 2 v 2
mu = ( M + m )v
0.004u = (0.2 + 0.004)(0.7672) [4 g = 0.004 kg]
u = 39.1 ms-1
∴ the initial velocity of the bullet is 39.1 ms-1

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 31


5.5 Different types of collisions
Elastic collision Inelastic collision
Total momentum conserved?  
Total energy conserved?  

Example 6
Identify the type of the following collisions
(a) 5 ms-1 4 ms-1 1 ms-1 4 ms-1
2 kg 1 kg 2 kg 1 kg

Before collision After collision

Solution
1 1
Total K.E. before collision = (2)(5) 2 + (1)( 4) 2 = 33 J
2 2
1 1
Total K.E. after collision = (2)(1) 2 + (1)( 4) 2 = 9 J
2 2
∵ there is K.E. loss during collision (24 J)
∴ the collision is inelastic.

(b) 2 -1
2 ms-1 At rest 8 -1
ms ms
3 3
2 kg 1 kg 2 kg 1 kg

Before collision After collision

Solution
1 1
Total K.E. before collision = (2)( 2) 2 + (1)(0) 2 = 4 J
2 2
1 2 1 8
Total K.E. after collision = ( 2)( ) 2 + (1)( ) 2 = 4 J
2 3 2 3
∵ there is no K.E. loss during collision
∴ the collision is elastic.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 32


Chapter 6 Projectile motion
Main point: Resolve projectile motion into horizontal motion and vertical motion
y

u
u sin θ H
θ
u cos θ x
Range sx

Velocity Displacement
Horizontal motion
vx = ux (velocity is constant) s x = ux t
Uniform motion
Vertical motion
Free fall motion vy = uy – gt sy = uyt – ½ gt2
(a = -g = -9.81 ms-2)
Other useful formulae

u x = u cos θ u y = u sin θ
2 2
1. v = vx + v y

2u sin θ
2. Time of flight T =
g
u 2 sin 2θ u2
3. Range s x = Maximum Range s x = when θ = 45o
g g
u 2 sin 2 θ
4. Maximum height H =
g
g
Equation of trajectory: s y = (tan θ ) s x −
2
5. sx
2u cos θ
2 2

Example 1 wall
A small object is thrown horizontally towards a 1.2 m
vertical wall 1.2 m away. If the initial speed of
the ball is 8 ms-1, find the vertical displacement
of the ball when it hits the wall
Solution:
Given Horizontal motion ux = 8 ms-1 sx = 1.2 m,
Vertical motion uy = 0 (thrown horizontally) sy = ? a = -9.81 ms-2
For horizontal motion: s x = ux t
1.2 = 8t ⇒ t = 0.15 s
For vertical motion: s = ut + ½ at2
= 0 + ½ (-9.81)(0.15)2
= -0.110 m
Vertical displacement sy = 0.110 m (downward)

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 33


Example 2
A ball is projected upward with velocity 10 ms-1 at 30o with the horizontal from a cliff which is
100 m above the sea level as shown. Find
10 ms-1

30 o

100 m

(a) the time of flight of the ball,


(b) the horizontal distance moved when the ball reaches the sea,
(c) the direction of the ball when it reaches the sea, and
(d) the speed of the ball when it reaches the sea.

Solution:
(a) Given
Horizontal motion ux = 10 cos 30o
Vertical motion uy = 10 sin 30o sy = -100 a = -9.81 ms-2 t =?

For vertical motion: sy = uyt + ½ at2


-100 = 10sin 30ot + ½ (-9.81)t2
4.905t2 – 5t – 100 = 0
t = 5.05 s or t = -4.03 s (rejected)
(b) horizontal distance = uxt = (10 cos 30o)(5.05) = 43.8 m
(c)
10 ms-1

30 o
vx

100 m
vy θ v

Horizontal motion : vx = ux = 10 cos 30º = 8.66 ms-1


Vertical motion : vy = uy + at = 10 sin 30º + (-9.81)(5.05) = -44.6 ms-1 (downward)

vy 44.6
tan θ = =
vx 8.66

θ = 79.0o
The direction makes 79.0o with the horizontal.

(d) speed v = v x + v y = 8.66 2 + 44.6 2 = 45.4 ms-1


2 2

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 34


Chapter 7 Circular Motion
7.1 Velocity and Angular velocity
velocity v angular velocity ω
distance s θ 2π
velocity = (v = ) Angular velocity ω = =
time t t T
-1 -1
Unit: ms Unit: rad s
v = rω

Example 1
A piece of rod rotates about O. A and B are two particles on the rod. If the rod makes 20
revolutions in 80 s, find
(a) the angular velocity of the rod.
(b) the velocities of A and B.
Solution
(a) 1 revolution = 360o = 2π rad A B
θ 20 × 2π O
ω= = = 1.57 rad s-1 2m 2m
t 80
Alternative method:
T = 80 / 20 = 4 s

ω= = 1.57 rad s-1
4
(b) v = rω
v A = 2 × 1.57 = 3.14 ms-1
v B = 4 × 1.57 = 6.28 ms-1

Remark:
(1) When the rod rotates, both A and B perform circular motion.
(2) Since A and B make one revolution (360o) at the same time (same period T), they have the
same angular velocity.
(3) vB > vA because rB > rA ( v = rω )

Example 2
It takes 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.1 second for the Earth to revolve about its own axis. Find
the angular velocity of the rotation.
Solution
Period T = 23 × 3600 + 56 × 60 + 4.1 = 86164.1 s
2π 2π
ω= = = 7.29 × 10 −5 rad s-1
T 86164.1

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 35


7.2 Centripetal Acceleration and Centripetal Force
v2
Centripetal Acceleration a= = rω 2
r
v2
Centripetal force F = ma = m = mrω 2
r

Note: Centripetal force is only the net force in a circular motion.

Example 3
A stone of mass 2 kg is tied by a string and moves in a horizontal circular path of radius 0.5 m.

(a) Find the tension in the string if the speed of the stone is 4 ms-1.

(b) The string breaks when its tension exceeds 100 N. Find the maximum speed of the stone
if the string does not break.

Smooth table
Solution
(a) ∵ T is the only force along the radius and it is pointing to the centre
T v2 42
∴ T =m = 2× = 64 N
r 0 .5
v2
(b) T = m
r
v2
100 = 2
0 .5
v =5 ms-1

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 36


Example 4
A 4 kg bob is suspended by a piece of string as shown. If the period of
revolution is 2.5 s and the radius of the circular path is 60 cm, find
(a) angular speed, θ
(b) θ, and
(c) tension in the string.
Solution
2π 2π
(a) ω = = = 2.51 rad s-1
T 2 .5
(b) Resolve T into its components:
Along the radius: T sin θ = mrω 2 L (1)
T cos θ θ In vertical direction: T cos θ = mg L ( 2)
T (1) rω 2
: tan θ =
ω ( 2) g
0.6( 2.51) 2
T sin θ tan θ = [60 cm = 0.6 m]
9.81
θ = 21.1o
mg
(c) put θ = 21.1o into (2) rω 2 v 2
tan θ = =
mg 4 × 9.81 g gr
T= = = 42.0 N
cos θ cos 21.1°

Example 5 Rounding a bend – without banking


The maximum friction between the tires
and the road 0.6 times the weight of a car. 60 m
If a car goes around a circular bend of
radius of curvature 50 m, find the maximum
speeds of the car without slipping. f

Solution
Maximum friction f = 0.6 mg
v2
Along the radius: f =m
r
v2
0.6mg = m
r
v = 0.6 gr = 0.6 × 9.81 × 50
2

v = 17.1 ms-1

Remark: friction provides the centripetal force for a car to perform circular motion.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 37


Example 6 Rounding a bend – with banking
A car moves round a corner with a radius of 80 m on a banked 80 m
road of inclination 20o.

(a) What is the safety speed designed for this bank road?
(b) If the speed of the car is 70 km h-1, is there any 20ο
friction acting on the car by the road? If yes, draw the friction acting on the car.

Solution
(a) The centripetal force does not rely on friction, but provided by the horizontal component of the
normal reaction.
R R cos θ
In vertical direction: R cos θ = mg L (1)
v2
In horizontal direction: R sin θ = m L ( 2)
r
R sin θ
(2) v2
:⇒ tan θ =
(1) gr
mg v2
tan θ =
v2 20ο gr
tan 20° =
9.81 × 80
v = 16.9 ms-1

(b) If the speed of the car = 70 km h-1 =19.4 ms-1 > 16.9 ms-1,

there will be a tendency for the car to move outward.

Friction will act on the car as shown. Friction f

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 38


7.3 Cyclist around a circular track
The centripetal force is provided by friction f

v2
The tilting angle θ of the cyclist is given by tan θ =
gr

7.4 Aeroplane making a turn


Uplifting force
L cos θ
v2
L sin θ = m L (1)
r
L cos θ = mg L (2)

(1) v2
:⇒ tan θ =
( 2) gr

Example 7
Find the angle of inclination of the wings of an aircraft which is traveling in a circular path of
radius 2000 m at a speed of 360 km h-1.
Solution
v = 360 km h-1 = 100 ms-1 1
[1 km h-1 = ms-1]
3 .6
v2 100 2
tan θ = =
gr 9.81 × 2000
θ = 27.0o

Example 8 The rotor


A man is riding inside the ‘rotor’ of radius 2 m. The maximum
friction between the man and the wall is 0.4 times the normal f
reaction acting on the man. Find the minimum speed v of the
man before the floor is pulled downwards?
Solution
R
Given: f = 0.4R --- (1)
In vertical direction: f = mg --- (2)
v2 mg
R= m --- (3)
r
v2
Sub. (2) and (3) into(1): ⇒ mg = 0.4 m
r
gr 9.81 × 2
v= = = 7.00 ms-1
0.4 0.4

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 39


Chapter 8 Gravitation
Gravitational force Gravitational field
GMm F GM
F= g= = 2 (g = gravitational force per unit mass)
r2 m r
Unit: N Unit: Nm-1 or ms-2
Vector vector

Gravitational field pattern


Field lines
(i) direction: shows the direction of gravitational force
acting on an object (attraction)
(ii) density: shows the strength of the field

Example 1
Student P of mass 65 kg is 1.5 m away from student Q of mass 60 kg. Find the magnitude of
the gravitational force between them. Assume students P and Q are two spherically
symmetrical objects. Take G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
Solution
GMm 6.67 × 10 −11 × 65 × 60
F= 2
= 2
= 1.16 × 10 -7 N
r 1 .5
Example 2
A particle of mass 0.02 kg is located at 100 km above the Earth’s surface.
(a) Find the gravitational force acting on the particle by the Earth.
(b) Find the gravitational field strength of the Earth at the position of the particle.
Given:
G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2
Mass of the Earth ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
Radius of the Earth RE = 6370 km
Solution

GMm
(a) Gravitational force acting on the particle by the Earth =
r2

(6.67 × 10 −11 )(5.98 × 10 24 )(0.02)


= = 0.191 N
(100 × 10 3
+ 6370 × 10 3 )
2

F 0.191
(b) gravitational field strength = = = = 9.53 N kg-1
m 0.02
Note: since the particle is 100 km above the Earth, the gravitational field strength is
smaller than 9.81 N kg-1 (close to the surface of the Earth)

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 40


Example 3
A spacecraft is orbiting around Venus. The acceleration due to gravity at its orbit is 8 m s–2.
Estimate the height of the orbit above Venus’ surface. Take the acceleration due to gravity at
Venus’ surface to be 8.87 m s–2 and the radius of Venus RV to be 6050 km.
Solution
GM
By g =
r2
GM
For the spacecraft: 8 = --- (1)
r2
GM
At the surface of Venus: 8.87 = --- (2)
(6050 × 10 3 ) 2
(1)/(2):
8 (6050 × 10 3 ) 2
=
8.87 r2

8.87(6050 × 10 3 )
2

r= = 6070.5 km
8

The height of the orbit above Venus’ surface = 6370 km – 6050 km = 320 km
Example 4
A geostationary satellite takes 24 hours to revolve once around the Earth in a circular orbit.
(a) Find the angular velocity ω of the satellite.
(b) Estimate the distance of the satellite h above the Earth’s surface.
Take the acceleration due to gravity at the Earth’s surface to be 9.8 m s–2 and the radius of the Earth
RE to be 6370 km.
2π 2π
(a) ω = = = 7.27 × 10 −5 rad s-1
T 24 × 3600

⇒ GM = 9.81 × (6370 × 10 3 ) --- (1)


GM 2
(b) At the surface of the earth: g = 2
r
For the satellite:
satellite
Gravitational force = Centripetal force

= mrω 2 ⇒ GM = r 3ω 2 = r 3 × (7.27 × 10 −5 ) --- (2)


GMm 2 GMm
2 r2
r
Sub. (1) into (2):

GM = r 3 × (7.27 × 10 −5 ) = 9.81 × (6370 × 10 3 )


2 2

9.81 × (6370 × 10 3 )
2

r =
3

(7.27 × 10 )
−5 2

r = 42220 km
∴ The distance of satellite above the Earth = 35900 km = 3.59 × 107 m.
St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 41
Example 5 Moon
Assume that the Moon revolves around the Earth in a
GMm
circular orbit of radius 3.78 × 108 m. The period is 27.3 days. r2
(a) Find the linear velocity v of the Moon.
(b) Estimate the mass of the Earth ME.
Given G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.

Solution
2π 2π
(a) ω = = = 2.66 × 10 − 6 rad s-1
T 27.3 × 24 × 3600
v = rω = 3.78 × 108 × 2.66 × 10-6 = 1010 ms-1
(b) Consider the circular motion of the Moon moving around the Earth.
GMm
2
= mrω 2
r
r 3ω 2 (3.78 × 10 8 ) (2.66 × 10 −6 )
3 2

M= = −11
= 5.75 × 10 24 kg
G 6.67 × 10

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 42


Chapter 1 Reflection of Light
1.1 Laws of reflection
(a) angle of incidence i = angle of reflection r
(b) incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie on the same plane.

Example 1

(a) Find the angle of incidence.


(b) Find the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray.
Solution
(a) i = 90o – 25o Common mistake:
= 65o i = 25o

(b) r = i = 65o
∴ angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray
=i+r
= 130o

1.2 Images formed by a plane mirror


* (a) Steps
(i) image (image distance = object distance)
(ii) reflected ray
(iii) incident ray
Note: (1) appropriate solid lines and dotted lines
(2) arrows for light rays to show direction
(b) Properties of image
(i) Virtual
(ii) Laterally inverted
(iii) Same size as the object
(iv) Image distance = object distance

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 43


Example 2

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 44


Chapter 2 Refraction of Light
2.1 Laws of refraction
(a) sin i and sin r are in direction proportion
(b) incident ray, refracted ray and the normal all lie on the same plane.
Note:
Light bends towards the normal when it travels from a less dense
medium into a denser medium.
(e.g. from air into water)

2.2 Snell’s law n1sin θ1 = n2sin θ2

* Example1: Find the angle of refraction r.

Glass (ng = 1.5)


Water (nw = 1.33)

Solution: angle of incidence i = 90o – 30o = 60o


(Common mistake: i = 30o)
By n1sin θ1 = n2sin θ2
1.5 sin 60o = 1.33 sin r
1.5 sin 60°
sin r =
1.33
r ≈ 77.6o

2.3 Refractive index

Glass block

** Slope of graph of sin i against sin r


sin i
= = n = refractive index of the glass block
sin r

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 45


**Example 2

Do exercise: page 63 Q 13

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 46


c
2.4 Refractive index and light speed n =
v
Example 3
The speed of light in air is 3 × 108 ms-1. If the refractive index of water is 1.33, find the
speed of light in water.
Solution
c
n=
v
3 × 108
1.33 =
v
3 × 10 8
v= = 2.26 × 10 8 ms −1
1.33

2.5 Image formed by refraction


* (a) Steps:
(i) image (nearer to water surface)
water
(ii) refracted ray
(iii) incident ray
Note: (1) appropriate solid lines and dotted lines
(2) arrows for light rays to show direction
(b) image property – virtual
2.6 Total internal reflection
(a) Critical angle C:
(i) when angle of refraction r = 90o, i = C
1 n
(ii) C = sin −1 or C = sin −1 2 (n1 > n2) [n1: denser medium]
n n1
(b) Conditions:
* (i) light enters from a denser medium
(ii) angle of incidence i > critical angle C
**Example 4
Determine whether total internal reflection would occur in each of the following cases:
(a) (b)
60o 60o
Glass (ng = 1.7) water (nw = 1.33)
water (na = 1.33) diamond (ng = 2.42)

Solution
(a) ∵ Light enter from a denser medium, (b) ∵ Light enters from a less dense medium
1.33
C = sin −1 = 51.5° < 60° ∴ total internal reflection would not occur.
1 .7
∴ total internal reflection would occur. (No need to calculate the critical angle)

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 47


(c) Natural phenomena (自然現象)
(i) mirage (海市蜃樓)
(ii) sparkling of diamonds

(d) Applications
(i) optical fibres (transmit telephone signals)
(ii) cat’s eyes found on highways
(iii) using prisms as mirrors in cameras

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Chapter 3 Lenses
** 3.1 Images formed by a convex lens

The nature of image depends on the distance between the object and the lens.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 49


** 3.2 Images formed by a concave lens

The images formed by a concave lens are always virtual, erect and diminished.

3.3 Magnification
image size image distance hi v
m= = m= =
object size object distance ho u
m>1 m=1 m<1
Magnified Same size Diminished

*3.4 Real image and Virtual image

Real image Virtual image Remark


Can be seen by We can see virtual images
 
eyes? formed by plane mirrors
Can be projected Virtual images cannot be
 
on screens? formed on screens
– Plane mirrors
Convex lens (in – Convex lens
Examples
projectors) (magnifying glasses)
– Convex lens

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3.5 The lens formula
1 1 1
= +
f u v
Remark
* Convex lens + ve
Focal length f
Concave lens – ve
Real image + ve
Image distance v
Virtual image – ve

* Example 1
Some letters on a single-lined paper are observed by using a lens as shown below.

J J J J J J J J J J J J

(a) What kind of lens is used? Explain briefly.


(b) If the distance between the lens and the paper is 10 cm and the magnification is 0.4, find
the image distance.
(c) Draw a ray diagram to find the focal length of the lens.
(d) Using the lens formula to calculate the focal length of the lens.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 51


Solution
(a) Concave lens is used because the image formed is erect and diminished.
(b) Object distance = 10 cm, u = 10 cm
v
By m =
u
v
0.4 =
10
v = 4 cm
(c)
1.2

1.1 5

1.1

1.0 5

F C

2 cm

0.9 5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Focal length f ≈ 6.8 cm (measure the distance between F and the optical centre)

(d) u = 10 cm, v = -4 cm (virtual image) Wrong presentation:


By 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + By = −
f u v
f u v
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = −
f 10 − 4
f 10 4
f ≈ -6.67 cm f ≈ -6.67 cm
The focal length is 6.67 cm

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 52


Chapter 4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
4.1 The EM spectrum
Frequency f, Energy Ε

Radio Infra-red Visible


Microwaves Ultra-violet X – ray γ – ray
Waves light
Wavelength λ
4.2 Properties of EM waves
(a) show reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference
(b) are transverse waves
(c) can travel through vacuum
(d) travel at speed of light in air / vacuum (3 × 108 ms-1)
(e) can apply the equation v = fλ

* 4.3 Values commonly used in calculations

f 1kHz = 103 Hz 1MHz = 106 Hz 1GHz = 109 Hz


λ 1mm = 10-3 m 1µm = 10-6 m 1nm = 10-9 m
t 1ms = 10-3 s 1µs = 10-6 s 1ns = 10-9 s

Example 1
The wavelengths of visible light lie between 4 × 10-7 m to 7 × 10-7 m.
Find the frequency range of light.
Solution
∵ v = fλ
∴ f=v/λ
3 × 10 8
Minimum frequency = −7
= 4.29 × 1014 Hz
7 × 10
3 × 108
Maximum frequency = −7
= 7.5 × 1014 Hz
4 × 10
∴ frequency range of visible light is 4.29 × 1014 Hz to 7.5 × 1014 Hz.

* Example 2
Many auto-focus cameras use infra-red radiation to judge the distance of an object from the
camera. If the time between emitting an infra-red pulse and receiving the pulse is 25 ns, find the
distance of the object from the camera.
Solution
Distance = speed × time
= (3 × 108) × (25 × 10-9 ÷ 2) [25 ns = 25 × 10-9 s]
= 3.75 m

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 53


4.4 Useful information

EM wave Detector Application


Radio waves Radio & TV receiver Radio communication
Microwaves Microwave receiver Microwave oven
Satellite telecommunication
Radar
Infra-red Thermometer Auto-focus camera
IR photographic film IR telescopes
Skin
Visible light Eyes Solar cells
-7
λ: red (4 × 10 m) Photographic film
violet (7 × 10-7 m)
Ultra-violet Fluorescent paper Sterilizing (消毒) drinking water
Checking fake banknotes
X – ray Photographic film Medical diagnosis
γ – ray Photographic film Radiothery
Sterilization (消毒)

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 54


Chapter 5 Nature of Waves
5.1 Transverse and longitudinal waves
Transverse Wave Longitudinal wave
Waveform crest crest compression

trough trough rarefaction

* Definition Vibrations are at right angle to the Vibrations are parallel to the direction of
direction of travel of the wave travel of the wave
Wavelength Distance between 2 adjacent crests Distance between 2 adjacent compressions
or troughs or rarefactions
Examples EM waves, water waves Sound waves

5.2 Equations:
frequency f: no. of waves produced in 1 s.
(a) v = fλ
If f = 5 Hz, 5 waves are generated in 1s.
1
(b) f = * period T: time required to produce 1 wave,
T
OR time for a particle to make a complete vibration
(c) d = vt
If T = 0.2 s, it takes 0.2 s to generate 1 wave,
OR it takes 0.2 s for a particle to make 1 complete vibration.

Example 1
It takes 10s for a slinky to produce 20 waves.
(a) Find the frequency of the wave.
(b) If the wavelength of the wave is 0.2 m, find the speed of the wave.
Solution
(a) frequency f = no. of waves produced in 1 s
20
f = = 2 Hz (2 waves are produced in 1 s.)
10
(b) By v = fλ
v = (2)(0.2) = 0.4 ms-1

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 55


5.3 Vibrations of particles
* Example 2
The following figure shows a transverse wave travelling to the right.
direction of travel of the wave
a e

bI d f

c
(a) Which particles are
(i) moving upwards,
(ii) moving downwards,
(iii) momentarily at rest?
(b) Which particles are
(i) vibrating in-phase,
(ii) vibrating anti-phase?
** (c) If the frequency of the wave is 2 Hz, draw the shape of the waves after 0.125 s.
Solution
(a) a e

ib d f

c
(i) moving upards: b, f
(ii) moving downwards: d
(iii) momentarily at rest: a, c, e
(b) (i) a,e or b,f are in-phase
(ii) a,c or b,d or c,e or d,f are anti-phase
Remark
In phase Separation of 2 particles is λ, 2λ, 3λ, …
Anti-phase Separation of 2 particles is 0.5λ, 1.5λ, 2.5λ, …

¼λ
a e

(c) Steps: (1) f = 2 Hz ⇒ T = 1/2 = 0.5 s


b d f
(2) 0.125s = ¼ T
(3) In ¼ T, the wave travels by ¼ λ.

c
Note: particles only move up and down while the wave travels forward.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 56


5.4 Displacement-time (s – t) graph and displacement-distance (s – d) graph

s – t graph s – d graph
Shows the displacement of ONE particle at Shows the displacement of ALL particle at a
different times certain time
s s
Time for one complete
vibration

t d

Τ λ

* Example 3
An s – t graph and s – d graph of a wave are shown below.
s / cm s / cm

5 5

P
0 0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 t/s 0.1 0.2 d/m

-5 -5
Q
(a) Find the speed of the wave.
** (b) Draw an s – t graph for particle Q (see the s – d graph.)

Solution
(a) From s – t graph, we have T = 0.2 s ⇒ f = 1/0.2 = 5 Hz.
From s – d graph, we have l = 0.2 m
∴ wave speed v = fλ = (5)(0.2) = 1 ms-1
(b) s / cm

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 t/s

-5

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 57


St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 58
Chapter 6 Wave Phenomena
6.1 Ripple tank

* Crest: bright fringe


Trough: dark fringe
λ: distance between two adjacent bright fringes or dark fringes

6.2 Reflection

i=r
Frequency f No change
Wavelength λ No change
Wave speed v No change

6.3 Refraction
(a) Deep region → Shallow region

Deep region Frequency f No change


Wavelength λ Decrease
Shallow region
(Put a glass block) Wave speed v Decrease
Direction Bend towards normal
(b) Shallow region → Deep region
Frequency f No change
Shallow region
Wavelength λ Increase
Deep region Wave speed v Increase
Direction Bend away from normal

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 59


6.4 Diffraction
(a) Diffraction is bending or spreading of waves around the edge of an obstacle.
(b) Degree of diffraction depends on the relative size of the gap.
Significant diffraction Insignificant diffraction
Gap size is relatively small (d ≈ λ) Gap size is relatively large (d >> λ)

(c) Ways to increase the degree of diffraction


(i) increase wavelength (lower the frequency or increase the depth of water)
(ii) decrease the size of gap

6.5 Interference
(a) Condition: two sets of waves of the same frequency meet each other
** (b) Stable interference pattern: two sources MUST be coherent.
Coherent sources are sources with (i) same frequency
(ii) constant phase difference
(e.g. constantly in-phase or antiphase)
– amplitudes are not necessarily the same.
** (c) Constructive interference, destructive interference and path difference
Path difference Type of interference
A 4λ – 3λ = λ Constructive
B 4λ – 3.5λ = ½ λ Destructive
C 3.5λ – 2.5λ = λ Constructive
** Constructive interference: path difference = 0λ, λ, 2λ, 3λ, …

** Destructive interference: path difference = ½λ, 1½λ, 2½λ, 3½λ, …

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 60


*Example 1
If λ = 0.25 cm, determine what kind of interference occurs at P.
P
Solution:
Path difference = S1P – S2P
= 3.2 – 2.7
3.2 cm 2.7 cm
= 0.5 cm
= 2λ
S1 S2
∴ Constructive interference occurs at P.
Common mistake 1: Common mistake 2:
Did not express the path difference in terms of Wrong presentation
λ.
Path difference = 3.2 - 2.7 Path difference = 3.2 - 2.7
= 0.5 = 0.5
∴ Destructive interference occurs at P. 0 .5
= = 2λ 
0.25
0 .5
[Note: = 2 ≠ 2 λ]
0.25

**(d) Factors affecting interference pattern

Increase source
separation

Result:
Nodal lines and antinodal lines
become closer together

Decrease
wavelength

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 61


**Example 2

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 62


6.6 Stationary Waves
A stationary wave is formed by the superposition of two
waves with the same frequency and amplitude travelling in
opposite directions.

N: Node (amplitude = 0) A: Antinode (maximum amplitude)

(a) Waveforms of a stationary wave

(i) a and b (c and d) are in-phase but with


different amplitudes
(ii) a and c, a and d, b and c, b and d are
anti-phase
(iii) when t = 0 s, all particles (a, b, c and d) are
momentarily at rest.

*(b) Comparing travelling waves and stationary waves


Traveling waves Stationary waves
1 Energy is transmitted from one place to Energy is localized.
another
2 All particles vibrate with the same Different particles vibrate with different
amplitude. amplitudes.
3 Neighbouring particles always vibrate Particles in the same loop vibrate in phase.
out of phase. Particles in two adjacent loops vibrate in
anti-phase.
4 Different particles reach their All particles reach their maximum
maximum displacement at different displacement at the same times.
times.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 63


* Example 3
The figure below shows a stationary. At the instant shown, all particles reach their maximum
displacement. It is given that the frequency of the vibrator is 25 Hz.
(a) Find particles which are
(i) in-phase vibrator

(ii) anti-phase
(iii) momentarily at rest
(b) Find the wave speed.
* (c) Draw the shape of the wave after 0.01 s.
(d) What should be the frequency of the vibrator in order to produce 4 vibrating loops?

Solution
(a) (i) in-phase: c and d
(ii) anti-phase: b and c, b and d
(iii) b, c and d (a is always at rest)
(b) λ = 1.2 × 2 / 3 = 0.8 m
Wave speed v = fλ
= (25)(0.8) = 20 ms-1
(c) Steps: (1) f = 25 Hz ⇒ T = 1/25 = 0.04 s
(2) 0.01 s = ¼ T
After 0.01 s (¼ T), the waveform is:

25
(d) for 1 vibrating loop: f1 = = 8.33 Hz
3
25
For 4 vibrating loops: f4 = 4f1 = 4 × = 33.3 Hz
3

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 64


Chapter 7 Light Waves
7.1 Diffraction of light

(a) Laser passes through a narrow slit and spreads into the
shadow of the slit.
Red (b) λred > λblue ⇔ diffraction of red light > diffraction of blue
Green light

Blue (c) λred = 7 ×10-7 m. To show the diffraction of light, the slit
must be very narrow.
7.2 Interference of light
Young’s double-slit experiment
*(a) Precautions:
(i) use strong light source (or black
out the laboratory)
a (ii) use monochromatic light (單色光)
(iii) all slits should be as narrow as
∆x
possible
(iv) slit separation should be very small
D
(~ 0.5 mm)
(v) screen should be placed 1 – 2 m
(b) Ways to increase fringe separation ∆x behind the double-slit
(i) use light of longer wavelength λ λ D
∆x =
(ii) decrease slit separation a a
(iii) increase the distance between the double-slit and the screen D.

7.3 Values commonly used in calculations


f 1kHz = 103 Hz 1MHz = 106 Hz 1GHz = 109 Hz
λ 1mm = 10-3 m 1µm = 10-6 m 1nm = 10-9 m
Example 1
A yellow light of frequency 5 × 1014 Hz is used in Young’s double-slit experiment

(a) Find the wavelength of light.


(b) What is the path difference at C? What can
be observed at C?
(c) If successive bright fringes are formed at P,
Q, R and S, what are the path differences at P,
Q, R and S respectively?
(d) Find the distance between P and Q if the slit separation is 0.5 mm and the distance
between the double-slit and the screen is 1.5 m.
(e) If the yellow source is replaced by a violet light source, what changes would be observed
on the screen?
St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 65
Solution
(a) v = fλ
v 3 × 108
λ= = = 6 × 10 −7 m
f 5 × 1014
(b) Path difference at C = 0 (or 0λ). Constructive interference occurs at C. Hence, a bright fringe is
observed at C.
(c)
P Q R S
-6 -7 -7
Path difference 2λ = 1.2 × 10 m λ = 6 × 10 m λ = 6 × 10 m 2λ = 1.2 × 10-6 m
(d) Given a = 0.5 mm = 0.5 × 10-3 m, D = 1.5 m
(6 × 10 −7 )(1.5)
λD
PQ = ∆x = = = 0.0018 m
a 0.5 × 10 −3
(e) Violet fringes will be observed.
The fringe separation is smaller because the wavelength of violet light is shorter than that of
yellow light.

7.4 Diffraction Grating


2nd order (a) bright fringes – constructive interference
st
1 order (b) For nth order maximum,
θ2
θ1 0th order d sin θ = nλ
st
Diffraction grating 1 order (c) Fringe separation can be increased by
2nd order (i) decreasing the grating spacing
Screen (ii) using light of longer wavelength
Example 2
A source emits blue light of wavelength 450 nm at a plane transmission grating of 250 lines
per mm.
(a) Find the grating spacing of the grating.
(b) Find the angle of the 1st order bright fringe.
(c) Find the total number of bright fringes on the screen.
Solution
(a) grating spacing nλ
(c) By d sin θ = nλ⇒ sin θ =
= distance between adjacent lines on d
the grating ∵ sin θ ≤ 1
10 −3 nλ
= = 4 × 10 −6 m ∴ ≤1
250 d
(b) For 1st order bright fringe, n = 1 d4 × 10 −6
n≤ = ≈ 8.89
d sin θ = nλ λ 450 × 10 −9
(1)( 450 × 10 −9 ) Maximum number of order = 8
sin θ =
4 × 10 −6 Total number of fringes on the screen
θ = 6.46° = 8 + 1 + 8 = 17

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 66


7.5 Electromagnetic Waves
(a) show reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference
(b) are transverse waves
(c) can travel through vacuum
(d) travel at speed of light in air / vacuum (3 × 108 ms-1)
(e) can apply the equation v = fλ

Example 3
Microwaves are used to study interference as shown below. The amplitude of signal collected
by the received is showed in the following graph.
amplitude

A P

(a) Explain why the amplitude varies as the receiver moves from A to B?
(b) If XP = 23 cm, YP = 30 cm, find
(i) the path difference at P,
(ii) the wavelength of the microwave
(c) Now the separation between the slits is increased. Sketch the graph of amplitude of
microwave received along AB.
Solution
(a) Interference occurs. Maximum amplitude is obtained because of constructive interference
and minimum signal is due to destructive interference.
(b) (i) Path difference at P = YP – XP = 30 – 23 = 7 cm
(ii) Path difference at P = 2λ (constructive interference)
∴ 2λ = 7 cm
λ = 3.5 cm
(c) amplitude

Separation between positions of


maximum amplitudes is reduced.

Nodal lines and antinode


Increase source
lines become closer together
separation

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 67


St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 68
Chapter 8 Sound
8.1 Wave nature of sound
(a) Reflection of sound – echoes heard from an obstacle.
(b) Refraction microphone

speaker

CO2
Refraction of light

Sound waves are focused by the balloon filled with carbon dioxide. A large sound is received
by the microphone.
(c) Diffraction
frequency of human speech f ~ 100 Hz – 300 Hz
wavelength λ ~ 1.1 m – 3.3 m [λ = v / f, v = 330 ms-1]
∵ λ > width of doorway
Door ∴ significant diffraction of sound

(d) Interference
* Experiment procedures:
Signal generator

Speaker
Speaker

1. Connect two speakers to a signal generator.


2. Set the frequency of the signal generator at 2000 Hz.
3. λ = v / f = 330 / 2000 = 0.165 m.
Place the two speakers 3λ apart. i.e. 3 × 0.165 ≈ 0.5 m apart.
4. Walk across in front of the loud speakers. Detect any change in the loudness of the sound.
5. Connect a microphone to a CRO and move it across in front of the two loudspeakers.
Detect any change in the amplitude on the waveform on the CRO.
CRO amplitude

O A B C mic. position

** – Constructive interference: O, B (maximum amplitude)


– Destructive interference: A, C (minimum amplitude)
– Due to background noise, the amplitude at destructive interference ≠ 0.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 69


8.2 Properties of sound
(a) Longitudinal waves
(b) Need a medium to transmit sound. (sound cannot travel through vacuum)
(c) vsolid > vliquid > vgas (sound travels fastest in solid)
(d) Sounds are produced by vibrations
(e) Audible frequency range: 20 Hz – 20 kHz

8.3 Musical notes and Noise


Musical note Noise
Waveform on CRO (regular in shape) Waveform on CRO (irregular)
Measured in decibel (dB) (分貝)

Waveform of a tuning fork

* Pitch ------------- frequency


Loudness ------------- amplitude
Sound quality ------------- waveform on CRO

8.4 Ultrasound
(a) sound waves of frequency greater than 20 kHz
(b) properties are the same as sound waves
(c) applications (i) ultrasonic scan of the foetus (胎兒)
(ii) detecting shoal of fish (魚群)
(iii) ultrasound flaw (裂紋) detector

Example 1
30 kHz ultrasound is used to detect shoal of fish. It is given that the speed of ultrasound in sea
water
is 1500 ms-1.
(a) Find the wavelength of ultrasound.
* (b) Explain ultrasound is used instead of audible sound.
Solution
(a) λ = v / f
= 1500 / (30 × 103) = 0.05 m
* (b) Since wavelength of ultrasound is shorter, the degree of diffraction of ultrasound is
smaller.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 70


Chapter 1 Electrostatics
1.1 Electric charge
(a) Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.
(b) Charging methods
(i) Rub an acetate strip with a duster. The rubbed acetate strip becomes positively
charged.
(Electrons are transferred from the acetate strip to the duster)
(ii) Rub a polystyrene strip with a duster. The rubbed ac polystyrene strips become
negatively charged.
(Electrons are transferred from the duster to the polystyrene strip)
(iii) Charging by Van de Graaff generator
(c) Charge Q unit: C

Example 1
The charge of an electron is e = -1.6 ×10-19 C. How many extra electrons are gained by a
negatively charged rod of 2 ×10-8 C?
Solution
No. of extra electrons gained
2 × 10 −8
= −19
= 1.25 × 1011
1.6 × 10

(d) Attraction of a neutral object by a charged object

(i) When a positively charged rod is put near to a neutral object, negative charges are
induced on the side near the rod and positive charges are induced on the other side.
(ii) The attraction between the rod and the negative charges is greater than the repulsion
between the rod and the positive charges.
(iii) Therefore, the neutral object is attracted by the charged rod.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 71


1.2 Coulomb’s law
Coulomb’s law states that the force between two point charges is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Q1Q2
F= ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2
4πε 0 r 2

Example 2

There are three charges Q1 (–2 µC), Q2 (1 µC) and Q3 (–3 µC) as shown below. Find the
resultant force acting on Q2.
Solution
Q2 is attracted by Q1 and Q3.

Q1Q2
By F =
4πε 0 r 2

F1 =
(2 × 10 )(1 × 10 ) = 1.798 N
−6 −6
[Note: 10 cm = 0.1 m]
4π (8.85 × 10 )(0.1 )
−12 2

F3 =
(3 × 10 )(1 × 10 ) = 2.698 N
−6 −6

4π (8.85 × 10 )(0.1 )
−12 2

Resultant force = F3 − F1 = 0.899 N (toward the right)

1.3 Electric Field


(a) Electric field pattern

Direction of Go from a positive charge to a


field lines negative charge
Show the direction of electric force
Meaning
acting on a positive test charge
Density of
Strength of electric field
field lines

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 72


(b) Electric field strength and gravitational field strength
Gravitational field strength g Electric field strength E
Gravitational force per unit mass Electric force per unit charge
Definition F F
g= E=
m q
Q
Isolated point charge: E=
GM 4πε 0 r 2
Equation g= 2
r σ
Parallel plates: E=
ε0
Unit N kg-1 N C-1
Vector Vector

Example 3
Two point charges A (3 × 10–8 C) and B (–2 × 10–8 C) are placed 20 cm
apart. Find the magnitude ofthe electric field strength at B due to A.

Solution
Electric field strength due to A:
QA 3 × 10 −8
E= = −12
= 6740 NC-1
4πε 0 r 2
4π (8.85 × 10 )(0.2) 2

Remark: Electric field strength due to A is calculated from the charge of A.

Example 4 Resultant electric field


Three point charges A (–3 × 10–8 C), B (2 × 10–8 C) and
C (2 × 10–8 C) are shown. Find the electric field
strength due to B and C at the position of A.

Solution
Eresultant
Electric field strength due to B 30o 30o
EC EB
QB 2 × 10 −8
EB = = = 4496 NC-1 EC EC cos 30o EB
4πε 0 r 2 4π (8.85 × 10 −12 )(0.2) 2 o
EB cos 30
60°
Electric field strength due to C
30o 30o
QC 2 × 10 −8
EC = = = 4496 NC-1 EC sin 30o EB sin 30o
4πε 0 r 2 4π (8.85 × 10 −12 )(0.2) 2
Eresultant = E B cos 30° + EC cos 30° = 7790 NC-1

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 73


1.4 Electric Potential
Definition The electric potential V at a point is the electric potential energy of a unit
positive test charge placed at that point.
PE
V=
q
Equation Q
Isolated point charge V =
4πε 0 r
Parallel plate V = Ed (magnitude only)
Unit V
Scalar

Example 5 Overall electric potential


Two charges A (3 × 10–8 C) and B (–5 × 10–8 C) are
shown. Find the electric potential at point X.

Solution
Q
By V = ,
4πε 0 r

QA 3 × 10 −8
Electric potential due to A = = = 1206 V
4πε 0 r 4π (8.85 × 10-12 ) 0.2 2 + 0.12

QB − 5 × 10 −8
Electric potential due to B = = = −1422 V
4πε 0 r 4π (8.85 × 10-12 ) 0.32 + 0.12

Overall electric potential at X =1206 + (-1422) = -215 V

Remark:
1. A positive charge gives a positive potential while a negative charge gives a negative potential
2. Unlike electric field, resultant electric potential can be obtained by direct addition because
potential is a scalar.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 74


Example 6 electric potential of parallel plate
An electron is projected from the positive plate to the negative plate with initial speed
1.5 × 106 m s−1. The electric field strength between the two parallel plates is 5000 N C–1.

+ –

10 cm

(a) Find the electric potential difference between the plates.


(b) Find the gain in potential energy by the electron if it reaches the negative plate.
(c) Can the electron reach the negative plate?
(Given the mass of an electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg, the charge of an electron = –1.6 × 10–19 C)
Solution
(a) V = Ed = (5000)(0.1) = 500 V
PE
(b) V =
q
PE = Vq = (500)(1.6 × 10 −19 ) = 8 × 10 −17 J
1 2 1
(c) Initial KE = = mv = (9.1 × 10 −31 )(1.5 × 10 6 ) 2 = 1.02 × 10 −18 J
2 2
∵ initial KE < PE required
∴ the electron cannot reach the negative plate.

1.5 Equipotential lines

6V 0V 6V 0V 6V 0V 6V 0V

Note:
(a) No work is due when a charge moves along an equipotential line. Its electric potential
energy remains unchanged.
(b) Equipotential lines and electric field lines are perpendicular to each other.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 75


1.6 Relationship between electric field strength and electric potential
Consider the E-field of parallel plates.

V = –Ex
+ – The negative sign expresses that V decreases
E along the direction of E-field

Slope of a V – x graph is -E
x
Example 7
A voltage of 1000 V is applied across a pair of parallel plates as shown below.

+ –

(a) Draw the electric field between the plates.


(b) If the distance between the two plates is 4 cm, sketch a V – x graph of the plates. Take the
potential of the negative plate as zero and take the direction to the right as positive.
(c) Find the E-field between the plates.

Solution
(a)

+ –
E

Electric field lines go from +ve plate to –ve plate


V/V
(b) E-field is uniform 1000
V – x graph is linear (straight line)
When x = 0 (at +ve plate), V = 1000 V
When x = 4 cm = 0.04 m (at –ve plate), V = 0 V

(c) 0 x/m
0.04
Method 1 Method 2
By V = Ed Slope of V – x graph = –E
1000 = E(0.04) –1000/0.04 = –E
-1
E = 25000 Vm (to the right) E = 25000 Vm-1 (to the right)

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 76


Chapter 2 Electric Circuits
2.1 Simple circuit

electron flow

battery

conventional
current

bulb bulb

The conventional current goes round the circuit from Current is the same at every part of a
the positive terminal of the battery to the negative simple circuit
terminal.
2.2 Current
Definition: current is the rate of flow of charge
charge  Q
current = I =  or Q = It
time  t 
Unit: A
2.3 Potential difference, electromotive force, voltage

Electromotive force (e.m.f) Potential difference (p.d.)


Energy gained by a unit charge when the charge is the amount of electrical energy which
passes through a battery changes into other forms of energy when a unit
charge passes between two points in a circuit.
e.m.f = 4V ⇔ 4J of electrical energy is gained p.d. = 1V ⇔ 1 J of electrical energy is
by 1C of charge changed into heat and light energy when 1 C of
charge passes through the bulb

Suppose 6C of charge passes through the circuit.


e.m.f = 4V
Total amount of energy gained by the charge from the
battery = (4)(6) = 24 J
For 1st bulb,
Total amount of charge converted into heat and light
energy = (1)(6) = 6 J
p.d. = 1V p.d. = 3V For 2nd bulb,
Total amount of charge converted into heat and light
e.m.f ε = V1 + V2
energy = (3)(6) = 18 J
E
V =
Q

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 77


2.4 Resistance
voltage V
Definition: Resistance = R= or V= IR
current I
Unit: Ω
Example 1
A hairdryer has a resistance of 24 Ω. Find the current passing through it when it is connected to
a 220-V power supply.
Solution
By V= IR
220 = I(24)
I = 9.17 A

2.5 Ohm’s law


The voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it,
provided the temperature and other physical conditions are unchanged.
V
[V ∝ I] R= = slope of V – I graph
V I
Higher R

Lower R

Example 2
The V–I graph of conductor X is shown.
(a) Find the resistance of conductor X.
(b) Conductor Y obeys Ohm’s law and its resistance is half
that of conductor X. Sketch the V–I graph of conductor Y.
Solution
(a) Resistance = slope of V – I graph
5
= = 0.5Ω
10 Conductor Y
(b) Resistance of Y = ½ (0.5) = 0.25 Ω (Lower resistance, smaller slope)
i.e. when V = 5V, I = 20 A

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 78


Example 3

Remark
1. Ammeters must be connected in series.
2. Voltmeters must be connected in parallel.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 79


Factors affecting resistance
Temperature T Length l and thickness A
For metals: T↑ ⇒ R↑ l
R∝ longer wire ⇒ R↑ Thicker wire ⇒ R↓
For semi-conductors: T↑ ⇒ R↓ A
l
R=ρ ρ = resistivity
A

Conductor Semi-conductor Insulator


-8
Resistivity (Ωm) Copper: 1.7 × 10 Silicon: 2300 Polystyrene 1015

Example 4
Find the resistance of a copper wire if its length and diameter are 70 cm and 1 mm
respectively.
Given that the resistivity of copper is 1.7 × 10-8 Ωm.
Solution
l 0.7
By R = ρ = (1.7 × 10 −8 ) 2
= 0.0152 Ω [Α = πr2 = π(d/2)2]
A  10 − 3 
  π
 2 

2.6 Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistors in Series Resistors in parallel


ε
ε (e.m.f of a cell)

I1 R1

R1 R2 IV1 1
I1 I2 I R2
I2
V1 V2
V2
I1 = I2 (Common) I = I1 + I2
ε = V1 + V2 ε = V1 = V2 (Same)
1 1 −1
R eq = ( + )
Req = R1 + R2 R1 R 2
If R1 = R2, then Req = ½ R1 = ½R2

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 80


Example 5 Circuit analysis 1 Example 6 Circuit analysis 2
Find I6, I8, I12; V6, V8, V12.

Figure 1

Find the current passing through each resistor and


voltage across each resistor.

Solution: simplify the above circuit


Solution
1 1
1. R eq = 8 + ( + ) −1 = 8 + 4 = 12 Ω
6 12
12 12
2. I = = =1A
Req 12
3. ∵ I8 = I = 1A
Figure 2
∴ V8 = I8(8) = (1)(8) = 8V
4. V6= V12 = 12 – V8 = 4 V
V6 4
5. I6 = = = 0.667 A
6 6
V12 4
I 12 = = = 0.333 A
12 12 Figure 3
(OR I12 = I8 – I6 = 1 – 0.667 = 0.333 A)

In Figure 2

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 81


2.8 Internal Resistance in Ammeters, Voltmeters and Cells

* Addition of an ammeter will increase the total


resistance of the circuit ⇒ I ≠ I’
* An ideal ammeter should have small resistance.
⇒ I ≈ I’

* Addition of a voltmeter will affect the voltage


across 4Ω resistor.
⇒ V4 ≠ Voltmeter reading
* An ideal voltmeter should have large resistance.
⇒ V4 ≈ Voltmeter reading

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 82


Chapter 3 Domestic Electricity
3.1 Electric power and energy
E V2
Electric power: P= = VI = I 2 R =
t R
V2
Electrical energy: E = Pt = VIt = I 2 Rt = t
R

Example 1
Find the total amount of energy stored by the rechargeable battery when it is fully charged.
Solution
2000 mAh: (1) I = 2000 mA = 2A
(2) t = 1 h = 3600 s
Energy stored E = VIt
= (1.2)(2)(3600) = 8640 J

3.2 Pay for electricity


Kilowatt-hour meter measures the electrical energy consumed.
Unit: kWh (1 度電)
1 kWh is the amount of electrical energy consumed by an appliance of 1000 W for 1 hour
Example 2
Find the cost of electricity to operate five lamps of power 60 W for 8 hours. It is given that
electricity costs $1.02 per kWh.
Solution
 60 
E = Pt =  (8) × 5 = 2.4 kWh
 1000 
Cost of electricity = $1.02 × 2.4 = $2.448

3.3 Mains electricity and household wiring


(a) Electric socket and plug

Earth hole Earth wire


Switch Fuse

Neutral wire Live wire


Live hole
Neutral hole

Remark
The earth pin is designed longer to open ‘shutters’ on the live and the neutral holes.
This ensures the earth wire is connected before the live wire.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 83


(b) Cable
Live wire Neutral wire Earth wire
+220 V , – 220 V 0V To ground (0V)
Brown Blue Yellow and green
* Connects the metal body of an electrical
appliance to the Earth.
* In case of a fault, a large current will flow
through the earth wire to earth. This
prevents the user from getting an electric
shock.

(c) Switch
(i) Must be fitted in the live wire.
(ii) This makes sure that no part of the electrical appliance is at high voltage when the
switch is turned off.

(d) Fuse
(i) Must be fitted in the live wire.
(ii) If an excess current flows through the circuit or the circuit overloads, the fuse blows
and breaks the circuit before the cable overheats and causes a fire.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 84


Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
4.1 Magnetic field due to permanent magnets
Magnetic field lines are used to show the strength and direction of a magnetic field.
(a) Field lines run from the N-pole round to the S-pole.
(b) When field lines are closely-spaced, field is strong and vice-versa.

neutral
point
N S N x N

uniform
field
4.2 Magnetic field due to current carrying conductors

Current-carrying Magnetic flux


Magnetic field pattern
conductor density (B)

current direction
up out of page
µ0 I
Long straight wire B=
2π r

wire (top view)

µ 0 NI
Circular coil B=
2r

solenoid

N S

µ 0 NI
Solenoid B= = µ 0 nI
l
current direction

Inside the solenoid: Uniform field


Outside the solenoid: Similar to that around a bar magnet

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 85


Example 1 Magnetic field due to a long straight wire
A straight wire X carries a current of 5 A (Fig a).
(a) Find the magnitude of the magnetic field at the point P.
(b) Another straight wire is put near wire X such that P is the mid-point between two wires (Fig b).
Find the magnitude of the resultant magnetic field at P if the currents flow
(i) in opposite direction.
(ii) in the same direction.
I=5A

8 cm
I=5A
8 cm
8 cm
Fig a Fig b I=2A

Given the permeability of free space µ0 = 4π × 10–7 T m A–1

Solution

µ0 I (4π × 10−7 )(5)


(a) B= = = 1.25 × 10− 5 T
2πr 2π (0.08)

(b) BX = 1.25 × 10–5 T


µ0 I (4π × 10−7 )(2)
BY = = = 5 × 10− 6 T
2πr 2π (0.08)
(i) BX and BY have the same direction.
The magnitude of the resultant magnetic field is
BX + BY = 1.25 × 10–5 + 5 × 10–6
= 1.75 × 10–5 T
(ii) BX and BY have opposite direction.
The magnitude of the resultant magnetic field is
BX – BY = 1.25 × 10–5 – 5 × 10–6
= 7.5 × 10–6 T

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 86


Example 2 Magnetic field of a solenoid
A solenoid of 30 cm has 180 turns of coil. A current of 5 A passing through the solenoid.
(a) Identify the magnetic poles at the end A and B.
(b) Find the magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of the solenoid.
(c) If the size of the current is halved, what happens to the answer in (b)?

A B

(d) Give three ways to increase magnetic field strength of a solenoid.

Solution
(a) A: south pole
B: north pole

µ 0 NI (4π × 10 −7 )(180)(5)
(b) B= = = 3.77 × 10 − 3 T
l 0.3
(c) The answer in (b) will be halved.
(d) (1) increase the current
(2) increase the number of turns of solenoid (for the same length of solenoid)
(3) insert a soft-iron core through the solenoid

4.3 Magnetic force acting on a current-carrying conductor


Magnetic force F = BIl
F = BIl

The magnetic force is increased if


(1) the current is increased, ( F ∝ I )
(2) the magnetic field is increased, ( F ∝ B )
(3) there is a greater length of wire inside the magnetic field. ( F ∝ l )
When the current I is at an angle θ to the magnetic field B , the magnetic force F = BIl sin θ.

l Note:
when θ = 90o (conductor ⊥ field), F = BIl.
I B
when θ = 0o (conductor // field), F = 0.
θ

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 87


Example 3

Two straight parallel wires X and Y are 20 cm apart. Wire X carries current 3Aand wire Y carries
current 6A in the opposite direction.

(a) Draw the magnetic field produced by Y at the position of wire X and calculate the magnitude.
(b) Find the magnetic force per unit length acting on wire X.
(c) Mary says, ‘Since the current through Y is two times that through X, the magnetic force acting
on Y is two times that acting on X.’ Comment on Mary’s statement.

Solution
(a) magnetic field produced by wire Y BY
µ0 I (4π × 10 −7 )(6)
BY = = = 6 × 10 − 6 T IX
2πr 2π (0.2)
(b) By F = BIl,
F
Magnetic force per unit length = BI = (6 × 10 − 6 )(3) = 1.8 × 10 −5 Nm-1
l
(c) Her statement is incorrect.
According to Newton’s third law, the forces acting on both wires are an action and reaction
pair. The magnetic force acting on X is equal to that acting on Y.

Remark:
The magnetic force acting on X is due to the magnetic field produced by Y and the current
passing through X. Hence, F=BYIXlX.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 88


4.4 Magnetic force on a moving charge in a magnetic field

uniform Circular path of


magnetic motion of +q
field B F = Bqv sin θ

uniform
+q magnetic
+q field B

Example 4
An electron moves in a circular path in a uniform magnetic field of field strength 0.01T.
Given that the charge and mass of an electron are -1.6 × 10-19 C and 9.1 × 10-31 kg respectively.
If the speed of the electron is 6 × 107 ms-1, find
(a) the radius of the circular path, and
(b) the period of circular motion.
Solution
(a) For the circular motion
magnetic force = centripetal force
v2
Bqv = m
r
mv (9.1 × 10 −31 )(6 × 10 7 )
r= = = 0.0341 m
Bq (0.01)(1.6 × 10 −19 )
v 6 × 10 7
(b) v = rω ⇒ ω = = = 1.76 × 10 9 rads-1
r 0.034125
2π 2π
T= = = 3.57 × 10 − 9 s
ω 1.758 × 10 9

Notes:
(1) The magnetic force is always perpendicular to the motion of the charged particle; no work is
done by the magnetic field.
(2) Kinetic energy of the charged particle remains constant.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 89


4.5 Motor
Structure
(1) magnets (2) a coil
(3) carbon brushes (4) commutator

Function of a commutator:
The commutator reverses the current every
half turn to keep the coil rotating
continuously in one direction.

Ways to increase the turning speed of the coil


(1) increase the current
(2) increase the magnetic field
(3) increase the number of turns of the coil
(4) increase the area of the coil within the magnetic field

4.6 Hall effect


(a) Drift velocity

The movement of an electron in a metal (i) without and (ii) with an electric field.

When a voltage is applied across a conductor, the electrons accelerate and collide with +ve
ions constantly. Finally, they attain a steady velocity (called drift velocity) of about 10–5 m s–1
and produce a current.

I = nAvq

Example 5
Find the drift velocity of electrons in a copper wire if the diameter of the wire is 1 mm and the
current flowing through the wire is 2 A.
Given: charge density of copper = 6 × 1028 m-3
Solution
By I = nAvq , A = πr2 = π (0.5 ×10-3)2
I 2
v= = = 2.65 × 10 − 4 ms-1
nAq (6 × 10 ) π × (0.5 × 10 ) × (1.6 × 10 )
28 -3 2 -19

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 90


(b) Hall voltage
(i) If a piece of current-carrying metal is placed in a perpendicular B-field, magnetic
force will act on the charges.
Electrons will accumulate on one side of the conductor and a potential difference
called the hall voltage is developed.
This phenomenon is known as the Hall Effect.

– – – –
– – –
FB = Bqv
v – Hall voltage
I

B +

(ii) If a semi-conductor with positive charge carries is used, positive charges will be

accumulated on the top surface. The Hall voltage will be reversed.

+ + + +
+ + +
FB = Bqv
+ v Hall voltage
I

B –

BI
(iii) Hall voltage VH = . To obtain a greater Hall voltage, the charge density (n)
nQt
should be smaller, such as in a semi-conductor and the thickness (t) should be

smaller.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 91


Example 6
A semiconductor strip carrying a current of 3 A and is put in a uniform magnetic field. The Hall
voltage is 8 µV. The top surface of the strip has a higher potential than the bottom surface. (Given
the charge of each charge carrier = 1.6 × 10–19 C)
B = 0.5 T

I 2 cm I=3A
top surface
5 mm

(a) What is the sign of the charge carriers?

(b) Find the Hall electric field.


(c) What is the drift velocity of the charge carriers in the strip?
(d) Find the number of charge carriers per unit volume.

Solution
(a) By Fleming’s left-hand rule, the magnetic force is acting upwards. Therefore the charge
carriers accumulate on the top surface. As the top surface has a higher potential, the sign of the
charge carriers is positive.
V H 8 × 10 −6
(b) Hall E-field = = −3
= 1.6 × 10 − 3 Vm-1
d 5 × 10
(c) Electric force = magnetic force
E H q = Bqv
E H 1.6 × 10 −3
v= = = 8 × 10 − 4 ms-1
B 0 .5
BI
(d) By VH = ,
nQt
BI (0.5)(3)
⇒ n= = = 2.34 × 10 26 m-3
V H Qt (8 × 10 )(1.6 × 10 −19 )(5 × 10 − 3 )
−6

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 92


Chapter 5 Electromagnetic Induction
5.1 Induced e.m.f and induced current

S N
N S

An e.m.f. is induced because the coil An e.m.f is induced because the conductor
experiences a changing magnetic field. cuts across magnetic field lines.
A current is induced because the circuit is A current is NOT induced because the circuit is
complete. not complete.

Ways to increase induced e.m.f or induced current:


(1) move the magnet or the wire faster
(2) use a stronger magnet
(3) use a coil of more turns or increase the length of wire within the magnetic field
(4) insert a soft iron core in the coil

Working out the direction of induced current


(a) Lenz’s law
An induced current always flows to oppose the change which started it in a magnetic field.

S N N S S N S N

induced current induced current

(b) Fleming’s right-hand rule


(i) motion or force F

(ii) magnetic field B

(iii) induced current I

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 93


5.2 Magnetic flux and flux density
area A

magnetic field B
If B-field ⊥ coil,
normal to A magnetic flux Φ = BA

B cos θ
B sin θ If B-field is at an angle θ to the normal of the coil
θ
magnetic magnetic flux Φ = BA cos θ
field B

If a coil of N turns is used, the total


magnetic flux through the coil, called Magnetic flux linkage = NΦ
magnetic flux linkage is equal to NΦ.
Unit weber (Wb)

5.3 Faraday’s law

The induced e.m.f (e) is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux, or the rate of flux cutting.

∆Φ ∆Φ
i.e ε =− (for a single-turn coil) ε = − N (for a coil of N turns)
∆t ∆t
– ve sign denotes that induced e.m.f. oppose the change that starts it. (Lenz’s law)

Example 1
A 1-turn circular coil of radius 10 cm is placed perpendicularly
to a uniform magnetic field. The magnetic flux density decreases
at a rate of 0.02 T s–1.

(a) Draw the induced current on the loop.


(b) Find the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in the loop.

Solution
(a)

(b) magnitude of induced e.m.f.


∆Φ ∆BA ∆B
ε=
∆t
=
∆t
=A
∆t
[ ]
= π (0.1) 2 (0.02) = 6.28 × 10 − 4 V

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 94


5.4 Generator
An a.c. generator A d.c. generator

coil rotated

carbon brushes
carbon brushes

slip rings commutator

(i) The coil cuts through the (ii) The coil does not cut through
field lines most rapidly. any field line momentarily.
(max. induced current I) (no induced current I)

An a.c. generator becomes a d.c. generator if the slip rings are replaced by a commutator.
* The commutator reverses the connections of the coil to the outside circuit every half turn.
Therefore, the current in the outside circuit always flows in the same direction.

Ways to increase induced e.m.f or induced current:


(1) increase the number of turns of the coil
(2) use a stronger magnet
(3) Increase the area of coil within the magnetic field
(4) winding the coil on a soft-iron core
(5) rotate the coil at a higher speed

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 95


Example 2

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 96


Chapter 6 Transmission of Electricity
6.1 Alternating current a.c.

Formulae

(1) I r . m. s. = I 2
2
V r . m. s.
2
(2) P = I r .m. s. R = = V r .m. s . I r .m. s .
R
I V
(3) For sinusoidal a.c. I r .m. s. = 0 , V r . m. s. = 0
2 2

Example 1
A resistor of 3 Ω is connected to the following alternating currents. Find the average power for each
type of alternating current.
I/A
I/A
6
5
0 0
-2 t/s t/s
-5
Type 1 Type 2

Solution
6 2 + ( −2 ) 2
For type 1 a.c.: I r . m. s. = = 20 = 4.47 A
2
2
Power = I r .m. s. R = ( 20 ) 2 (3) = 60 W

I0 5
For type 2 a.c.: I r .m. s . = = = 3.54 A
2 2
2
2  5 
Power = I r .m. s . R=  (3) = 37.5 W
 2

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 97


6.2 Transformers
Vp N p
(a) =
Vs Ns Soft iron core
step-up transformer step-down transformer

Primary coil Secondary coil N p < N s ⇔ Vp < Vs N s < N p ⇔ Vs < Vp

(b) Efficiency η
Efficiency η
Power output
Ip Is = × 100%
Power input
Vp Vs
Vs I s
= × 100%
Power input Power output Vp I p
= VpIp = VsIs

If efficiency η = 100% (ideal transformer / no power loss in transformer),


then VpIp = VsIs

(c) Power loss in transformers


Cause Improvement
Resistance of coils Use thick wire for the coil
Magnetization and demagnetization of the core Use soft-iron core
Induced currents in the core Use laminated core

Example 2
If the transformer has 40 turns in its secondary coil and
both bulbs can operate at their rated values, assume the 220 V
a.c. 10 V, 20 W
transformer is ideal, find
(a) the number of turns in the primary coil. Ns = 40
(b) the currents in the primary coil and secondary coil.
Solution
Vp N p N p 220
(a) = ⇒ = ⇒ N p = 880
Vs Ns 40 10
(b) Power output = 40 W (two light bulbs)
V s I s = 40 ⇒ 20 I s = 40 ⇒ I s = 2 A
Power input = Power output (ideal transformer)

V p I p = 40 ⇒ 220 I p = 40 ⇒ I p = 0.182 A

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 98


6.3 High voltage power transmission
* Power loss in transmitting electricity
* Reason: resistance in power transmission cable

Analysis: consider the following power transmission system.


I Cable 10 Ω

Power station
Consumer unit
200 V, 1200 W

Cable 10 Ω

Procedures:
(1) Current in cable
P 1200
I cable = = =6A
V 200
(2) Power loss (in cable)
2
Ploss = I cable R = (6) 2 (20) = 720 W

(3) Efficiency of the power transmission system


useful power output
η= × 100%
power input
1200 − 720
= × 100% = 40%
1200
(4) Voltage drop (due to cable)

V drop = I cable R = (6)( 20) = 120 V

(5) Voltage available to consumer unit

Vo = 1200 − Vdrop = 200 − 120 = 80 V

Conclusion
(a) low efficiency (η = 40 %) large amount of power loss
(b) insufficient terminal voltage (200V → 80V)

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 99


Solution: use high voltage to transmit electrical power
⇒ reduce current in transmission cable
⇒ reduce power loss in cable

A C Cable 10 Ω E G
Cable 10 W
200 V Consumer

1200 W Unit
Cable 10 Ω
1:20 20:1
power station B D Cable 10 W F H

Assumption: ideal transformers are used


(1) ∵ VAB = 200 V
∴ VCD = 200 × 20 = 4000 V (step-up transformer)
(2) Current in transmission cable
IcableVCD = 1200 (no power loss in transformer)
Icable(4000) = 1200
Icable = 0.3 A (high voltage ⇒ low current)
(3) Power loss (in cable)
2
Ploss = I cable R = (0.3) 2 ( 20) = 1.8 W

(4) Efficiency of the power transmission system


useful power output
η= × 100%
power input
1200 − 1.8
= × 100% = 99.85%
1200
(5) Voltage drop (due to cable)

V drop = I cable R = (0.3)( 20) = 6 V

VEF = VCD − Vdrop = 4000 − 6 = 3994 V

(6) Voltage available to consumer unit


1 3994
Vo = VEF × = = 199.7 V
20 20

Conclusion
(a) high efficiency η = 99.85% (nearly perfect!)
(b) terminal voltage (Vo = 199.7 V ≈ 200V)

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 100


Chapter 1 Radiation and Radioactivity
1.1 Properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation
α particles β particles γ rays
Helium nuclei Fast-moving electrons Electromagnetic
Nature waves

Charge +2 –1 No charge
Speed Up to 10% of speed of Up to 90% of speed of Speed of light
light light
Symbol 4
2α or 4
2 He 0
−1 β or 0
−1 e γ
Range in air Several centimeter Several metres Over 100 m
Ionizing power Strong Weak Very weak

Cloud chamber track

Thick and straight Thin and twisted track Tracks can hardly be
track seen
Slight deflection Large deflection No deflection

Electric deflection

Magnetic deflection Slight deflection Large deflection No defection


(Apply Fleming’s left
hand rule to determine
××××
direction of
××××
deflection) ××××
× × γ× ×
Penetrating power Weak Medium Strong
25 mm lead block to
Absorber Paper 5 mm aluminium sheet absorb half of
radiation
Photographic film, Photographic film, Photographic film,
Detectors spark counter, cloud cloud chamber, GM cloud chamber, GM
chamber, GM tube tube tube

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 101


Example 1
To investigate the kind(s) of radiation emitted by a radioactive source, a Geiger-Muller counter is
placed close in front of the source and sheets of different absorbers are placed in turn between the
source and the counter. Three readings are taken at one-minute intervals for each absorber. The
following results are obtained:
Recorded count rate/counts per minute
Absorber
1st reading 2nd reading 3rd reading
Air 600 610 593
Paper 602 603 601
5 mm Aluminium 100 102 98
25 mm Lead 98 101 100
Table 1
(a) Explain why the three readings for each absorber are not identical.
(b) Explain how the above results show that the source emits radiation β only and it does not emit
α andγradiation.
(c) Account for the count rates for lead as absorber.
Solution
(a) Radiation is emitted at random.
(b) The count rates with air and paper as absorbers are about the same. This shows that α radiation
is not emitted.
The count rate decreases significantly when aluminium is used as an absorber. Hence, β
radiation is emitted.
There is no decrease in count rate when lead is used instead of aluminium. Hence, γ radiation
is not emitted.
In conclusion, the source emits β radiation only.

Remark: about presentation


α particles  β particles  γ particles 
α radiation  β radiation  γ radiation 

(c) The count rate for lead as absorber is due to the background radiation.

1.2 Background radiation


Everyone is exposed to a small amount of radiation from the environment all the time. Such
background radiation comes from either natural or man-made sources.

Cosmic rays Radioactive Radioactive Living bodies, and Medical practice Nuclear discharge
12% materials in rocks gases food and drinks 17% and others
and soil 15% 40% 15% 1%

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 102


Chapter 2 The Atomic Model
2.1 Atomic number, mass number and isotopes
Atomic number Number of protons in the nucleus. Also called proton number.
Mass number Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Also called nucleon
number.
Isotopes Nuclides of an element with the same atomic number but different mass
number.
e.g. C-12 and C-14 are isotopes
2.2 Radioactive decay
Alpha decay Beta decay Gamma emission
A
Z X → ZA−−42Y + 42 He A
Z X → Z +A1Y + −10 e A
Z X * → ZA X + γ

e.g. 238
92 U→ 23490Th + 42 He e.g. 234
90 Th → 234
91 Pa + −1 e
0
e.g. 234
90 Th *→ 23490Th + γ

Example 1
The chart in the figure below shows part of a radioactive series.

(a) Write down equations representing the radioactive decay D1 and D2.
(b) What are the values of A and Z in ZA X ?
(c) Which of the above nuclides are isotopes?
Solution

92 U → 90 Th + 2 He
D1 : 238 234 4
(a)

91 Pa → 92 Th + −1 e
D 2 : 234 234 0

(b) A = mass number = 226


Z = atomic number = 88
238 238 230 234
(c) 90 U and 92U, 90 Th and 90Th

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 103


Example 2 A decay series

Plutonium-241 ( 241 229


94 Pu ) changes to thorium-229 ( 90Th ) by emitting α and β particles.

Pu → L → 22990Th
241
94
How many α and β particles are emitted in the decay series?
Solution
Method 1 Method 2
241 − 229
241
Pu → 229
Th + a 42 He + b 0
−1 e
No. of α particles emitted = =3 94 90

4 Consider mass number:


[decrease in mass number is only due to the 241 = 229 + 4a + 0b ⇒ a = 3
emission of α particles] Consider atomic number:
No. of β particles emitted 94 = 90 + 2a – b ⇒ b = 2
= 90 – (94 – 3 × 2) = 2 No. of α and β particles emitted are 3 and 2
respectively.

2.3 The decay curve Activity A

A0

½A0

¼A0
⅛A0

N = N0e–kt A = A0e–kt

Time taken for half of the nuclei in a sample to decay.


Half-life t 1
2
Time taken for the activity of a sample to fall to half.

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 104


Example 3
The decay curve of a radioactive source is shown below.
–1
activity / s

(a) Find the activity of the radioactive source at t = 15 days. time / day

(b) Find the half-life of the radioactive source.


Solution
(a) Activity of background radiation = 25 s-1
Activity of the source at t = 15 days = 75 – 25 = 50 s-1
(b) Initial activity of the source = 225 – 25 = 200 s-1
200
Expected activity recorded after 1 half-life = + 25 = 125 s-1
2
∴ Half-life ≈ 7.5 days [read from the graph]

Formulae
ln 2
(1) Half-life t 1 = , k = decay constant (2) N = N0e–kt A = A0e–kt
2 k
Example 4
The initial activity of a radioactive sample is 1.8 × 107 Bq and its half-life is 1.5 hours.
(a) Find the decay constant of the sample.
(b) Find the activity of the sample after 10 hours.
Solution

(a) 1.5 hours = 1.5 × 3600 s = 5400 s

ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
t1 = ⇒k = = = 1.28 × 10 − 4 s-1
2 k t1 5400
2

(b) Method 1 (Apply A = A0e–kt) Method 2 (Concept of half-life)


10 hours = 10 × 3600 s = 36000 s 10 hours = 6.667 half-life
By A = A0e–kt Activity required

= (1.8 × 107 )e − (1.284×10


−4
)(36000) 1
= (1.8 × 107) × 6.667
2
= 1.77 × 105 Bq 5
= 1.77 × 10 Bq

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 105


2.4 Uses of radioisotopes
Uses Radiation Reasons
Radiotherapy (treatment of γ radiation Can penetrate deeply into the
cancer cells) body
Tracers β radiation or γ radiation with Ionizing power of β radiation or
short half-life γ radiation is weak
e.g. Iodine-131
(β source, t½ = 8 days)
Technetium-99
(γ source, t½ = 6 hrs)
Sterilization of syringes and γ radiation
other equipment
Thickness gauge β radiation with long half-life
Smoke detector α radiation with long half-life Strong ionizing power of α
e.g. americium-241 (t½ = 432 yrs) radiation
Air molecules are ionized easily
Archaeology (C – 14 dating) β radiation

2.5 Handling precautions


(a) Store and transport all sources in a suitable lead container.
(b) Always handle the sources with forceps.
(c) Keep the sources at arm's length, and point it away from the human body, especially the
eyes.
(d) Carefully plan the experiments to minimize the time the source is used.

Handle radioactive sources with care! Warning sign of radioactivity

St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 106


Chapter 3 Nuclear Energy
3.1 Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
Fission Fusion
A heavy nucleus splits up into smaller nuclei Two nuclei join together to form a heavier
nucleus

e.g. 235
92 U + 01 n → 142
56 Ba + 91
36 Kr + 3 01 n e.g. 2
1 H + 31 H → 42 He + 01 n

Nuclear reactor to generate electricity The Sun undergoes nuclear fusion to give out
(Controlled reaction) heat and light (Uncontrolled reaction)
Atomic bomb (Uncontrolled reaction) Hydrogen bomb (Uncontrolled reaction)

3.2 Chain reaction and controlled fission – nuclear reactor

鏈式反應)
鏈式反應
Chain reaction (鏈式反應
When a uranium nucleus splits, two or three
neutrons are emitted. These neutrons can carry on
splitting other uranium nuclei, which results in a
chain reaction.

Controlled fission – nuclear reactor


The energy released from controlled nuclear fission can be used to generate a huge amount of
electricity.

Component Description
Nuclear fuel elements Uranium oxide enriched with extra U-235.
Moderator – Pressurized water
– To slow down neutrons. If the neutrons move too
fast, the chain reaction will stop.
Control rods – Boron-steel
– Can be raised and lowered
– To absorbs neutrons to control the rate of fission.
St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 107
Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy

Advantages Disadvantages
Nuclear energy helps to solve the world’s future The consequence of an accident is extremely
energy shortage crisis. serious.
There is no serious fuel transportation problem. Nuclear energy will not be cheap if large sums
of money have to spend on maintaining and
upgrading the safety standards of the reactor.
Nuclear energy is in many cases cheaper than Nuclear energy is not necessary. Future energy
coal or oil for generating electricity. needs can be met by using alternative energy
sources.
Nuclear energy is clean and causes little Any country which operates a nuclear reactor
environmental pollution. can produce nuclear weapons.
3.3 Mass-energy relationship

Einstein’s theory of relativity points out that mass can change into energy
E = mc2
Example 1
Uranium-235 is used to generate electricity in a nuclear reactor of a nuclear power station. The
following shows the fission of U-235.
92 U + 0 n → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n
235 1 142 91 1

(a) Find the loss in mass after reaction and hence, find the amount of nuclear energy released.
(b) If 5 × 10–6 kg of U-235 undergoes fission every second, what is the rate of energy produced?
Given: 1u = 1.661 × 10–27 kg
mass of U-235 = 235.043 923 u, mass of neutron = 1.008 665 u
mass of Ba-142 = 141.916 453 u, mass of Kr-91 = 90.923 442 u
Solution
(a) Total mass before reaction
= 235.043 923 u + 1.008 665 u = 236.052 588 u
Total mass after reaction
= 141.916 453 u + 90.923 442 u + 3 × 1.008 665 u = 235.865 890 u
Loss in mass = 236.052 588 u – 235.865 890 u
= 0.186 698 u = (0.186 698)(1.661 × 10–27) kg
= 3.10 × 10–28 kg
Energy released E = mc2
= (3.101 × 10–28)(3× 108)2 = 2.79 × 10–11 J
5 × 10 -6
(b) no. of U-235 consumed in 1 s = = 1.281 × 1019
(235.043923)(1.661 × 10 )
- 27

Amount of energy released in 1 s = (1.281 × 1019 )( 2.791 × 10 −11 ) = 3.57 × 10 8 J


E 3.57 × 10 8
Rate of energy produced P = = = 3.57 × 10 8 W
t 1
St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 108
St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 109
St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 110

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