General Physics

MEASUREMENTS
Anything that can be measured is a physical quantity.
For example: length, mass, area, volume, density, speed, acceleration, forces, current,
temperature, etc.
Quantities that have only magnitude (size) are called scalar quantities.
e.g. : length, mass, time, density, volume, temperature, energy, work, ..
Quantities that require direction as well as magnitude for complete specification are called
vector quantities.
e,g, : displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, moment, electric field, magnetic
field, ..
There are three basis quantities that we measure.
These are length, mass and time.

Length
Length(l) is the distance between two point. Length is a scalar quantity.
SI units of length:

metres (m)

Instruments used to measure lengths:

Longer lengths (distances):

measuring tape

accuracy: 1 cm

Short lengths:

metre rule, ruler

accuracy: 0.1 cm

Very short lengths:

vernier calipers.

accuracy: 0.01 cm

Very very short lengths:

micrometer

accuracy: 0.001 cm

How to measure the length of an object using a metre rule:

1. Place the object as close as possible to the edge of the ruler.

2. Take one reading(R1) at the beginning and one reading(R2) at the end of the object.
3. R2 R1 = length of the object.
Precautions to be taken:
1. Make sure your line of sight is perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax error.
2. Make sure you include the unit when you write down your measurement.
3. Make each measurement at least twice and calculate the average length.
How to measure the diameter of a sphere:

1. Place the sphere between two set squares or two rectangular blocks.
2. Take two readings at the insides of the blocks.
3. The difference between the two readings is the diameter of the sphere.
You can use the same method to find the diameter of a cylinder.
How to find the diameter of a small bead:

1. Arrange a row of a large number of beads and measure the total length.
2. Divide the total length by the number of beads.
Whenever you have to measure a very small length, you should take a large number of objects
of the same dimensions and measure the total length. This reduces your percentage error and
improves the accuracy of your measurement

Micrometer screw gauge:

The micrometer is a precision measuring instrument, used by engineers.

Rachet

How to use the micrometer?

The object to be measured is placed between the anvil face and the spindle face. The rachet is turned
clockwise until the object is trapped between these two surfaces and the rachet makes a clicking
noise. This means that the rachet cannot be tightened anymore and the measurement can be read.
2

Reading micrometer:

Example 1:

5.5 mm +

26 mm
100

= 5.76 mm

8.5 mm +

12 mm
100

= 8.62 mm

Example 2:

Example 3:

3.25 mm +

16 mm
100

= 3.41 mm

Zero error in micrometer screw gauge:

While using the micrometer, you should avoid zero error by subtracting the readings after and before.
e.g. Measuring the thickness of a pencil

0 mm +
0

47 mm
100

= 0.47 mm

The gap is closed tightly, the reading is 0.47 mm

6 mm +

8 mm
100

= 6.08 mm

The pencil is placed in the gap, the new

reading is 6.08 mm

Thickness of the pencil = 6.08 0.47 = 5.61 mm

Fig 1.1 shows part of a measuring instrument.

(a) State the name of this instrument.

................................................. [1]
(b) Record the reading shown in Fig. 1.1.
................................................. [1]
(c) Describe how you would find the thickness of a sheet of paper used in a magazine.
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................... [3]

Mass
Mass is the amount of matter in a substance.
Mass of an object depends upon: 1. The number of particles in the substance.
2. The sizes of the particles in the substance.
Mass of an object is a constant quantity and does not change from place to place
(unless you take away or add some matter to the object. Mass is a scalar quantity.
Mass is a measure of the inertia in an object. Inertia is the inability of matter to being
about a change in its position of rest or of motion. The more the mass of the object, the
more is its inertia.
SI units of mass:

kilograms (kg)
grams (g) are used for smaller masses in the laboratory.

Prefixes to remember:

106g
=1g
3
10 mg = 1000 mg = 1 g
103 g = 1000 g = 1 kg
103 kg =
1 Mg = 1 tonne

Instrument used to measure mass:

beam balances
electronic balances
How to measure the mass of a solid object (using a beam balance).
1. Place the mass you have to measure on one pan of the balance.
2. Place masses of known values on the other pan until the beam is balanced.
3. Add up the known masses. This is the mass of the object.
Precautions to be taken:
1. Make sure the balance is placed on a flat horizontal surface.
2. Make sure the pointer of the balance is at zero before you start using it.
3. Make sure your line of sight is perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax error.
4. When measuring the mass of very small objects (e.g. pins, beads), measure the
mass of a large number of identical objects and then divide by the number of
objects.
5. Make sure you measure each mass at least twice and get the average.
How to measure the mass of a liquid:
You will need: an empty clean container(such as a beaker), and the balance.
1. Measure the mass of an empty container (m1).
2. Pour the liquid in the container and measure the mass of the container and the
liquid(m2).
3. m2 m1 = mass of liquid

TIME
SI unit of time(t) : second (s)
60 s = 1 min
60 min = 1 h
24 h = 1 day
3600 s = 1 h
Instruments used to measure time:
Clock, watch, stop watch and electronic timing devices (these devices start and stop
automatically)
Oscillation: One complete to and fro
movement that repeats itself over
constant time intervals.
Time period (T): This is the time taken
for one complete oscillation or vibration.
A pendulum is an object that oscillates
to and fro at regular time intervals
(usually a bob hanging from a string).

How to measure the Time Period of a pendulum:

Apparatus required: stand, clamp, stop watch, pendulum, pointer
Method:
1. Use a stand and a clamp to arrange a pendulum so that it can swing freely.
2. Use a pointer to mark the rest position of the pendulum.
3. Pull the bob of the pendulum to one side and release it.
4. As the bob passes the rest position, start counting from zero and simultaneously
start the stopwatch.
5. Stop the stopwatch after 30 or 40 oscillations.
6. Find the time taken for one oscillation by dividing the total time by the number of
oscillations.
7. Record your reading in a table.
Precautions to be taken:
Repeat the experiment more than once

VOLUME
Volume(V) is the space occupied by an object. Volume is a property of matter. All
objects (solids, liquids or gases) have volume. Volume is a quantity that is derived from
length.
Volume is a scalar quantity.
Unit of volume:

m3
cm3 is used for smaller volumes, and is usually used in the laboratory.

Unit of volume for liquids: litre (L)

1 mL = 1 cm3
1000 mL = 1 L
1000 mL = 1000 cm3
How to measure the volume of a rectangular solid:
1. Measure the length(l), width(w) and height(h) of the solid.
2. Volume = l x w x h
How to measure the volume of a liquid:
You will need: a measuring cylinder.
1. Place the measuring cylinder on a flat horizontal surface.
2. Pour the liquid into the measuring cylinder.
3. Read the lower level of the meniscus (the curved surface of the liquid).
Precautions to be taken:
1. Make sure your line of sight is perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax error.

How to measure the volume of a small irregular shaped solid (displacement

method):
You will need: a measuring cylinder, thin string and water
1. Pour some water (enough to immerse the solid) in the measuring cylinder.
2. Read the lower level of the meniscus and record the initial volume (V1).
3. Tie the solid with the string and gently lower it into the water in the measuring
cylinder so that it is completely immersed.
4. Read the final volume (V2).
5. V2 V1 = volume of the solid.
Precautions to be taken:
1. Repeat the above procedure at least twice and calculate the average volume.
2. When finding the volume of small identical objects (e.g. beads), place a large
number of them in the cylinder and divide the total volume by the number of
objects.
The volume of larger irregular shaped objects can be found by using a displacement
can in addition to a measuring cylinder

DENSITY
Density is the ratio of mass to volume of a substance. It is the mass per unit volume of a
substance.
Density is a measure of how closely the particles of a substance are packed together.
A more dense substance has more mass in a unit of volume as compared to a less dense
substance. Density is the characteristic of a material. It is possible to identify a material by its
density.
An object will float on a liquid if its density is less than the density of the liquid.
Density is a scalar quantity.
mass
densiity
volume
Units of density: kg/m3
g/cm3 is used for measuring density in the laboratory.
Density is directly proportional to mass for constant volume.
Density is inversely proportional to volume for constant mass.
The density of water is 1 g/cm3. This means that every cubic centimeter (cm 3) of water has a
mass of 1 g. The density of water is also 1,000 kg/m 3 every cubic meter (m3) of water has a
mass of 1,000 kg.

How to find the density of a regular shaped object:

You will need: balance, metre rule
1. Measure the dimensions (length, width and height) of the object and calculate its volume.
2. Find the mass of the object by using a balance.
3. Use the formula D =m/V to calculate the density of the solid.
How to find the density of an irregular shaped object:
You will need: measuring cylinder, water and balance.
1. Find the mass of the object.
2. Use the displacement method to find the volume of the solid.
3. Calculate the density.
How to find the density of a liquid:
You will need: measuring cylinder, balance and beaker.
1. Find the mass of the empty beaker.
2. Find the mass of the beaker and the liquid.
3. Calculate the mass of the liquid.
4. Use a measuring cylinder to find the volume of the liquid.
5. Calculate the density.

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Motion

1- Distance and displacement:

e.g. 1: Jessica walked 50m East
Distance = 50m
Displacement = 50m East = +50m
e.g. 2: Jessica walked 120m East, then 20m West
Distance = 120 + 20 = 140m
Displacement = +120 20 = +100m = 100m East
120m

e.g. 3: Jessica
walked 80m East, 30m North, 80m West, then 30m South
Distance = 80 + 30 + 80 + 30 = 220m
Displacement = 0m

Distance
Is the length of the path travelled
S.I. unit (m)
Is a scalar quantity, it doesnt depend on
direction

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Displacement

Is the distance in a particular direction

S.I. unit (m)
Is a vector quantity, it depends on direction

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Average speed and average velocity

Average speed

Average velocity

Is the distance travelled during a certain time

It is a scalar quantity, it doesnt depend on
direction.

Is a speed in particular direction

It is a vector quantity, it depends on
direction.

Average speed =

Average velocity =

Va =

Va =
d : distance (m) km
t : time (s) h
S : average speed (m/s) km/h

km

m/s

km/h

S : displacement (m)
t : time (s)
V : average velocity (m/s)

Jessica walked 60m East, 100m East, then 40m West within 480s.

Distance and speed

Distance = 60 + 100 + 40 = 200m
d = 200m

Displacement and velocity

Displacement = + 60 + 100 40 = +120m
S = 120m

Va = =

Va = =

= 0.42 m/s

V( average speed) = 0.42 m/s

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= + 0.25m/s

V(average velocity) = 0.25m/s East

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Constant speed and changing speed.

. . . . .
4m
1S

4m
1S

4m
1S

4m
1S

4m/s

4m/s

4m/s

4m/s

. . .
1m
1S

2m
1S

1m/s 2m/s

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3m
1S

4m
1S

3m/s

4m/s

Constant speed
Uniform speed
Steady speed

. . .

5m
1S

4m
1S

3m
1S

2m
1S

5m/s

4m/s

3m/s

2m/s

Speed increases uniformly

(uniform acceleration)
(constant acceleration)
(steady acceleration)

Speed decreases uniformly

(uniform deceleration)
(constant deceleration)
(steady deceleration)

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Average acceleration (a):

Is the rate of change of velocity.

S.I unit (m/s2).
It is a vector quantity, because it depends on direction.

u = initial velocity (m/s)

V = final velocity ( m/s)

a=

a=

= = +0.8 m/s2
( Speeding up )

a=

= - 0.4 m/s2

(Slowing down)
Acceleration = - 0.4 m/s2
Deceleration = 0.4 m/s2

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Kinematic Equations: for uniformly accelerated motion

A ball is accelerated from 2 m/s at a rate of 1.5 m/s2 within 6
second.
Calculate the final velocity of the ball.

V = u + a.t

V = u + a.t
V = 2 + ( 1.5 6 )
V = 2 + 9 = 11 m/s

S = ut + at2

V2 = u2 + 2 a.S

e.g: A car accelerates from 1m/s to 6m/s within 20 seconds.

a=?

a=

= + 0.25 m/s2

S=?
S = ut + at2

S=?
V2 = u2 + 2 a.S

S = (1
(0.25

62 = 12 + 2(0.25) S

+
2

S = 70m

OR

36 = 1 + 0.5 S
35 = 0.5 S
S=

= 70

S = 70m

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Motion graphs
Distance time graph

Speed time graph

object at rest: ( Speed= 0m/s )

V(m/s)

object moving at uniform speed

V(m/s)

Gradient =

Area under graph = L

Gradient =

A=4S

G = 2.5 m/s speed = 2.5 m/s

A = 24 m dist. =24m

Gradient = Speed
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Area under graph = distance

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 object moving at uniform acceleration:

V(m/s)

Area =

h=

15

6 = 45m

distance = 45m

Gradient =

acceleration = 0.4 m/s2

object moving at uniform deceleration:
V (m/s)

Area =

h =

8 = 16m

distance = 16m
Gradient =

acceleration = -2 m/s2

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The gradient of distance time graph is speed.

The gradient of speed time graph is acceleration.
The area under speed time graph is the distance travelled.

e.g: The graph below shows the (v-t) graph of a car as it moves from in a straight line.

V (m/s)

a) Describe the motion of the car in the following time intervals:

i) (0 - 4)s: ________________________
ii) (4 - 10)s: _______________________
b) Calculate the acceleration of the car during the following time intervals.
i) (0 - 4)s:

ii) (4 - 10)s:
c) Calculate the distance travelled by the car during the time interval (0 - 10)s.

A1 =

A2 = L

A1 =

15

A2 = 6

A1 = 30 m

W
15

A2 = 90 m

Total distance = 30 + 90 = 120 m

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Forces

Force is a push or pull.

The S.I. unit of source is Newton (N).
Force is a vector quantity, it depends on direction.
What can the force do?
Change direction.
Change shape.
Change position.
Accelerate/ decelerate an object.
The force does not affect the mass.

Kinds of forces:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Gravitational force.
Normal push force.
Frictional force.
Air resistance force.
Tension force.

1. Gravitational force:
It is a force of attraction between any two masses.
For bigger masses gravitational force is stronger.
Earth

Weight is the pull of gravity; Weight is always directed vertically downwards.

Weight = mass

W=m
N

acceleration due to gravity

g = 10m/s2 (on Earth).

kg

If you travel from one planet into another, your mass stays the same but your weight changes.

80 kg

Moon

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80 kg
Earth

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2. Normal push force: is a force exerted by a support on objects placed on it.

3. Frictional force:

Frictional force is caused by the contact of 2 rough surfaces.

Friction always acts in the opposite direction of the motion.
Friction slows down the motion, and may stop it.
4. Air resistance force: is a force caused by the air on objects moving through the air. The air resistance
force always acts in the opposite direction of the motion.
e.g.: Falling through the air:

Two factors control air resistance force:

1) Speed: speed , Air resistance
2) Surface area: for larger surface area, Air resistance force is greater.

5. Tension:

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Resultant force ( F = Fnet): Is the combination of all the forces acting on an object.

20N

35N

The box will move to right

Fnet = 50 35 = 15

Fnet = 20N right

10N

50N

Fnet = 15N right

20N

22N

Fnet = 10 + 50 = 15

22N
Fnet = 22 - 22 = 0

Fnet = 60N right

Fnet = 0N

Balanced and unbalanced force:

75N

75N

60N

20N

Fnet = 75 - 75 = 0

Fnet = 60 - 20 = 0

Fnet = 0 N

Fnet = 40 N left

The object is at equilibrium

(Unbalanced force)
(Balanced force)

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Parallelogram law:
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force using the graphical method.

Scale:
10 N = 1 cm
80 N = 8 cm

10 N = 1 cm
60 N = 6 cm

Scale:
10 N = 1 cm
Fnet = 12.7 cm

Fnet = 127 N at 21 above 80 N

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Newtons laws

The object is at equilibrium

The object is not at equilibrium

(Balanced force)

(Unbalanced force)

Fnet = 0 Newton

Fnet

a = 0 m/s2

0 Newton

a=
Rest or constant velocity
Newtons 1st law:
An object at rest remains at rest, and an object moving at constant velocity continue moving at
constant velocity, unless an unbalanced force is acted upon it.

Newtons 2nd law:

The acceleration of a moving object is directly proportional to the resultant force (unbalanced force)
and inversely proportional to the mass.

m/s2

a=

Fnet = m
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kg

a
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Free fall (falling without air resistance force): Is the motion of objects fall in vacuum (in the absence
of air resistance), under the effect of one force (force of gravity).

Weight
Stone

Fnet = 5 N

e.g.: Stone (m = 0.5 kg)

W=m g
W = 0.5 10
W=5N

a=

W= 5 N

= 10 m/s2

Fnet = 5 N
a=

W= 5 N

= 10 m/s2

Fnet = 5 N
W= 5 N

a=

= 10 m/s2

Fnet = 5 N
W= 5 N

a=

= 10 m/s2

A freely falling body accelerates uniformly at a rate of 10 m/s2 on Earth. This acceleration is
caused by the force of gravity, thus it is called acceleration due to gravity. (a = g = 10 m/s2)
All freely falling bodies accelerate at 10 m/s2 on Earth, regardless of their masses.

Note: A rock and a feather are dropped from the same height at the same instant. Both will hit the
floor at the same time with the same speed, because they have the same acceleration.

V (m/s)

Gradient = a
= 10 m/s2

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Falling with air resistance:

Air Resistance

An object falling in air is under the effect of two forces:

1- Weight (W)
2- Air resistance (R)

Weight
eg: stone (m= 15kg)
W=m g
W = 15 10

R=0N
Fnet = 150 N

a=
= 10 m/s2

a=

the stone is accelerating, its speed increases and thus the air
resistance force starts to increase.

Fnet = 130 N

a=
= 8.7 m/s2

a=

the stone still accelerating, its speed still increasing and thus
the air resistance force continues increasing.

Fnet = 60 N

a=
a=

= 4 m/s2

the stone still accelerating, its speed still increasing and thus
the air resistance force continues increasing.

Fnet = 0 N
a = 0 m/s2

the stone continues falling at constant velocity called

terminal velocity.
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As the object falls, it accelerates, and air resistance force increases. As air resistance force increases,
resultant force decreases and thus acceleration decreases, until, the air resistance force balances the
weight, Fnet = 0 , a = 0 m/s2 ,and the object continues falling at constant velocity called terminal
velocity.

Speed-time graph of an object falling in air:

AB: first 3 seconds

R=0,

a = 10 m/s2 (uniform acceleration)

BC: air resistance force increases

Fnet decreases, acceleration decreases
CD: Terminal velocity
a=0
Fnet = 0, R = w

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Uniform Circular Motion

Even though the object is moving in a circle at a constant speed, its velocity is changing continually due
to the continuous change in the direction of motion thus the object is considered accelerating.

Centripetal acceleration ( ac ): it is caused by the change in velocity due to the continuous change
in the direction of motion. Centripetal acceleration is always directed towards the center.

Centripetal force ( FC ): It is the force that keeps on the circular motion of an object by changing the
direction of motion continually towards the center. The centripetal force is always directed toward the
center.

FC

Gravitational force

Tension

(Moon turns around the

Earth)

(Use a rope to
whirl a stone)

Friction
(The car moves in a circle)

Factors affecting the centripetal force:

1- Mass:

mass
mass

FC
FC

2- Radius: Radius
Radius

FC
FC

3- Speed:

Speed

FC

Speed

FC

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The path followed by an object moving in circular motion when the centripetal force disappears:
C.W.

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Elastic Material: A material whose length/shape changes when a force is acted upon it and returns back
to its original length/shape when the force is removed.
eg:

Spring / Rubber

Lo: original length (m)

L : new length (m)
e : extension (m) or elongation

e = L Lo

at equilibrium:

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T=w
T = mg

Page 28

Hookes law: The extension of the spring is directly proportional to the load provided that the limit of
proportionality is not exceeded.
The set square is used to ensure
that the ruler is placed vertically.

Mass
(kg)

Force
(N)

Length
(cm)

20
LO
0

load
w=m g

Extension
(cm)
(N/cm)

= constant

0.5
m1
5
F1
22
L1
2
e1
2.5
F1/ e1

1.0
m2
10
F2
24
L2
4
e2
2.5
F2/ e2

1.5
m3
15
F3
26
L3
6
e3
2.5
F3/ e3

=K

2.0
m4
20
F4
28
L4
8
e4
2.5
F4/ e4

N/m

K: stiffness constant (spring constant). It tells how rigid the spring is.(its S.I. unit is N/m)

e.g. 1:
Spring A
K = 2.5 N/cm
2.5N force is needed to stretch the spring by 1cm
Less rigid (less stiff )
Easier to be stretched

Spring B
K = 4 N/cm
4N force is needed to stretch the spring by 1cm
More rigid (stiffer)
Harder to be stretched

e.g. 2:
spring
K = 6 N/cm

spring
K = 10 N/cm

Which spring is stiffer? Why? Spring is more rigid (stiffer) because it has a higher spring constant.
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Force-extension graph:

E
Gradient =

N/cm

G= K

Gradient of force-extension graph equals to

springs constant (k).

P: limit of proportionality. It is the last point on the straight line. It is the point beyond which the graph
starts to curve.
Region PE: the extension is not proportional to the load. If the load is removed, the spring returns back
to its original length.
E: elastic limit. It is a point beyond which the spring is permanently deformed. If the load is removed,
the spring will not return back to its original length.

e.g.: 3
The force-extension graph of two springs, spring X and spring Y, is shown below:

Force

Spring X
Spring Y

Extension

Which spring is stiffer? Why?

Spring X is stiffer, spring X has a higher springs constant (k) as its graph is steeper (higher gradient).

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Note: springs connected in parallel and series

A force of 20 N extends this spring by 6 cm

Two springs connected in parallel

Each spring will extend by 3 cm.

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Two springs connected in series

Each spring will extend by 6 cm.

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STABILITY
Centre of gravity (centre of mass): It is the point through which the weight of an object
appears to act. The weight of an object is evenly distributed about its centre of gravity. For a
uniform object it is at the geometric centre of cross-section.

To find the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped sheet

1. Make three holes A, B and C at the edges of the sheet.

2. Use a stand and clamp to arrange a pin horizontally and suspend the sheet from hole A. The
point of suspension is a pivot point so the shape will come to rest in the balance position. The
shape is in balance when there is no turning effect about the pivot. This will be when the centre
of gravity of the shape is vertically below the pivot.
3. Hang a plurnb line (a small mass on the end of a thread) from the pivot.
4. Mark two crosses under the plumb line and join them to show the position of the vertical line.
The centre of gravity must lie somewhere along this line.
5. Repeat this procedure with holes B and C.
6. The point where the three lines cross is the centre of gravity of the sheet.

Note: the center of mass is closer to the heavier part of the body.

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Stability: An object is stable so long as its weight acts within its base. An object topples over
when the vertical line representing its weight (from its centre of gravity) lies outside its base.

Floor

Two factors affect the stability of an object:

1. The base area:
Wider base area
Smaller base area

More stable
Less stable

2. The position of the center of mass:

Lower center of mass
Higher center of mass

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More stable
Less stable

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Moment: is the turning effect of a force.

It is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the force to
the pivot.

Moment =
Force
distance

M=F
N.M

the moment is a vector quantity, it depends on direction

( c.w.) or ( a.c.w)

1-

M=F
= 20

d
1.5

= 30 N.m.

c.w.

R : reaction due to pivot

MR = F

=R 0
=0

N.m.

2-

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M1 = F1 d1
M1 = 3 10
M1 = 30 N.m.
a.c.w.

M2 = F2 d2
M2 = 15 2
M2 = 30 N.m.
c.w.

M3 = F3 d3
M3 = 8 2
M3 = 16 N.m.
c.w.

M4 = F4 d4
M4 = 12 1
M4 = 12 N.m.
a.c.w.

MR = 0 N.m
Mc.w. = 30 + 16 = 46 N.m

Mc.w.

Ma.c.w

Ma.c.w.= 30 + 12 = 42 N.m

The ruler will turn clock wise.

Equilibrium: The beam is at rest or turning constant speed.

2 conditions for equilibrium:
1- The sum of clock wise moments equals to the sum of anti clock wise moments.
2- The sum of forces in one direction equals to the sum of forces in the opposite
direction.
1) Equilibrium

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a) Calculate d2 ??
M1 = F1 d1 = 20 1.5 = 30 N.m.
c.w.
M2 = F2 d2 = 30 d2= 30 d2
a.c.w.

b) Calculate R ??
R = F1 + F 2
R = 20 + 30
R = 50 N

MR = 0 N.m
Mc.w. = Ma.c.w.
30 = 30 d2
d2 =

= 1m

1-

The
of the
is 4N ( at
from the pivot )

weight
beam
0.5m

The beam is at equilibrium.

Calculate F3 = ?

M1 = F1 d1
M1 = 5 3.5
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M2 = F2 d2
M2 = 8 1.5

M3 = F3
M3 = F3

d3
1

M4 = F4 d4
M4 = 9 2.5
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M1 = 17.5 N.m.
c.w.

M2 = 12 N.m.
a.c.w.

MR = 0 N.m.

M5 = w
=4

M3 = 1F3
a.c.w.

M4 = 22.5 N.m.
c.w.

d
0.5

= 2 N.m. c.w.

Mc.w. = Ma.c.w
17.5 + 2 + 22.5 = 12 +1 F3
42 = 12 +1 F3
42 12 = 1 F3

F3 = 30 N
Determine the magnitude of R ??

F4 + R + F2 = F3 + w + F1
9 + R + 8 = 30 + 4 + 5
R = 22 N

Pressure:

Nail B will
penetrate
the block
easier, F

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Nail X will penetrate the block easier,

area of contact

Pressure: Force per unit area.

N/m2 or Pascal( pa )

P=

N
m2

A = r2 ( circle )
A=L

w ( rectangle )

1N/m2 = 1Pa
100N/m2 = 100 Pa
F

Liquid pressure: It is caused by the weight of the liquid.

It is controlled by 3 factors:
1- depth ( h )
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2- density of the liquid ( d )

3- strength of gravity ( g )

Water

Depth

1m

1m
Water

d = 1000 kg/m3

Pressure

Oil

d = 800 kg/m3

d p

PC is the largest (deepest)

PA = PB (at the same depth in the same liquid)

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Atmospheric pressure:
Pressure due to the atmosphere

As you up to the top of a mountain, Patm

As you go down, Patm

Barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.

PA = Patm

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PA = PB

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PB = 76 cm Hg
OR: PB = d

PB = 13600

Patm = 76 cm Hg

h
10

PB = 103360 Pa
If you move the barometer to the top of the mountain, Patm , the
height of mercury column decreases.
Note:

Note:

Ptotal = (d

h) + Patm

Gas pressure:
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Caused by the collisions of gas molecules with the inner walls of the container.
Manometer is used to measure gas pressure.

1) Pgas is greater than Patm:

Pgas = Patm + (d

h)

2) Pgas is less than Patm:

Pgas = Patm - (d

h)

3) Pgas is equal to the Patm:

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Pgas = Patm

Work:

W=F

J N

Work is a scalar quantity; total does not depend on direction.

Forces in the same direction of motion can do works.

e.g.:
A 30N force pushes a cart for a distance 6m.
W=F d
W = 30

6 = 189 J

W = 180 J

Energy: is the ability to do work.

Energy is a scalar quantity; it does not depend on direction.

The S.I. unit of the energy is joule ( J ).

Forms of energy:
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1. Chemical energy.
2. Kinetic energy.
3. Gravitational potential energy.
4. Elastic potential energy.
5. Electrical energy.
6. Light energy.
7. Sound energy.
8. Heat energy.
9. Tidal energy.
Fission (nuclear reactor)
10.Nuclear energy.
Fusion (sun)

Conversion of energy:
Energy can be converted from one form into another.

Low of conservation of Energy:

Energy cannot be created and cannot be destroyed; it can be converted from one form
in to another.

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Input energy = 500 J

Output energy = 450 + 50 = 500 J

Kinetic Energy:
Energy associated with moving with moving objects.

Calculate the K.E. OF

moving at 2 m/s.

K.E. =

mv2 =

3 kg trolley

22 = 6 J

Gravitational potential energy:

Energy associated with objects at a certain height.

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G.P.E. = mgh
= 2 10 7
= 140 J
h

G.P.E.

G.P.E.

Exercises:

(low of conservation of energy)

K.E. = 0 J

1) Bouncing ball:

G.P.E. = mgh
= 0.5

10

12

= 60 J
Decrease in G.P.E. = Increase in K.E.
60 - 0 = K.E.
K.E. = 60 J
mV2 = 60
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0.5 V2 = 60
0.25 V2 = 60
V2 =
V2 = 240
V=
V = 15.5 m/s

2) Throwing a ball upward:

K.E. = 0 J

V = 0 m/s

G.P.E. = ?

h=?

m = 0.2 kg
G.P.E. = 0 J

h=0m

K.E.= mV2

V = 3 m/s

K.E.=

0.2 32

K.E.= 0.9 J
Increase in G.P.E. = Decrease in K.E.
G.P.E. 0 = 0.9
G.P.E. = 0.9 J

mgh = 0.9
0.2 10 h = 0.9
2 h = 0.9
h = = 0.45 m

3) Pendulum:
K.E. = mV2
K.E. =

(0.4)

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(2.5)2

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K.E. = 0.2

6.25

K.E. = 1.25 J
G.P.E. = mgh
= 0.4

10

0.6

= 2.4 J
Decrease in G.P.E. = Increase in K.E.
G.P.E. 2.4 = 1.25
G.P.E. = 1.25 + 2.4
G.P.E. = 3.65 J

mgh = 3.65
0.4 10 h = 3.65
4 h = 3.65
h=
= 0.9125 m

Power:
Is the energy transferred during a certain time.

P=
The S.I. unit of power is W .
KW

MW

W
*******************

Efficiency:

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eff. =

100

eff. =
eff. =

100
=

eff. =

100
= 75 %

Power Stations:
1) Hydroelectric power station:

2) Wind

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PowerStation:

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3) Tidal PowerStation:

4) Geothermal PowerStation:

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