Agriculture in ancient Tamil country

During the Sangam age, 200 BCE - 200 CE, agriculture

was the main vocation of the Tamils.[1] It was considered a necessity for life, and hence was treated as the
foremost among all occupations. The farmers or the
Ulavar were placed right at the top of the social classication. As they were the producers of food grains,
they lived with self-respect. Agriculture during the early
stages of Sangam period was primitive,[1] but it progressively got more ecient with improvements in irrigation,
ploughing, manuring, storage and distribution. The ancient Tamils were aware of the dierent varieties of soil,
the kinds of crops that can be grown on them and the various irrigation schemes suitable for a given region.These
were also in madras,thanjore(now as Chennai,Thanjavur
respectively).

pulam in Mullai and Kurinji regions did not yield rich

produce, whereas in Menpulam the yield was very good.
Dry crops were cultivated on Pinpulam, because of the
limited irrigation facilities. The Kalarnilam was unt for
cultivation.[2] Some of the types of soil known to the people of this age were the alluvial soil, red soil, black soil,
laterite soil and sandy soil and they knew what crops could
be grown on each type of soil.[2]

2 Land ownership

Land classication

Paddy elds in present day Kerala

The king owned a lot of land, but was not the sole landlord, as he had donated lands to poets, brahmins, schools,
hospitals and temples. The bulk of the agriculturists were
cultivators of their own plots of land. They were the tillers
of the soil and were known by dierent names - Ulutunbar or Yerinvalnar, because they subsisted through the
end of the plough, Vellalar because they were considered proprietors of water and Karalar or Kalamar which
meant ruler of the clouds. Women cultivators were called
Ulathiar. Among the Vellalars, the higher class people subsisted on the produce from the lands they owned
whereas the lower-class people had to work on the lands
to earn their livelihood. The higher class Vellalars, besides holding the land, held high oces under the king,
discharging civil and military duties, and assumed titles
of Vel, Arasu, Kavidi and had matrimonial alliances with
the royal family.[3]

Paddy elds in present day Tamil Nadu

Among the ve geographical divisions of the Tamil country in Sangam literature, the Marutam region was the
most t for cultivation, as it had the most fertile lands.[2]
The prosperity of a farmer depended on getting the necessary sunlight, seasonal rains and the fertility of the soil.
Among these elements of nature, sunlight was considered
indispensable by the ancient Tamils, because if rains fail
other methods of irrigation could be put to use and if
the soil wasn't naturally fertile, articial manuring would
enrich the soil. They dierentiated the lands on the basis of fertility and accordingly cultivated the crops that
were best suited for the kind of soil. They were Vanpulam (hardland), Menpulam (fertile land), Pinpulam (dry
land) and Kalarnilam or Uvarnilam (salty land). Van-

Apart from the traditional landlords and cultivators, there

were absentee landlords too. There are various instances
in which the kings donated tax-free lands to poets, brahmins, educational institutions and hospitals. Lands given
1

TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS

to brahmins was known Brahmateya. When lands were

given to brahmins and poets, these donees quite often left
the donated lands in the hands of tenants or farm laborers.
The terms of tenancy in respect of such cultivation are not
known. Sometimes independent laborers were engaged
for specic purposes and were known as Adiyor. Regardless of the nature of ownership, ranging from great landlords who owned vast stretches of land to an ordinary cultivator who owned a tiny piece of land, there was a feeling
of pride in the fact that they were the producers of food.[3]
Land, the immobile property, and its produce were both
taxable, as the king was owed a share for being the administrator of the land. Landlords and Peasants paid
the tax - the land tax was known as Irai or Karai and
the tax on produce was called Vari. It is believed that
one-sixth of the produce was collected as tax. During
times of oods and famines, cultivation was much affected and the kings were known to be kind enough to
make remissions.[4] Taxes were collected by revenue ofcials known as Variya and Kavidi and they were assisted
by accountants called Ayakanakkar. There were graneries, known as Kalanjiyam,[5] in public places as well as
in the houses of the farmers to store excess grain so that
people did not suer in times of oods or famines. The
Manram (council) of the village took necessary decisions
to safeguard the interests of the people.
For surveys and taxation purposes, various measurements
were used to measure the land and its produce. The small
land was known as Ma and bigger one as Veli. One Veli
was equal to a hundred Kuli. The produce was measured using cubic-measures such as Tuni, Nali, Cher and
Kalam and weight-measures such as Tulam and Kalanju.
Common vessels used for measuring grains were Ambanam, Nazhi and Padakku, which was equivalent to two
Marakkals. The cubic measurements were of the shape of
a wine cask with a broader waist and slightly narrow bottom and top. They were tightened and xed by metallic
bands. A balance known as Tulakkol was also in vogue.[4]

Produce

The ancient Tamils cultivated a wide range of crops

such as rice, sugarcane, millets, pepper, various
grams, coconuts, beans, cotton, plantain, tamarind and
sandalwood. Paddy was the main crop and dierent varieties of paddy such as Vennel, Sennel, Pudunel, Aivananel
and Torai were grown in the wet land of Marutam. Sennel
and pudunel were the more rened varieties. In a very fertile land, a Veli of land yielded 1000 Kalam of paddy. The
peasants lived under the shady groves beyond the Marutam land. Each house had jack, coconut, palm, areca and
plantain trees. Turmeric plants were grown in front of
the houses and ower gardens were laid in between the
houses. The Mullai people undertook the cultivation of
fruit trees and crops for cattle. The sugarcane producers
even employed mechanical contrivances to extract juices

Pearl millet

from it. In some plots, rotation of crops was followed

cotton and millet were grown simultaneously on a plot and
after that, beans were cultivated on the same land. There,
generally, was surplus from the produce. Each village
was almost self-sucient and if necessary people bought
additional commodities from neighboring villages. Such
trade happened under the barter system, with paddy and
salt being used as the medium of buying and selling. The
agricultural surplus produced by the villages is one of the
reasons for the growth of urban centers in ancient Tamilakam. According to Dr. Venkata Subramanian, "Towns
can emerge precisely at the moment when the agriculturists
start producing a surplus that can sustain basically 'Nonproductive urban residents ".[6] The king also depended
on this surplus, since the soldiers and workers were paid
in kind, i.e. grains. These factors ensured adequate demand for the produce, which in turn accelerated cultivation.

4 Techniques and tools

The Tamil people practiced a very systematic method of
cultivation during the Sangam age. It was known that
ploughing, manuring, weeding, irrigation and crop protection need to be followed in a proper way for the yield
to be rich.[7] Tiruvalluvar, in his Tirukkural, emphasizes
the need for all of these steps to be undertaken in a careful manner in order to get a good yield. A paddy eld
was also known as Kalam and was ploughed with the help
of oxen. Ploughed lands were leveled by the peasants using their feet, followed by the planting of the paddy seeds.
Once the seeds grew into saplings, they were transplanted
and when the crop was mature, it was harvested. Weeds
were removed periodically. Paddy was removed from the
harvested stalks by beating on the ground or by getting
bullocks to tread on them. Cleared paddy was collected,
measured and stored in proper containers. Millets were
grown on the Pinpulam or the dry lands and in the Kurinji
region. Crop rotation was followed for instance, cotton
and millets were grown simultaneously on the same plot

3
and after that, beans were cultivated on it.
A wide range of tools needed for agriculture, from
ploughing to harvesting, were manufactured. The basic
tool was a plough also known as meli, nanchil and kalappai. It consists of a wooden plank to tie the oxen and an
iron bar attached to the plank, that tilled the land. This
tool helped to bring the low-lying soil to the upper layer
and send the top layer to the bottom, thereby aerating the
land. For digging earth, a spade with wooden handle and a
sharp terminal was used. A wooden leveler known as palli
or maram was used to level the ploughed land. Palliyadutal refers to the process of removing weeds by means
of a toothed implement attached to a plank and drawn
by oxen. Farmers used a bullock-propelled contrivance
called Kapilai for bailing out water from deep wells and a
manual setup called Erram, for shallow wells. Water bales
were also known as ampi and kilar. Protecting the standing crops from stray animals and birds was an important
activity and was carried out by young girls[8] and lowerclass peasants. While the young girls used rattles to scare
birds away, the Kuravan and Kurathi used a stone-sling
device called Kavan to drive away elephants and birds. It
is said that an accurate shot from the sling could even kill
an animal. Bugles and burning torches were other mechanisms used to keep wild animals away from the elds.
Sickles were used for harvesting fully grown paddy and
reaping the ripe ears of corn. The paddy grain was separated by thrashing the sheaths on the ground. Ears of millets were stamped on by farm workers and that of black
gram were beaten by a stick.

Irrigation

dams were important water storage systems that were developed for this purpose. Sluices and shutters were constructed for regulating water for irrigation.[8] Sometimes,
buckets made of reeds were used for watering the lands.
In order to control the ooding of rivers, sand mounds
were raised so that water could be diverted for irrigation. Direct irrigation from canals was possible on the
basins of the Kaveri, the Periyar and the Tamaraparani.
Kallanai, a dam built on river Kaveri during this period,
is considered the oldest water-regulation structure in the
world.[9][10][11] Kaveri, Pennai, Palaru, Vaigai and the
Tamaraparani were the major rivers spreading their fertilizing water on the elds of Tamilakam. Water stored
in tanks and reservoirs was delivered to the elds through
channels. There is a considerable amount of spring channel irrigation in the Palar, Kaveri and Vaigai beds. To
raise a second crop, well water was very useful. People of this era knew how to divine the spots where there
was ow of underground water and dug wells there. Men
and oxen were used to irrigate the lands from well water.
When water supply was limited and demand was more,
it became the duty of the village authorities to distribute
the available water in a proper way. Day and night watchmen were employed to guard the tanks and reservoirs and
regulate the water supply.[8] Surface irrigation, sprinkler
mechanism and drip irrigation methods were followed to
prevent wastage of water.

6 References
Balambal, V (1998). Studies in the History of the
Sangam Age. Kalinga Publications, Delhi.
Pillay, J.K. (1972). Educational system of the ancient Tamils. South India Saiva Siddhanta Works
Pub. Society, Madras.
Venkata Subramanian, T.K. (1988). Environment
and urbanisation in early Tamilakam. Tamil University, Thanjavur.

7 Notes
[1] Venkata Subramanian. p. 26.
[2] Balambal. p. 60.
Kallanai, built around 1st century CE, is considered the oldest
water-regulation structure in the world

During the early phases of the Sangam period, people depended heavily on rains as the primary source of water
for agriculture. But, increasing demand stemming from
a growing population led to the development of better
methods of irrigation. Since the rivers of the region were
not perennial, the primary goal was to procure an adequate and continuous supply of water. Tanks, lakes and

[3] Balambal. pp. 6162.

[4] Balambal. p. 67.
[5] Venkata Subramanian. p. 37.
[6] Venkata Subramanian. p. 7.
[7] Pillay, P.G. pp. 5051.
[8] Pillay, J.K. p. 51.
[9] Balambal. p. 64.

[10] Singh, Vijay P.; Ram Narayan Yadava (2003). Water Resources System Operation: Proceedings of the International
Conference on Water and Environment. Allied Publishers.
p. 508. ISBN 81-7764-548-X.
[11] "This is the oldest stone water-diversion or water-regulator
structure in the world" (PDF). Archived from the original
(PDF) on 2007-02-06. Retrieved 2007-05-27.

7 NOTES

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