Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FACULTAD DE INGENIERA
DEPARTAMENTO DE ENSEANZAS GENERALES
CTEDRA DE INGLS
Elaborada por:
Prof. Graciela Martins
Octubre, 2011
Science News
New Bridge Can Be Built In Two Weeks
ScienceDaily (June 9, 2008) With new bridge-building materials, industrial production
methods, and an efficient construction process, it will be possible to start using a bridge
only two weeks after construction starts on the site. This is shown in a new dissertation
from Chalmers University of Technology.
A pilot study of the new bridge concept, the i-bridge, is included in Peter Harrysons
doctoral dissertation in concrete construction at Chalmers. The bridge consists of extremely
light sections that are assembled on site. The load-bearing parts consist of v-shaped
fiberglass beams that are reinforced with carbon fibers on the underside. The beams interact
with a thin bridge deck that is prefabricated out of steel-fiber-reinforced cement with
extremely high strength. Since these materials are very durable, they are advantageous in a
life-cycle perspective, and they are highly suitable for industrial construction. However,
these materials are not in use in the new construction of bridges today.
The new bridge type is a construction that projects several years into the future, but
the study shows that it would be technologically possible to build this bridge today if the
concept is further elaborated, says Peter Harryson. However, at present the economic
conditions are constrained by the major investments that would be needed to start
production, and by the high prices for fiber-composite materials.
Today the new type of bridge is estimated to cost more than twice as much as a
conventional bridge. But the economic potential of the bridge concept can be enhanced
considerably if the economic calculations are done in another way. Besides the shorter
construction time, there are several advantages both from a life-cycle perspective and in
terms of the working environment that could be valued higher.
The project has been part of (the Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation
Systems) Vinnovas research program Road, Bridge, Tunnel. Peter Harryson has been an
industrial doctoral candidate with the Swedish Road Administration, which has provided
funding.
The dissertation, titled Industrial Bridge Engineering Structural developments for
more efficient bridge construction, was publicly defended on May 29.
The new bridge concept, the i-bridge. (Credit: Image courtesy of Chalmers University of Technology)
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080604115310.htm
Activity 1.
2
Read the article and then answer this question: What is it about? Write a short paragraph.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2.
Can you say, on your own words, why this bridge is called the i-bridge?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Activity 3.
What words are repeated? Can you mention them? Write them down.
________________ ________________ ________________ ________________
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Activity 4.
Underline all the verbal groups you find in the previous article.
Activity 5.
Identifty and write down all the nouns that are present in the text.
Paragraph 1
Paragraph 2
Paragraph 3
Paragraph 4
Unidad I.
Aproximacin al texto
3
Paragraph 5
Paragraph 6
Advancements in Concrete
Technology
by P. Kumar Mehta
After a short introduction, the text is divided into the following sections:Superplasticizing admixtures
High-strength concrete and mortars
High-performance concrete
Self-compacting concrete
Technologies for prolonging service life
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures
Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel
Cathodic protection of reinforced concrete
Surface coatings
Choose one or more of the sections listed above. Note down what you think you already
know about the topic and also what you would like to know about it.
Activity A.
Comprehension and discussion statements:
(1) Concrete is used so widely in construction because it is relatively cheap.
(2) For many years a major problem was the high water content in concrete mixtures.
(3) In recent times, two major objectives have been to develop mixtures characterized by
low porosity and high strength.
(4) One problem that still remains is how to deal with severe environmental conditions.
(5) Perhaps the most critical aspect in the future will be the need to make industrial
materials environmentally friendly.
Activity B.
What words are repeated? Can you mention them? Write down their meaning.
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THE SENTENCE
Every sentence must have a subject and a verb. A sentence may be a statement, question,
command, request or exclamation. The first letter of a sentence must be capitalized, and the
sentence ends with a final punctuation mark in the form of a period (.), a question mark (?),
or an exclamation point (!).
The following exemplify these different types of sentences:
A question: What is ecology?
Statement: Ecology is the science of the relationships between organisms and their
environment.
Command: Save the environment.
Foreign students suffer from culture shock when they come to the United States.
Because the cost of education has been rising rapidly, many students are having
financial problems.
Each of the examples above is dependent since each of them expresses only a part of a
complete thought and is therefore a fragment (an incomplete sentence). In order to form a
grammatically complete sentence, each of the above clauses must be joined to an
independent clause.
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KINDS OF SENTENCES
There are basically four kinds of sentences in English:
Simple
Compound
Complex
Compound-complex
The kind of sentence is determined by the kind of clauses that form it.
A. A simple sentence is an independent clause.
I enjoy playing tennis with my friends every day.
I want a new car.
Israel votes for peace.
B. A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together in any of
three ways.
1. By a coordinating conjunction
I enjoy playing tennis, but I hate playing golf
2. By a sentence connector
I enjoy playing tennis; however, I hate playing golf.
3. By a semicolon
I enjoy playing tennis; I hate playing golf
C. A complex sentence is the combination of an independent clause and a dependent
clause. The two clauses may be in either order. The dependent clause is introduced
with a subordinator, such as that, when, where, who, because, as, if, even though, so
that, while, although, since, then, after, etc.
Although I enjoy playing tennis, I hate golf.
I hate golf although I enjoy playing tennis.
D. A compound-complex sentence is the combination of two or more independent
clauses together with one or more dependent clauses.
I hate playing golf, but I enjoy playing tennis even though I am not very good at it.
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Non-finite clause. Dependent clauses do not always have a subordinator and a subject.
Sometimes they start with an infinitive, or a ed2 (past participle) or an ing form
(present participle).
Sentence Connectors
Furthermore, besides, in
addition, moreover, also
However, nevertheless, still,
in contrast
Function
Additive
Contrast
Cause
Otherwise
Consequently, therefore,
thus, accordingly
Nor
Effect
Negative choice
Relative adverb
SUBORDINATOR
Who
Whom
Whose + Noun
That
Which
Where
When
Why
MEANING
Person/people(subject)
Person/people (object)
Person/people thing(s) possessive
Things
Place
Time
Reason
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
Subordinator
If
Even if
Unless
When
Meaning
Suppose
If.not
In the event that
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ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
FUNCTION
Time
Place
Distance/frequency
Manner
Reason
Result
Contrast/concession
Purpose
SUBORDINATOR
When
While
As soon as
After
Since
As
Where
Wherever
Everywhere
As adverb as
As
Because
As
Since
So + adj. + that
So + adv. + that
Such a(n) + NG + That
Although
Even though
Though
So that
In order that
(in order to + verb)
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MEANING
A point in time/short duration
Longer duration in time
Immediately after the time
Subsequent to the time that
From that time
While, when
A definite place
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Thus, the noun is then considered as a HEAD of the group and the other words that
are surrounding it are either PREMODIFIERS or POSTMODIFIERS.
I. The premodifiers are placed before the head word in the phrase. They can be:
a) NOUNS: These nouns modify the head noun of the phrase. They appear just
before the head noun.
Researchers develop low-cost, low-energy desalination process.
The transportation center is doing the monitoring.
Steel framed buildings with concrete floor slabs have higher levels of fire
resistance.
b) PARTICIPLES of verbs: They can be Present Participle (V + -ING) or Past
Participle (V + -ED).
Numerical modelling of two-way reinforced concrete slabs in fire.
Twelve laboratory-scale simulated landfill columns were operated.
Reduced sulfur compounds have been documented in gas.
c) ADJECTIVES: This is the most common word and easy to identify because it
gives characteristics or qualities to the noun. There are many types and we can
find more than one in a group.
Previous researchers have concentrated on the Cardington experiments.
This is quite a complex structure.
Evaluation of alternative landfill cover soils.
d) ADVERBS: Most adjectives can also be modified themselves by degree
adverbs or just adverbs like VERY, QUITE and RATHER.
It was a very interesting film.
He works in a quite famous company.
Galileo is now a well-known scientist.
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So, the subject or object of a sentence can be a long and complex structure having a
noun as head, preceded by other words such as an article, an adjective, or another noun,
(pre-modifier) and/or followed by an adjective, a prepositional group, a relative clause or a
nonfinite clause (post-modifier).
In the following chart you have the different elements of a noun group.
Elements of the Noun Group
DETERMINER
1. article
the
a/an
2. Possessive
adjective
My, your, his, her, its,
our, their
3. demonstrative
adjective
this, that, these, those
4. Quantifiers
many, a few, a lot,
more, several, etc.
5. Numerals
one, two,
first, second,
PRE-MODIFIER
HEAD
POST-MODIFIER
1. adjectives
1. noun
1. prepositional
group
2. noun
2. proper noun
2. relative clause
3. ing
3. ing clause
4. ed
4. ed clause
5. s possessive noun
5. to clause
6. adjective
Activity 2
Describe and translate the following noun groups:
1. Portand cement concrete
________________________________________________________________________
2. the material of choice for construction of a large number and variety of structures in the
world today.
________________________________________________________________________
3. the speed of construction and the durability of concrete
________________________________________________________________________
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size
age
shape colour
small
origin
material type-use
green
German
superb
awful
pretty
boring
new
plastic
long
little
fat
narrow
country
pink
old
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cotton
noun
insect
chemical
firm
washing powder
toys
road
dress
bank
manager
an
a
exciting
strange
French
oval
horror
wooden
Activity 3
3.1 Rewrite the following noun groups in the correct order.
Example: Purple blazers cotton - some medium-sized:
Some medium-sized purple cotton blazers.
1. Display vivid a - graph color-coded bar.
2. Civil calculations engineering German.
3. Thick red mixtures liquid.
4. Substances strange nonspherical referential.
5. Bright laser sighting red a.
6. Engineering new tools German practical.
7. Thermomechanical a disturbance wide.
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film
object
3.
4.
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Activity 4
Analyze the POSTMODIFIERS of the noun groups below.
1. Numerical modeling of the fire behaviour of two-way reinforced concrete slabs.
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Local authorities in England provide two options for disposing of these items.
_________________________________________________________________________
3. The degree of accuracy of the numerical models used for optimal design.
_________________________________________________________________________
4. Power-law index for velocity profiles in open channel flows.
Activity 5
Identify five (5) nominal phrase groups in the text above with the following characteristics.
Describe their function (subject or object) in the text.
1. Det + Adj. + Adj. + HN : _________________________________________________
2. HN+ postmodifier (prepositional phrase) : ____________________________________
3. Det + n + Participle + n + HN : _____________________________________________
4. Det Adj. + n + HN : ______________________________________________________
5. Adj. + Adj. + HN . _______________________________________________________
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Activity 6
Read the following text and underline the noun phrases.
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Activity 7
Infer the meaning of the following items:
1. CANVAS: ______________________________________________________
2. STRIPS: ________________________________________________________
3. QUAKE: ________________________________________________________
4. STRENGTHENING: ______________________________________________
5. STICK: _________________________________________________________
6. WITHSTAND: ___________________________________________________
7. SHAKE AND SWAY: _____________________________________________
8. INJURIES: ______________________________________________________
Activity 8
Look at the title. What is the topic of this article? What do you know about it? What do you
think the text will be about?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Activity 9
The repetition of key words and phrases has been a very useful way to find out the most
important part of any text. Thus, lets underline and then write down both, words and
phrases.
__________________
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_________________
_____________
__________________
_________________
_________________
_____________
__________________
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_____________
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Activity 10
Identify ten (10) premodifiers and label them.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Activity 11
Find a name which has turned into an adjective.
Find a verb which functions as a premodifier (adjective).
Find a verb which functions as a noun (gerund)
Activity 12
Follow-up:
Find, analyze and translate five (5) nominal groups.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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5.
1.5 Vocabulary: Words categories and formation
Probably the most important aspect of this course for you, the student, is vocabulary. You
want to know what words mean. If there are several words in any text that are new or
unfamiliar to you, you may feel frustrated, you will probably ask someone like your teacher
about them, you may look up the word in a dictionary. You may just give up and do
something else with your time. In this first Unit, we are going to look at word categories
and word formation.
Word categories
LANGUAGE WORDS
We need to know some grammar words in English.
Grammar word
Noun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
Preposition
Meaning
a person, object, concept
something we do
describes a person or thing
describes a verb
a little word used before a
noun or a pronoun
Example
book, girl, pen, happiness
do, read, write, think
good, bad, happy, long
slowly, badly
in, on, by at
Word formation
Affixation is one of the processes by which the base may be modified by adding a prefix or
a suffix. This process may or may not change the class word. **
Prefixation
Prefixes are added at the beginning of the word they do not generally alter the word class.
Prefixes can help you understand what a new word means. Here there are some common
prefixes.
Prefix
ex (+ noun)
half (+ noun or adjective)
in, im (+ adjective )
non (+ adjective or noun)
pre
re
un
ir
Meaning
was but not now
50% of something
not
not
before
again
not
not
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Example
ex-wife, ex-president
half-price, half-hour
informal, impossible
non-smoking
pre-school
re-do, rewrite
unhappy, unsafe
irresponsible
il
dis
over
mis
not
not
too much
badly or incorrect
illegible
disable, disagree
overwork, overdo
misunderstand, misread
Exercise:
Which prefix forms the opposite of these words?
happy _____________
polite _____________
legal ______________
correct ____________
regular ____________
possible ____________
legible ____________
friendly ___________
employed ___________
honest _____________
pack _____________
agree _______________
Suffixation
Suffixes are added to the root of the word. Unlike prefixes, suffixes frequently alter the
word-class of the base; for example, the adjective kind, by the addition of the suffix ness, is
changed into a noun kindness.
We can group suffixes not only by the class of word they form (as noun suffixes, verb
suffixes, etc.) but also by the class of base they are typically added to.
They help you to understand the meaning of a new word. Here are some common suffixes.
Suffix
-er, or (noun)
-er, or (noun)
-ian (noun)
-ship (noun)
-ess (noun)
-ful (adjective)
-ology (noun)
-ics (noun singular)
-less (adjective)
-ly
-ness
-y
Meaning
Examples
noun. person
noun. person, machine, thing
person with specific job
showing a state
woman who works in
something
full of
subject of study
subject of study
without
makes an adverb from an
adjective
makes an abstract noun from
an adjective
makes an adjective from a
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useful, beautiful
sociology, psychology
economics, politics
useless, endless
sadly, happily
happiness, sadness
sandy, sunny
-ment
-ion
-ation
-ity
-ist
-ous
-al
-ish
-ical
-ic
-y
-able
-ible
-ward (adj. or adverbs)
-ive
-ence
-ance
-ance
-ee
-ant
-ent
-ize
-ify
-en
-ward
noun
makes a noun from a verb
makes a noun from a verb
makes a noun from a verb
makes a noun from an
adjective
person (from another noun)
adjective (from a noun)
adjective (from nouns)
adjective with the
characteristic of
adjective from nouns
adjectives from noun
adjective (from nouns)
Adjective
Adjective
In the direction of
Adjective
makes a noun (from verbs)
makes a noun (from verbs)
makes a noun (from
adjectives)
makes a noun from a verb.
makes a noun from a verb
makes a noun from a verb
makes a verb from an adj.
makes a verb from an adj.
makes a verb from an adj.
makes an adverb
improvement
election
information
punctuality
artist
famous
musical
childish, English
physical
artistic
cloudy
loveable
comprehensible
backward
attractive
existence
performance
elegance
employee
informant
student
legalize
simplify
shorten
in the direction of
Zero affixation
Many words in English can function as a noun and verb, or noun and adjective, or verb and
adjective, with no change in form.
Example:
Whats the answer? (noun)
Answer the question. (verb)
Activity 1.
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Verb
Adjective
Adverb
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
ment
tion
ance
ogy
ness
Table 2
Noun
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Activity 2.
2.1 Place the following words in their appropriate grammatical category.
limited
much
building
eventually
soils
criterion
besides
handling
sites
controls
Noun
fungi
durable
causing
lies
higher
designing
implies
deal
prudent
term
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
embedded
cracks
trigger
really
approaches
laced
release
ultimately
very
repairs
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
diminishing
analysis
modified
scrap
testing
strength
tensile
fine
coarse
decrease
Noun
beams
present
when
comparing
ultrasonic
rubber
treads
main
modulus
impedance
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
engineering
strength
focuses
heating
beams
enables
operated
design
composite
permanently
Verb
Adjective
Activity 3.
Read the following text.
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Adverb
More specifically, the researchers have figured out a way to use 30 percent less
reinforcing steel in the manufacture of the concrete beams, or spandrels, used in the
construction of parking garages without sacrificing safety. Dr. Sami Rizkalla, one of the
leaders of the research team, says they developed design guidelines that use less steel while
maintaining safety and reliability. The new spandrel design "simplifies construction for
precast concrete producers," Rizkalla says. In addition to using less steel, the new design
cuts labor and manufacturing time in half significantly decreasing costs.
Greg Lucier, a doctoral student at NC State who was also crucial to the research
effort, says the new design guidelines include a significant margin for safety. For example,
Lucier says the spandrels could handle two to three times the maximum weight they would
be expected to bear. Lucier is also the lab manager of the Constructed Facilities Laboratory
at NC State, which oversaw the testing of the new spandrel design.
The new design guidelines stem from a two-year project that was launched in
January 2007, with support from the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI). PCI
provided NC State with more than $400,000 in funding, materials and technical support
over the life of the project.
The success of the project is already drawing interest from the concrete industry,
with individual companies coming to NC State to get input on how to improve their
products and manufacturing processes. For example, Rizkalla says, many companies want
to collaborate with researchers at the Constructed Facilities Laboratory on research and
development projects related to new materials, such as advanced composites, to be used in
concrete products.
While researchers have published some elements of the research project, they will
present an overview of the entire project including new testing data for the first time at
the spring convention of the American Concrete Institute in San Antonio this month.
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Dr. Sami Rizkalla explains that by testing the new concrete beam design to see how much weight it
can bear, researchers have determined that it can handle two to three times the maximum weight it
would be expected to bear. (Credit: David Hunt, NC State University)
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/03/090303082813.htm
Activity 4.
Locate 20 derived words and classify them according to their grammatical category.
Noun
Verb
Adjective
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Adverb
*1
Can a decent glossary of technical terms help the reader? Look at this extract from a
glossary.
How many of the terms appear in the text?
How many are familiar to you?
How many are new?
Do you find the definitions of these terms easy to understand?
Concrete terms courtesy of CANMET
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
A
Admixture
a material other than water, aggregate, hydraulic cement, supplementary cementing
materials, and fiber reinforcement, used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar, and added to
the batch immediately before or during its mixing
Admixture, accelerating
an admixture that causes an increase in the rate of hydration of the hydraulic cement, and
thus shortens the time of setting, or increases the rate of strength development, or both
Admixture, air-entraining
an admixture that causes the development of a system of microscopic air bubbles in
concrete, mortar, or cement paste during mixing
Admixture, water-reducing
an admixture that either increases slump of freshly mixed mortar or concrete without
increasing water content or maintains slump with a reduced amount of water, the effect
being due to factors other than air-entrainment
Admixture, high-range water-reducing (Superplasticizer)
a water-reducing admixture capable of producing large water reduction or great flowability
without causing undue set retardation or entrainment or air in mortar or concrete
Aggregate
granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed hydraulic cement concrete,
or iron blast-furnace slag, used with a hydraulic cementing medium to produce either
concrete or mortar
Air, entrained
microscopic air bubbles intentionally incorporated in mortar or concrete during mixing,
usually by use of a surface active agent; typically between 10 and 1000mm in diameter and
spherical or nearly so
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Air content
the volume of air voids in cement paste, mortar, or concrete, exclusive of pore space in
aggregate particles, usually expressed as a percentage of total volume of the paste, mortar,
or concrete
B
Batch
quantity of either concrete or mortar mixed at one time
Batch weights
the weights of the various materials (cement, supplementary cementing materials, water,
the several sizes of aggregate, and admixtures if used) which compose a batch of concrete
Bleeding
the autogenous flow of mixing water within, or its emergence from, newly placed concrete
or mortar; caused by the settlement of the solid materials within the mass; also called water
gain
Broom finish
the surface texture obtained by stroking a broom over freshly placed concrete
Brushed surface
a sandy texture obtained by brushing the surface of freshly placed or slightly hardened
concrete with a stiff brush for architectural effect or, in pavements, to increase skid
resistance
Bug holes
small regular or irregular cavities, usually not exceeding 15 mm in diameter, resulting from
entrapment of air bubbles in the surface of formed concrete during placement and
consolidation
C
Caisson pile
a cast-in place pile made by driving a tube, excavating it, and filling the cavity with
concrete
Calcium-silicate hydrate
any of the various reaction products of calcium silicate and water, produced in the
hydration of cement
Cast-in-place
mortar or concrete which is deposited in the place where it is required to harden as part of
the structure, as opposed to precast concrete
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D
Durability
the ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, and other
conditions of service
E
Early strength
strength of concrete or mortar usually as developed at various times during the first 72 hr
after placement
F
Final set
a degree of stiffening of a mixture of cement and water greater than initial set, generally
stated as an empirical value indicating the time in hours and minutes required for a cement
paste to stiffen sufficiently to resist to an established degree, the penetration of a weighted
test needle; also applicable to concrete and mortar mixtures with use of suitable test
procedures
Final setting time
the time required for a freshly mixed cement paste, mortar, or concrete to achieve final set
Finishing
leveling, smoothing, consolidating, and otherwise treating surfaces of fresh or recently
placed concrete or mortar to produce desired appearance and service.
Float finish
a rather rough concrete surface texture obtained by finishing with a float.
Floating
the operation of finishing a fresh concrete or mortar surface by use of a float, preceding
trowelling when that is to be the final finish.
Fly ash
the finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered coal and
which is transported from the firebox through the boiler by flue gases.
Formwork
total system of support for freshly placed concrete including the mold or sheathing which
contacts the concrete as well as all supporting members, hardware, and necessary bracing.
H
Heat of hydration
heat evolved by chemical reactions with water, such as that evolved during the setting and
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hardening of portland cement, or the difference between the heat of solution of dry cement
and that of partially hydrated cement
Hydration
formation of a compound by the combining of water with some other substance; in
concrete, the chemical reaction between hydraulic cement and water
I
Initial Set
a degree of stiffening of mixture of cement and water less than final set, generally stated as
an empirical value indicating the time in hours and minutes required for cement paste to
stiffen sufficiently to resist to an established degree, the penetration a weighted test needle;
also applicable to concrete or mortar with use of suitable test procedures
Initial setting time
the time required for a freshly mixed cement paste, mortar, or concrete to achieve initial set
M
Mixing water
the water in freshly mixed sand-cement grout, mortar, or concrete, exclusive of any
previously absorbed by the aggregate
Moist-air curing
curing in moist air (not less than 95 percent relative humidity) at atmospheric pressure and
normally at a temperature approximating 22.8 C
P
Plastic consistency
condition of freshly mixed cement paste, mortar, or concrete such that deformation will be
sustained continuously in any direction without rupture
Pozzolan
a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, which in itself possesses little or no
cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture,
chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties
Precast
a concrete member that is cast and cured in other than its final position; the process of
placing and finishing precast concrete
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R
Retardation
reduction in the rate of either hardening or setting or both, i.e., and increase in the time
required to reach time initial and final setting or to develop early strength of fresh concrete,
mortar, or grout
S
Set
the condition reached by a cement paste, mortar, or concrete when it has lost plasticity to an
arbitrary degree, usually measured in terms of resistance to penetration or deformation;
initial set refers to first stiffening; final set refers to attainment of significant rigidity
Slump
a measure of consistency of freshly placed concrete, mortar, or stucco equal to the
subsidence measured to the nearest 6 mm of the molded specimen immediately after
removal of the slump cone
T
Trowel finish
the smooth or textured finish of an unformed concrete surface obtained by trowelling
38
Category
Matrix
Chicago
American Pie
The Manchurian Candidate
Notting Hill
The Ring
I Know What You Did Last Summer
Romantic comedy
Suspense
Musical
Horror
Science fiction
Drama
Comedy
Its natural for us to order and label things. Maybe it makes life a little less complicated. We
can do it with films, probably with music, books and all kinds of things. We can make our
labels very general, a kind of super category, or more particular, sub-categories. For
example, we could start with LITERATURE and break that into, say, PLAYS, POEMS,
NOVELS, then go on to sub-divide any of these categories.
We can call these general categories GENRES.
If we switch to non-fiction written texts, the same general to more particular categorization
applies. Take, for example, the general genre or category, academic English or even
something like Civil Engineering texts in English. One difference between these very
general categories and our general film genres is that the latter are usually structured
conventionally. In other words, they often follow a highly recognizable format As viewers
or as readers, say, of mystery or detective stories, we not only recognize the format but we
expect it. Its as if we carry around detective story or horror film structures inside our
heads. The same is true of different types of academic texts. We can call these mental
stories schema.
How many different types of academic text can you think of?
For example, what types of text do the following general definitions describe?
(a) a text which reports the results of studies done in the field or in the laboratory.
Usually appears in a technical or specialized journal.
(b) this is divided into chapters and sections and is used by teachers and students as the
basis for a course.
(c) it explains how to carry out procedures according to industrial or other standards.
39
At a more discrete level we have rhetorical patterns of text, such as, classically, the four
types of narrative, description, exposition and argumentation. Although each pattern can be
generally associated with a particular text type, there is a great deal of overlap. In other
words, a narrative style of writing can be found across several text types and one text type
can contain more than one rhetorical pattern.
It is as if the genre or text type is an external feature and the rhetorical pattern shows the
internal structure of the text.
Read the following three extracts. Discuss and decide:
(a) Which type of text each one is
(b) What rhetorical patterns are evident in the extracts
1.
Storage
reservoirs
are
used
to
control
floods,
to
thereto,
and
seasonal
and
other
varying
If
specified
volume
of
reservoir
storage
is
40
2.
, a, 1
Universidade Luterana do Brasil, Rua Miguel Tostes, 101 Prdio 11, Sala 31, 92420-280,
Canoas, RS, Brazil
b
University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
Received 15 October 2003; accepted 5 February 2004. Available online 2 July 2004.
Abstract
In this paper, the problem of overload failure of a structural component under random
loading and under random crack propagation is addressed. The problem is formulated by
combining the first passage failure model with stochastic models of crack propagation.
Disadvantages of the standard random variable approach to the problem are discussed, and
an alternative random process approach is developed. The developed solution addresses
both overload and critical crack growth failure modes, requires a single mean crack growth
computation, allows the consideration of non-destructive inspections and significantly
speeds life-time analysis. The random process approach leads to a first passage problem
involving crossings of a random barrier level, which is solved by means of the ensemble
up-crossing rate approximation. Limitations of this approximation are addressed and related
to typical problem parameters. The concept of barrier failure dominance is discussed, and
extended to the case of a barrier-defined failure. Sensitivity studies involving different
problem variables are performed, helping to identify the appropriate solution method for
specific problems.
41
3.
Concrete
Concrete is an engineering material that simulates the properties of rock being a
combination of particles closely bound together. It is simply a blend of aggregates.
normally natural sand and gravel or crushed rock bound together by a hydraulic binder e.g.
Portland cement, actvated by water, to form a dense semi homogenous mass.
Concrete type by application
There are many forms of concrete. In all cases they are produced using a varied selection of
constituent materials brought together to form a semi-homogeneous solid. The name given
to the many types of concrete available is either a reflection of its final application, e.g.
prestressed concrete, or the properties of the concrete, e.g. lightweight concrete.
Pre-tensioned concrete
Prestressed concrete
Flooring concrete
Concrete - normal types
Designated - ready-mixed concrete
Concrete countertops
Foamed concrete - Examples of the use
Prescribed - ready-mixed concrete
Proprietary - ready-mixed concrete
Precast concrete
Sprayed concrete - shotcrete - gunite
Post-tensioned concrete
Repair of concrete
Decorative concrete
Road concrete
Concrete for pumping
Foamed concrete - Applications
Designed - ready-mixed concrete
Standardised prescribed - ready-mixed concrete
Airfield concrete
Roller compacted
Imprinted concrete paving
42
1.8 Task
It is now time to apply what we have studied in this first Unit to another text. Here are the
instructions.
a. Find a text in any pertinent area of Civil Engineering.
b. Identify the type of text you have chosen.
c. Comment on how the text is divided up into parts
d. Choose one part of the text and analyze all its sentences. (Minimum 10
sentences)
e. Identify and translate 10 complex nominal groups.
f. Which words and expressions in the text have you included in your
vocabulary notebook?
Technical vocabulary
The text we are studying in detail is rich in technical terminology. This will probably be
true for every text you read in the area of Civil Engineering.
43
44
high fluidity, long-term slump retention, and high resistance to segregation. 7 Long-life
superplasticizers based on naphthalene or melamine sulfonate polymers are also
commercially available now.
High-strength concrete and mortars
High-strength concrete ( > 40 MPa [> 6000 psi] compressive strength) was first used in
reinforced concrete frame buildings with 30 or more stories. In tall buildings, the size of
columns in the lower one-third part of the building is quite large when conventional
concrete is used. Besides savings in the materials cost, construction engineers have found
that the choice of reinforced concrete frame instead of steel frame in high-rise buildings
permits additional savings resulting from higher construction speeds. 8 Beginning with 50
MPa (7300 psi) concrete columns for the Lake Point Tower in Chicago, constructed in
1965, many tall buildings containing high-strength concrete elements have been built in
North America and elsewhere. The 79-story Water Tower Place in Chicago contains 60
MPa (8700 psi) concrete columns. The Scotia Plaza Building in Toronto and the Two Union
Square Building in Seattle have columns with 90 and 120 MPa (13,000 psi to 17,400 psi)
strength concrete, respectively.
To obtain high strength, the w/cm of the concrete mixture is usually held below 0.4 with the
help of a superplasticizing admixture. Due to the low w/cm, an important characteristic of
high-strength concrete is its low permeability, which is the key to long-term durability in
aggressive environments. Consequently, far more high-strength concrete has been used for
applications where durability rather than strength was the primary consideration. Marine
concrete structures long-span bridges, undersea tunnels, and offshore oil platforms are
examples of such applications.
High fluidity without segregation is yet another factor contributing to the growth of the
superplasticized, high-strength concrete industry. The workability of superplasticized
concrete mixtures can generally be improved by the use of pozzolanic or cementitious
admixtures, such as silica fume, fly ash, rice husk ash, and ground granulated blast furnace
slag. Ease in pumping and easy-to-form concrete mixtures can re-duce construction cost
significantly in large projects; high-rise buildings and offshore structures, for example. This
is especially the case when heavily reinforced and prestressed concrete elements containing
narrowly-spaced reinforcement are fabricated.
Roy and Silsbee have reviewed the development of a new family of high-strength cementbased products which do not depend on the use of superplasticizers. 9 Chemically-bonded
ceramics (CBC), are mortars with little or no coarse aggregate, a very high cement content,
and a very low w/cm. They are densified under high pressure and then thermally cured to
obtain very high strength. The products, typically consisting of 50 percent anhydrous
phases, exhibit properties approximating those of fired ceramics. The so-called MDF
(macro-defect-free) cement products are made with a cement paste containing up to 7
percent by mass of a water-soluble plasticizing agent, such as hydroxypropyl-methyl
cellulose, polyacrylamide, or hydrolyzed polyvinyl acetate. The paste is subjected to high
shear mixing, and the products are molded under pressure and finally heat cured at
temperatures up to 80 C (176 F). Compressive strengths on the order of 150 MPa (22,000
psi) are obtained with portland cements, and up to 300 MPa (44,000 psi) with calcium
aluminate cements. Studies have shown that moisture has an adverse effect on the
45
mechanical properties of MDF cement products. Products densified with small particles
(DSP) contain 20 to 25 per-cent silica fume particles which are densely packed in a
superplasticized portland cement paste (0.12 to 0.22 w/cm). Compressive strengths of up to
270 MPa (39,000 psi) and Youngs moduli up to 80 GPa (12,000 ksi) were achieved
through mechanical compaction.9 On account of their brittleness, the use of CBC, MDF,
and DSP is limited to non-structural applications.
The high-ductility requirement for structural use of high-strength, cement-based products
can be achieved by the in-corporation of steel microfibers. Reactive power concrete (RPC)
products developed by Richard and Cheyrezy 10 are actually superplasticized cement
mortars typically comprising 1000 kg/m3 (1700 lb/yd3 ) portland cement, 900 to 1000 kg/m3
(1500 to 1700 lb/yd 3 ) fine sand and pulverized quartz, 230 kg/m3 (390 lb/yd3 ) silica fume,
150 to 180 kg/m3 (250 to 300 lb/yd3 ) water, and up to 630 kg/m3 (1100 lb/yd3 ) microfibers.
Mechanically pressed samples, heat treated at 400 C (752 F) showed up to 680 MPa
(99,000 psi) compressive strength, 100 MPa (15,000 psi) flexural strength, and 75 GPa
(11,000 ksi) Youngs Modulus. It is too early to predict the future of RPC. In spite of the
very high initial cost and a complex processing technology, the material may have a niche
in the construction industry, especially for applications in highly corrosive environments.
The presence of a large volume of microfibers enhances the crack-resisting ability of the
material, thereby preserving its watertightness.
High-performance concrete
The term high-performance concrete (HPC) was first used by Mehta and Atcin for concrete
mixtures possessing three characteristics, namely high workability, high strength, and high
durability.11 Thus, a primary distinction between high-strength concrete and highperformance concrete was the mandatory requirement of high durability in the case of HPC.
As high durability under severe environmental conditions cannot be achieved unless a
structure remains free from cracks during its service life, the concrete mixture ought to be
designed for high dimensional stability. Therefore, to reduce cracking from thermal and
drying shrinkage strains it is necessary to limit the cement paste content of the concrete
mixture.
Mehta and Atcin proposed a method of proportioning HPC mixtures, which limits the total
cement paste content to one-third by volume of concrete. 11 This method also permits a
partial substitution of portland cement by a pozzolanic or cementitious admixture. Atcin
has recently reviewed the art and science of high-performance concrete.12 The author foresees increasing use of ternary cement blends containing slag, fly ash, silica fume,
metakaolin, rice husk ash, and limestone powder to take advantage of the synergetic effect
in the improvement of properties of both fresh and hardened concrete in addition to making
HPC more economical.
In 1993, a subcommittee of the American Concrete Institutes Technical Activities
Committee proposed a new definition of HPC as a concrete meeting special performance
requirements that may involve enhancement of placement and compaction without
segregation, early-age strength, toughness, volume stability or service life in a severe
environment. According to this definition, durability is not mandatory for high
performance. This has encouraged the development of concrete mixtures which qualify to
be classified as HPC but may not be durable under severe environmental conditions.
46
For example, for use in highway structures, Goodspeed et al. 13 proposed several HPC
mixtures typically made with a high early strength cement, and cement contents of the
order of 400 kg/m3 (670 lb/yd3 ) or more. Therefore, unless special measures are taken,
such concrete mixtures would be vulnerable to cracking from thermal, autogenous, and
drying shrinkage stresses.14 Clearly, one can jeopardize the service life of a concrete
structure if driven by the construction timetables alone. In structural design, therefore it is
advisable to consider the life-cycle cost rather than the initial cost of the structure. Also,
there is a need to re-examine the issue of whether or not concrete mixtures of questionable
long-term durability should be marketed as high-performance products.
HPC technology is being successfully used for the construction of numerous offshore
structures and long-span bridges throughout the world. 15 Langley et al. describe several
types of HPC mixtures used in the construction of structural elements for the 12.9 km (8.0
mi) long, Northumberland Strait Bridge in Canada. 16 The concrete mixture for the main
girders, pier shafts, and pier bases contained 450 kg/m3 (760 lb/yd3) of a blended silicafume cement, 153 L/m3 (260 lb/yd3) water, 160 mL/m3 (4 oz/yd3) air-entraining agent, and 3
L/m3 (75 oz/yd3) superplasticizer. Typically, fresh concrete mixtures showed 200 mm (8 in.)
slump and contained 6.1 percent air. The compressive strengths of hardened concrete
samples at 1, 3, and 28 days were 35, 52, and 82 MPa (5100, 7500, and 12,000 psi),
respectively. For approach pier foundations and other mass concrete elements, the HPC
contained a mixture of 307 kg/m3 (518 lb/yd3) silica-fume blended cement and 133 kg/m3
(224 lb/yd3) fly ash. At a similar water content (159 mL/m 3 [270 lb/yd3]) but a considerably
reduced dosage of air-entraining agent (88 mL/m3 [2 oz/yd3]) and superplasticizer (1.05
L/m3 [27 oz/yd3]), the fresh concrete mixture gave 185 mm (7 in.) slump and 7 percent air
content. The compressive strengths of hardened concrete at 1, 3, 28, and 90 days were 10,
20, 50, and 76 MPa (1450, 2900, 7300, and 11,000 psi) respectively. Both concrete
mixtures showed extremely low permeability, as measured by the CANMET Water
Permeability Test and the AASHTO T 277 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test. With HPC
structures, Langley et al place a great emphasis on site laboratory testing and quality
assurance.16
Another development in the HPC field is in high-performance lightweight concrete HPLC).
Relative to steel, the structural efficiency of normal concrete is quite low when judged from
strength/weight ratio. This ratio is considerably enhanced in the case of superplasticized,
high-strength concrete mixtures, and can be further enhanced by full or partial replacement
of normal-weight aggregate with microporous, lightweight aggregate particles. Depending
on the aggregate quality, high-performance lightweight concrete (HPLC) with a density of
2000 kg/m3 (3400 lb/yd3) and compressive strengths in the 70 to 80 MPa (10,000 to 12,000
psi) range has been commercially produced for use in structural members. According to
Bremner and Holm, HPLC has been used in offshore platforms, both fixed and floating, in
Australia, Canada, Japan, Norway, and the United States.17 Furthermore, according to the
authors, due to the high interfacial bond strength between the cement paste and aggregate,
HPLC remains virtually impermeable to fluids and is therefore highly durable in aggressive
environments.
The superior adhesive quality of superplasticized concrete made with cement blends
containing 10 to 15 percent or even a higher content of silica fume makes them well suited
for repair and rehabilitation of concrete structures by the wet-mix shotcreting process. This
is another area of growing HPC applications. Morgan has reviewed new developments in
shotcreting with several examples of shotcrete repair of infrastructure in North America.18
47
Self-compacting concrete
Shortage of skilled labor and savings in construction time were the primary reasons behind
the development and increasing use of self-compacting concrete in Japan. The composition,
properties, and applications of self-compacting, superplasticized concrete mixtures are
described in several recently published Japanese papers.19-23 Note that some authors prefer
to use the term, self-levelling concrete, instead of self-compacting concrete.
According to Nagataki, the successful development of superplasticized, anti-washout,
underwater concrete mixtures in West Germany during the 1970s provided the impetus for
the subsequent development of self-compacting, high-fluidity concrete in Japan in 1980s. 5
In both cases, high fluidity and segregation resistance were obtained by the simultaneous
use of a superplasticizing admixture and a viscosity-increasing admixture. Note that
cellulose and acrylic water-soluble polymers are widely used as main components of
viscosity-increasing admixtures. The viscosity of self-compacting concrete mixtures is
greatly influenced by their powder content. A high content of cement can cause thermal
cracking in some structures. Therefore, it is a common practice to use substantial amounts
of mineral admixtures, such as fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, or limestone
powder. Nagataki reported that 290,000 m3 (380,000 yd3) of a self-compacting concrete
mixture, containing 150 kg/m3 (250 lb/yd3) limestone powder and a superplasticizing
admixture, were used for the construction of the two anchorage bodies of the AkashiKaikyo Bridge system in Japan. The anchorage consisted of densely-arranged
reinforcement and cable frame congested with steel. In another application, high-fluidity
concrete with extremely low w/cm was used for bottom-up concreting of a concrete-filled
steel column without compaction.6
In France, the ready-mixed concrete industry is using self-compacting concrete as a noisefree product that can be used around the clock in urban areas. Due to noise reduction, labor
savings, and longer life of steel molds, the precast concrete products industry is also
investigating the use of the material.
Technologies for prolonging service life
Corrosion of reinforcing steel is implicated in a majority of deteriorating concrete
structures. In addition to HPC described previously, there are several recently developed
technologies that are being pursued to address this problem, namely the use of corrosioninhibiting admixtures, epoxy-coated steel reinforcement, cathodic protection, and
application of protective coatings on the concrete surface. These are briefly reviewed:
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures: Berke and Weil presented a comprehensive review of
corrosion-inhibiting admixtures in concrete.24 Gaidis and Rosenberg showed that the
addition of 2 percent calcium nitrite by mass raised the threshold chloride concentration to
levels that were high enough to inhibit the corrosion of steel.25 The anodic inhibitors, such
as calcium nitrite, function by minimizing the anodic reaction promoted by the chloride
ions. This is the reason that the amount of nitrite ions present relative to the amount of
chloride ions in the vicinity of the steel surface determines whether or not corrosion
protection will be achieved. It was proposed that protection from corrosion is obtained if
the chloride/nitrite ratio does not exceed 1.5. 25 Nmai et al. believe this to be a serious
48
The current annual production of fly ash in the world is of the order of 450 million tonnes.
Only about 25 million tonnes or 6 percent of the total available fly ash is being used as a
pozzolan in blended portland cements or in concrete mixtures. The environmental
friendliness of concrete can be considerably enhanced if the rate of fly ash utilization by the
concrete industry is accelerated in the ash producing countries. Countries where large
amounts of blast-furnace slag is available as a by-product can similarly benefit from the use
of high volumes of granulated slag either as a concrete admixture or as an additive in the
manufacture of portland slag cements. Examples of high volume fly ash and slag concretes
are given here:
Structural concrete: Studies by Malhotra 30 with superplasticized concrete mixtures have
shown that, when the w/cm is limited to 0.3 or less, up to 60 percent cement can be replaced
with a Class F or Class C fly ash (ASTM C 618) to obtain excellent strength and durability
characteristics. For instance, a test mixture containing 150 kg/m 3 (250 lb/yd3) ASTM ype I
cement, 200 kg/m3 (340 lb/yd3) ASTM Class F fly ash, 102 kg/m 3 (170 lb/yd3) water, 1220
kg/m3 (2100 lb/yd 3) coarse aggregate, 810 kg/m3 (1400 lb/yd3) fine aggregate, and 7 L/m 3
(190 oz/yd3) superplasticizer gave 8, 55, and 80 MPa (1200, 8000, and 12,000 psi)
compressive strengths at 1, 28, and 182 days, respectively. From extensive laboratory
tests,30,31 it was concluded that the Youngs Modulus of elasticity, creep, drying shrinkage,
and freezing and thawing characteristics of high volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete are
comparable to normal portland cement concrete. It is noteworthy that high volume fly ash
concretes showed exceptionally high resistance to water permeation and chloride-ion
penetration. These findings are of considerable importance from the standpoint of durability
of structures including control of corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete exposed to
chloride environments. Therefore, HVFA superplasticized concrete may turn out to be the
best value-added use of fly ash in the construction industry.
Roller-compacted concrete dams: Since the 1980s, roller-compacted concrete (RCC) has
been accepted worldwide as the most rapid and economical method for the construction of
medium height dams. According to Dunstan, until the end of 1992 approximately 100 RCC
dams had been built in 17 different countries.32 The high paste type RCC mixtures
typically contain 250 kg/m3 (420 lb/yd3) cementitious material of which 70 to 80 percent is
a pozzolan. Fly ash has been used as a pozzolan in most RCC dams. The Upper Stillwater
Dam in the United States required 1.24 million m3 (1.61 million yd 3) of concrete containing
79 kg/m3 (130 lb/yd3) portland cement and 173 kg/m3 (292 lb/yd3) fly ash. In all, over
200,000 tonnes of low calcium fly ash from six different power plants was used. Large
volumes of pozzolanic materials are needed for the Zungeru Dam in Japan which contains 5
million m3 (6.5 million yd3) RCC, and the 217 m (700 ft) high Longton Dam in China will
contain 7.5 million m3 (10 million yd 3) RCC. Further, according to Dunstan, even
nonstandard fly ash is being successfully used as a component of RCC mixtures.32 For
instance, the RCC mixture for the construction of 95 m (310ft) high Platanovryssi Dam in
Greece contains 35 kg/m3 (59lb/yd3) portland cement and 250 kg/m3 (420 lb/yd3) of a fly
ash which has an unusually high calcium content (42 percent total CaO). The fly ash is
generated from thermal power stations using lignite as fuel, and as pretreated (pulverized
and hydrated) before use.
50
the Netherlands where waste recycling has become a growth industry since 1970s, 60
percent of the demolition waste is reused. Uchikawa and Hanehera estimated that 29
million tonnes, which is one-third of the 86 million tones of the construction waste
produced in Japan in 1992, consisted of concrete rubble. 36 Twelve million tonnes was recycled as road-base aggregate; the rest was disposed. Saeki and Shimura reported the
satisfactory performance of re-cycled concrete aggregate as a road-base material in cold
regions.37 In the United States, in 1983, deteriorated concrete from a 9 km (6 mi) long
freeway pavement in Michigan was crushed, and the rubble was used as aggregate for
concrete that was needed for the construction of the new pavement.8
The end-use of the aggregate recovered from concrete waste depends on its cleanness and
soundness, which are controlled by the source of origin of the rubble and the processing
technology. Aggregate recovered from surplus fresh concrete in precasting yards and readymixed concrete plants is generally clean and similar in properties to the virgin aggregate.
Concrete rubble from demolition of road pavements and hydraulic structures requires
screening to remove the fines. Many laboratory and field studies have shown that the size
fraction of the concrete rubble corresponding to coarse aggregate can be satisfactorily used
as a substitute for natural aggregate. A comparison of properties of concrete from natural
aggregate and the recycled concrete aggregate shows that the latter would give at least twothird of the compressive strength and the elastic modulus of natural aggregate.8
Demolition wastes from buildings are more difficult to handle. The concrete is usually
contaminated with deleterious constituents, such as wood, metals, glass, gypsum, paper,
plastics, and paint. In combination with selective demolition of building components, such
wastes can be handled in a cost effective way by processing into a number of sub-flows,
which can be recycled separately. Evidently, due to the processing cost, at times the
recycled concrete aggregate from building rubble may be more expensive than natural
aggregate. However, this situation will rapidly change as the natural sources of good
aggregate become scarce and the alternative waste disposal costs are included in the
economic analysis.
Cost-benefit analysis
There is not much published information on materials and construction costs. Unpublished
reports may provide some useful data; however, costs vary considerably from one country
to another, and even within a country. Also, due to insufficient experience, there are no hard
data on the cost-benefit analysis of technologies that have been recently developed for the
enhancement of service life of reinforced concrete structures exposed to aggressive
environmental conditions. Gerwick made an attempt to examine the economic aspects of
the concrete durability problem.38 Comparing the relative cost of mitigating measures
commonly recommended for controlling the deterioration of concrete due to the corrosion
of steel reinforcement (as a percentage of the first cost of the concrete structure, based on
1994 prices in Western countries), the following conclusions can be drawn from Gerwicks
data:
The use of fly ash or slag as a partial replacement for portland cement involves no
increase in cost. It may actually result in a lower cost;
Lowering the w/cm with a superplasticizer increases the cost by 2 percent. The cost
increase will be 5 percent if silica fume is also used;
52
53
54