THE ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF

SUB-SURFACE DRIP IRRIGATION

Frikkie Koegelenberg Pr Eng

INSTITUTE FOR AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

INSTITUUT VIR LANDBOU-INGENIEURSWESE
Private Bag / Privaatsak X519, Silverton 0127, South Africa / South Africa
Tel: 012 842 4000 z Fax / Faks: 012 804 0753
Website / Webtuiste: www.arc.agric.za

Published by the Institute for Agricultural Engineering (IAE)

An Institute of the Agricultural Research Council (ARC)
141 Cresswell Road, Silverton, Pretoria
Copyright 2005
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including photocopying and
recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written
permission from the publisher.
Printed and bound by the Institute for Agricultural Engineering
141 Cresswell Road, Silverton, Pretoria, South Africa
ISBN 1-919685-43-X

CONTENTS
1.

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................1

2.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES ...................................................................................................2

2.1 Drippers ....................................................................................................................2
2.2 Equipment .................................................................................................................5

3.

INSTALLATION GUIDELINES ...................................................................................7

3.1 Installation practices .................................................................................................8
3.2 Implements................................................................................................................9
3.2.1 Typical installation shanks .........................................................................11
3.2.2 Dripper spool carrier...................................................................................11
3.3 Removal of drip lines..............................................................................................12

4.

OPERATION..................................................................................................................12

5.

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES....................................................................................12
5.1 Germination ............................................................................................................12
5.2 Improvement of underground water distribution....................................................13
5.3 Fertigation ...............................................................................................................13
5.4 Scheduling ..............................................................................................................13

6.

MAINTENANCE ...........................................................................................................14
6.1 Root intrusion .........................................................................................................16
6.2 Chemical treatment of irrigation water ...................................................................16
6.2.1 Chlorine application ...................................................................................17
6.2.2 Acid application..........................................................................................19
6.2.3 Specific logging problems with possible solutions ....................................21

7.

SUMMARY.....................................................................................................................21

8.

REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................23

9.

APPENDIX .....................................................................................................................24

THE ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF SUB-SURFACE

DRIP IRRIGATION
1.

INTRODUCTION

Irrigators in South Africa will have to apply their available water sources more efficiently in
future in order to survive, due to imminent water shortages in the country. Many producers
are reverting to sub-surface drip, as experts (local and abroad) indicate that it may increase
irrigation efficiency by more than 30% with associated increases in yield and quality.
Numerous growers in the USA have been making use of sub-surface drip during the last ten
years. Sub-surface drip lines are usually left in position for five to ten years with all
cultivation taking place above the lines during this period. The only difference between subsurface and other drip irrigation systems is that the former is installed below the surface and
has a flushing manifold. In most cases, thin-walled pipe (tube) is used. Chemigation is more
important from a management aspect.
It consists of the following:

Fertigation
Prevention of clogging (chemical, as well as biological)
Pest control

Compared to surface drip, sub-surface drip has the following advantages:

It results in increased water use efficiency (mass of agricultural products produced per
unit of water).
It increases system lifetime.
It wets a larger volume of soil in the root zone.
The soil surface remains dry.
It allows two harvests per year as a different crop may be planted within a week of the
first harvest.
It eases mechanisation of the harvesting process.
It prevents infiltration problems, especially where the soil surface is prone to crust
formation.
Sewage water may be used.
It results in a reduction in labour costs for rolling up dripper laterals.

Concerns about sub-surface drip are as follows:

Deep cultivation for pest control is impossible.

Beds damaged by high rainfall result in difficulty locating laterals for planting in a
new season.
Cultivation of different rotation crops with varying row spacing becomes difficult.
A scarcity of information exists on implements to be used for optimal cultivation of
different crop varieties and soil combinations.
Thin sided lines are easily damaged by insects.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

There is a permanent potential for root intrusion.

There is insufficient knowledge and experience of optimal farming practices for subsurface drip irrigation systems in the RSA.

Sub-surface drip is mainly recommended under the following conditions(18):

Where required by the crop cultivation practices, e.g. sugar cane fields that are
regularly burnt.
Where the soil-crop combination requires a short irrigation cycle.
Where sub-surface drip irrigation systems will facilitate harvesting practices, e.g.
harvesting tomatoes with a harvester.
Where sewage water is used for irrigation, the sub-surface system can prevent the
pathogens from reaching the surface.

The following crops are being successfully irrigated with sub-surface drip irrigation in the
USA: strawberries, sugar cane, peppers, lettuce, broccoli, onions, tomatoes, watermelons,
cotton, vineyards, grasses and nuts.
2.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES

The only difference between sub-surface and surface drip systems is the design of the
flushing manifold. Some irrigators prefer to flush the laterals individually; therefore, a
flushing manifold is not designed. The choice of the correct type of dripper, as well as
reliable equipment is of utmost importance.
During the design process, sufficient spare time (when no irrigation takes place) must be
allowed as system problems, like pump failure often occur when peak evapotranspiration
occurs. A sub-surface drip system should be designed with an emission uniformity (EU) of at
least 85%. Figure 1 indicates a typical sub-surface drip irrigation system layout.
2.1

Drippers
Type
As root intrusion is always possible with sub-surface drip irrigation, drippers with slit
openings are recommended. This type of opening closes as the water supply stops, thus
preventing root intrusion. Furthermore, the opening should be located away from the
seam of the dripper line, as roots tend to follow the seam. Drippers with circular outlets
tend to allow root intrusion and may also suck in soil particles if vacuum valves do not
function properly. Efficient maintenance and management are therefore very important
where circular outlet drippers are used. Some dripper outlets have a rigid raised surface
that, according to certain experts, reduces root intrusion and damage by insects. Turbulent
flow drippers are preferred above laminar flow drippers. A further aspect deserving
attention is dripper discharge. Higher discharge drippers usually have larger flow path
openings than lower discharge drippers, with subsequent reduction in clogging sensitivity.
Although lower discharge drippers allow longer laterals, the lateral sub-surface water
distribution of higher discharge drippers is better, allowing larger dripper spacing(8).
Various South African experts dispute this statement as deep percolation especially in
sandy soils occurs more readily with higher discharge drippers.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Pump
Main line
Air valve
Pressure release valve
Fertiliser injector

Pressure gauge

P
Filter
Main line to other blocks

Pressure gauge

P
Pressure control valve
Air valve
Pressure gauge

Flow meter

Supply manifold

Laterals

Flushing
valve

Flushing valve

Vacuum breaker

Flushing manifold
Vacuum breaker

Figure 1: Typical layout of a sub-surface drip irrigation system

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Spacing
It is recommended to lay a test line to determine the optimum spacing. According to
research done in the USA, the volume of soil wetted by the same dripper is larger when
placed below soil than on the surface. Drippers placed on the surface result in more water
per total soil volume(8). In this case, it was found that the wetted radius for the same
dripper placed below ground was 80% of the wetted radius when placed on the surface
(Figure 2). A guideline for the optimum surface spacing is to take 80% of the wetted
radius obtained from field tests to produce a continuous wetted strip. Therefore, for
installation of sub-surface drip, the recommended surface spacing must be multiplied by
80%. For example, if surface field tests produced a lateral for example, if surface field
tests proved the lateral water distribution to be 1,0 m, the recommended surface dripper
spacing will be 0,8 m. Sub-surface spacing for the same soil and dripper discharge will be
0,64 m. Expert advice should be obtained for brackish soils.

Dripper spacing (m)

0.9
Surface drip
0.8
Sub-surface drip

0.7
Sub-surface drip

Surface drip

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3
0

10

11

12

Dripper discharge (l/h)

Figure 2: Theoretical sub-surface and surface dripper spacings for a clay-loam soil(8)

Pipe wall thickness

Both thin-walled (0,1 mm to 0,5 mm) and thick-walled dripper pipes are used for subsurface drip irrigation (0,0254 mm = 1 mil). Thick-walled dripper pipes are generally
used where insects with pinchers, or thorns occur which may easily damage the thinwalled pipes. The wall thickness is determined by the depth of installation. Some experts
make use of a rule of thumb, that for every 0,0254 mm (mil) of wall thickness, the
installation depth may increase by 25,4 mm (1 inch)(3). Greater wall thicknesses are used
with an increase in installation depth as the discharge is influenced by the soil mass above
the pipe. The discharge of drip lines installed less than 200 mm below the surface should
not be influenced by the soil mass. A flow reduction of 10% to 20% may well occur due
to soil pressure with deeper installations (>200 mm).

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

The following wall thicknesses are used in the USA:

(i)

0,1 mm (4 mil): Usually only used above ground and discarded after one year of
use, the main reason being that the pipe cannot withstand the pressure increase
during flushing.
0,2 mm to 0,3 mm (8-12 mil): The most popular wall thickness. Advantages are
that it is less prone to insect damage and no detrimental effects occur due to
increased pressure.
>0,4 mm (>15 mil): This dripper pipe can withstand higher pressures (10 m to
14 m) associated with flushing or when higher discharges (conventional drippers)
are required during the crop's germination phase.

(ii)
(iii)

2.2

Equipment

With sub-surface drip, the same equipment is used as for surface drip.

Filters
The type of filter will be determined by the water quality. Sand filters are recommended
in most cases, as clogging is one of the main factors leading to system failure.

Pressure control valves

The use of reliable valves is important, as the dripper pipe used usually cannot withstand
very high pressures. Pressure adjustment is required to allow for higher pressures required
during flushing of laterals.

Air valves
Ingestion of soil particles just after closure of the system presents a problem, especially at
the upper portion (third) of the dripper laterals. Long laterals with a slope as low as 0,5%
may have soil ingestion problems if enough vacuum breakers are not provided in the
system. One vacuum breaker should be provided on the supply manifold and the flushing
manifold for at least every 50 laterals. If the supply manifold is installed on the surface,
the first two drippers per lateral should remain above ground to avoid vacuum
formation(3). On steep slopes (>2%), the supply manifold should be placed on the surface
so that accumulated air can discharge through the air valves. As previously mentioned,
slit and flap opening drippers are less prone to soil ingestion.

Fittings
The use of reliable, leak free fittings, which can withstand high pressures, is important.
Friction losses through fittings may be substantial and should be taken into account
during design. The installation of a length of polyethylene pipe between the drip line and
the supply sub main to prevent excessive accumulation of water at the sub main, is
recommended (Figure 4). Try to use as few fittings possible per lateral.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Fertiliser applicators
Chemigation with sub-surface drip is imperative in ensuring success, especially with
respect to economy and ease of management. The same type of equipment is used as for
surface drip systems.
Applicators can be divided into five basic groups:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Inlet at the pump suction end

Chemical injection by centrifugal pump
Positive displacement pumps
Application by means of a pressure difference
Proportional dividers

See Chapter 18: Chemigation, of the Irrigation Design Manual(11), for further
information.
While the application of fertiliser before the filter has the advantage of impurities being
filtered out and centralises control, the tendency to apply fertiliser at each block is
becoming increasingly popular. Advantages, among others, are the almost immediate
availability of fertiliser at the blocks and that specific fertiliser mixtures and quantities
can be applied to different crops or cultivars.

Flow meters
Flow meters are important for the continuous monitoring of system discharge and timely
detection of clogging.

Pump
The flow rate of a drip system designed with a flushing manifold is 110% to 125% higher
than normal during the flushing phase. The pressure is usually increased during flushing,
making it important that the pump and all other equipment can handle the increased flow
rate. A minimum working pressure of 7 m (10 psi) is recommended to ensure that
drippers remain clean for a long time.

Flushing manifold
When a large block with many laterals is installed and the flushing of laterals becomes a
labour-intensive process, the installation of a flushing manifold connected to the ends of
the laterals is recommended. The flushing manifold design is influenced by the minimum
permissible flushing velocity in the laterals. The following velocities are recommended
for laterals of different diameters.

Table 1: Recommended flushing velocities for different diameter laterals(7)

Nominal pipe diameter (mm)

Design flushing velocities (m/s)

16
22
35

0,35
0,40
0,55
Institute for Agricultural Engineering

A small reduction in design flushing velocity of 0,05 m/s is acceptable where impurities in
the water are negligible, otherwise a reduction in the design flushing velocity should not be
considered at all.
The design procedure for the flushing manifold is complicated, as the relationship between
the friction losses and the flow in the laterals is non-linear during flushing. Therefore, the use
of a reliable computer program is recommended. The maximum lateral length will be
determined either by the design of the flushing process or the irrigation design, depending on
the permissible increase in working pressure during flushing. Flushing usually takes place at
a higher inlet pressure (about 14 m) and the designer must ensure that the wall thickness of
the drip line can withstand the pressure increase. Provision must be made for a pressure of
about 2 m at the lateral end to allow for friction through the flushing manifold and flushing
valve.
Care must be taken to ensure that the fittings and pipe joining the flushing valve to the end of
the flushing manifold have the same diameter as the flushing manifold. The flushing valve is
installed at the end of the flushing manifold when it has a decreasing slope, or in the middle if
the flushing manifold is horizontal. In this case, the diameter of the pipe between the flushing
valve and the end of the flushing manifold should be at least one diameter larger to
accommodate the combined flow. Where possible, the flushing manifold should be installed
horizontally to prevent it from influencing the working pressure of the system during
irrigation. Alternatively, the length of the flushing manifolds must be kept as short as possible
and preferably be one diameter throughout. The maximum permissible drop across the
flushing manifold should preferably not be more than 2 m.
3.

INSTALLATION GUIDELINES

One of the greatest uncertainties with sub-surface drip is the depth of installation of the drip
lines. Installation depth varies from 150 mm to 300 mm for cash crops to 600 mm for
permanent crops.
Installation depth depends on the following factors:

The effective root depth of the crop to be irrigated. Drip lines are usually installed in
the upper portion of the root zone to prevent, amongst others, excessive drainage.
The prevention of wetting the soil surface. This depends on whether the sub-surface
drip system is to be used for germination and whether the soil surface is to be kept dry
to prevent rotting of products, e.g. tomatoes. It has been found that sandy soils allow
shallower installation depth (Figure 3).
The period of usage for sub-surface drippers. Sub-surface drippers are usually
installed for about eight years and the installation depth guidelines ought to be used.
With crops like potatoes, drippers are installed only 25 mm below the surface,
especially where drippers are to be moved to another field after one year.
The implements used for cultivation. Mr. H. Wuertz(23) has developed implements
capable of complete seedbed preparation and cultivation. Installation depth will
further be influenced if tractor traffic routes are passing directly over the dripper lines.
The crop row spacing must adapt to the implements to be used.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Installation depth of dripline (m)

1.4

1.2

Clay Soil

1.0

0.8
Sandy Soil
Sandy Soil

0.6

Clay Soil
0.4

0.2

0.0
0

10

12

Dripper discharge (l/h)

Figure 3: Recommended installation depths to prevent wetting of the soil surface(8)

3.1

Installation practices

Proper seedbed preparation before commencement of installation is important. All large

stones and clods must be removed. Where a single crop row per drip line is to be planted, the
drip line is placed below the crop row. Where two crop rows are to be planted per drip line,
the drip line is installed between the two crop rows. The latter practice is to be avoided if
brackish soils occur or if laterals are to be installed shallower to move salts away from the
crop roots.
The following is important during installation of laterals:

Install the drip line with outlets facing upwards. This will prevent silt, which
accumulates in the pipeline, from causing clogging.
Adapt installation speed to field conditions. Try to install drippers at a uniform depth.
Do not allow the drip line to twist during installation.
Make use of a coulter to cut stalks remaining from a previous harvest. The stalks can
then be buried to about 150 mm depth before installation of laterals commences.

The following installation practices are suggested for new cultivation:

First, the position of the supply manifold is pegged, then trenches are dug and the
manifold laid. It is recommended that trenches are 200 mm to 300 mm wider than the
pipeline, to ease installation.
All laterals are pegged by placing markers about 50 m apart on every lateral row.
Hereafter, the exact positions of lateral couplings on the manifold are determined by
sighting across the lateral markers. Holes are drilled in the manifold before installing
fittings and a length of plain polyethylene pipe at each lateral position (Figure 4). The
drill must be kept clean to ease precision installation and to prevent clogging.
Institute for Agricultural Engineering

The plain pipe ends are then closed off and the manifold flushed. Hereafter, the
trenches are backfilled.
Dripper laterals are then installed with an injection shank (section 3.2). The
installation depth depends on the factors previously listed.
Each polyethylene pipe (attached to the sub main), is then connected to a lateral by
means of the required fittings (Figure 4). The end of the lateral must be clean and
correctly cut before joining. Laterals are then flushed and checked for leaks, repairing
any, which may occur. When laterals are connected to the manifold, care must be
taken that the connector will not be damaged by e.g. backfilling of trenches.
The next step is trench excavation and laying of the flushing manifold. Holes are
made in the flushing manifold before connecting the laterals by means of fittings and
a length of polyethylene pipe.
Finally, the flushing valve is installed and the flushing manifold trench backfilled.

+/- 200mm

Drip line

Elbow

Dripper
Connector
Polyethylene pipe

Grommet with fitting

Manifold

Figure 4: Typical lateral connection to sub-main

3.2

Implements

The correct implements must be used for lateral installation to ensure effective operation and
to ease removal. A tractor with a three-point hitch suitable for carrying the injection shank
and spool carrier can be used (Figure 5). The injection shank consists of a steel blade with the
injection tube welded to the rear end (Figure 6).

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

The injection shank must be manufactured free of any protrusions, obstructions and marks
and be able to orientate the drip line, so that the dripper openings face upward after
installation.

Figure 5: Injection shank with dripper spool carriers

Retarding strap
Supporting discs

Direction of travel

Weight

Drippers this side

Plastic funnel

Tube

Wheel with height adjustment

Figure 6: Typical injection shank and dripper spool carrier

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

10

3.2.1

Typical installation shanks

Tube type
This type is normally used for installing drip lines at 100 mm to 300 mm depths. With
wet clay soil, a tunnel can form around the drip line during installation, limiting
capillary movement of moisture in the soil. A compacting roller is used in many cases
to reduce the effect of this problem.
The following must be kept in mind to ensure a good design:
(i)
(ii)

The installation tube radius must be at least 300 mm.

The welded seam on the stainless steel tube must face outwards, with no
protrusions on the inside of the tube. The inside of the tube should preferably be
polished with a circular electric brush before use.
(iii) A 32 mm tube should be used.
(iv) The funnel at the top of the tube must be plastic to prevent damage of the drip
line. The top of the tube must be high enough to prevent stones from entering.
(v) The lower end of the tube must be at the same level as the end of the installation
shank.

Injection toe
It is only used for shallow installation depths (0 mm to 50 mm).

Roller guide
It is usually used for thin-walled drip lines (0,1 mm to 0,2 mm), where stretching of the
pipe can cause problems. The recommended installation depth is 0 mm to 50 mm. Drip
line alignment problems may occur.

Combination injection shank

All the advantages of the previous designs are combined in this type. The effective
installation depth varies from 0 mm to 350 mm.

3.2.2

Dripper spool carrier

The spool carrier must preferably be mounted directly above the injection shank. The purpose
of the spool carrier is to feed the drip line from the drip line roll to the injection shank. Care
must be taken with spool carrier designs to ensure that forces due to drag are minimised
during unrolling and that spool alignment remains true during installation. The following is
recommended:
(i)
(ii)

The spool carrier design must be adaptable to the injection shank design.
A rotating axle for the spool carrier is recommended, as a solid axle will destroy the
plastic hub of the spool or cause the drip line to stretch due to the increase in tension
required during unrolling. Ideally, the axle rotation on rolling bearings will be such that
it also prevents uncontrolled unrolling.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

11

(iii) Supporting discs on both sides of the spool carrier are recommended to support the
sides of drip line rolls.
3.3

Removal of drip lines

Sub-surface drip lines are usually removed after approximately eight years of use, which is
the acceptable life expectancy. Where possible, stalks from a previous harvest must be
chopped up and buried to rot. The irrigation system must be opened just before drip line
removal to soften the soil around the pipe. Various implements for mechanical drip line
removal have been developed in the USA. The soil above the drip line is then removed to a
depth of 50 mm to 70 mm with a special implement, which also loosens the soil at both sides
(150 mm) and below (100 mm) the drip line. Hereafter, the drip line is pulled from the
remaining soil and rolled up. Although the initial capital cost of these implements is high, a
reduction of 70% in labour costs during removal can be achieved.
4.

OPERATION

The following suggestions are made to ensure that a sub-surface drip irrigation system
functions according to design specifications.

First, the effectiveness of the filter backwash should be tested. The pressure drop
across the filter during operation can be controlled by means of pressure gauges on
both sides of the filter.
Next, the block's pressure control valve is correctly set to ensure that the working
pressure (measured with a pressure gauge), at the edge of the field is correct.
Preferably, the working pressure at the flushing manifold should also be measured.
The system discharge should be checked by recording the water meter reading hourly
for a six-hour period. Deviations will indicate either clogging or leaks. This problem
should be rectified to prevent uneven water distribution.
Finally, the operation of the other equipment like the controller and fertiliser pump
can be evaluated.

To prevent root intrusion, Trifluralin is usually applied through the system directly after the
above procedure has been followed (section 6.1).
5.

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

The management practices for sub-surface drip irrigation systems do not differ much from
the practices followed for similar above ground systems, but should be followed closely to
ensure success.
5.1

Germination

It is important to wet the soil surface where seeds or seedlings are to be planted. This can be
achieved by initially applying more water, e.g. by increasing the system working pressure to
produce a higher discharge (conventional drippers). As previously mentioned, the dripper
pipe must be able to withstand this pressure increase. If the above is not possible, an
additional irrigation system (e.g. moveable sprinklers) should be used during the germination
phase, or the dripper laterals should be installed closer to the surface.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

12

5.2

Improvement of underground water distribution

The lateral water distribution will be better with higher discharge drippers than lower
discharge drippers. The following can be done to manage underground water distribution
correctly(3).

5.3

Select a reliable dripper with an acceptable coefficient of variation (CV).

Pulsation (irrigate for a maximum of one hour at a time, with a rest period) will also
improve underground water distribution.
Gypsum may be applied at 2,5 me/litre where the water has a very low conductivity
(< 60 mS/m). The amount may be increased to 5,0 me/litre if the condition persists.
Gypsum should be applied before the filter to prevent dripper clogging.
mg / l
)
(me/litre =
atomic mass of ions
Make use of calcium or nitrate based fertilisers rather than sodium and ammonia
fertilisers.
If the calcium/magnesium ratio is < 1 : 1, add gypsum until a ratio of approximately
2 : 1 is reached.
If water bicarbonates are high and the soil pH is > 6,5, the bicarbonates can be
neutralized by adding acid to lower the pH (section 6.2.2).
Fertigation

A prerequisite for successful crop cultivation with sub-surface drip irrigation is the ability to
apply the correct amount of fertiliser at the right time. Fertiliser should be mixed with
irrigation water in a transparent container before application. If the mixture becomes milky or
forms deposits within a 24-hour period, dripper clogging can be expected. This type of
fertiliser should preferably be avoided. It is important to buffer the water's pH at
approximately 6,5 to enable effective fertigation.
The advantages of fertigation with sub-surface drip irrigation systems are as follows:

5.4

The potential reduction in leaching of irrigation water leads to a reduction in leaching

of fertilisers.
The absorption of fertilisers is increased due to easier movement of phosphate and
calcium fertilisers under higher water conditions with sub-surface drip.
The problem of surface crust formation with accompanying infiltration problems on
certain soils is avoided as water and fertiliser are applied at the plant root zone.
Nitrogen evaporation loss is reduced.
Scheduling

Effective scheduling is essential to ensure that the correct amount of water is applied at the
right time. In most cases, soil moisture measurement is recommended. Soil moisture sensors,
e.g. low-tension tension meters should preferably be installed above the drip line (50 mm), so
that the gravity dripper water flow can drain away from the sensor. Furthermore, the sensors
must be placed about 150 mm (parallel) from the drip line. This will allow sensor reaction to
irrigation without being influenced by saturated conditions at the dripper. The distance from
the dripper will be decreased for sandy soils and increased for brackish soils. As with all

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

13

other irrigation systems, the installation of a sensor below the root zone to monitor overirrigation is recommended.

Long section
Soil surface
150mm

Sensor

200mm
50mm
Drip line

Emitter

Cross Section
Soil surface
200mm

50mm

Sensor

50mm
Drip line

Figure 7: Position of soil moisture sensors around a drip line

6.

MAINTENANCE

Apart from the prevention of root intrusion, the same maintenance schedules as for surface
drip irrigation should be followed (Table 2). Due to the fact that clogging is the most
important factor, which leads to system failure, maintenance of sub-surface irrigation systems
is covered in depth in this section. Prevention is better than cure.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

14

Figure 8: Flushing of laterals is important

Table 2: Maintenance schedule for sub-surface drip irrigation systems

Every
cycle

Monitor
Inspect system for leaks
Check pressure difference across
filters
Check working pressure at end of
system
Check system flow rate
(with flow meter)
Service air valves and pressure
control valves
Take water samples at end of
system and evaluate changes in
water quality

Weekly

Monthly

Quarterly

Annually

9
9
9
9
9
9
9

Adjust filter back wash cycle

Flush laterals (depending on
water quality and application
method)
Chlorine treatment (depending on
water quality and application
method)
Check hydraulic and electrical
connectors
Check hydraulic valves and filters
to inspect moving parts

9
9

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

9
9

15

Practices like cleaning of storage dams and especially flushing of filters and laterals should
regularly be carried out (Figure 8). These rules will not necessarily prevent clogging
altogether, but may have a retarding effect. When flushing the flushing manifold, the system
working pressure should be increased by adjusting the pressure control valve. Make sure that
the lateral wall thickness can resist the pressure increase. The flushing manifold water must
be diverted during the flushing process. Do not connect a pump or discharge pipe to the
flushing valve, as the pipe can create backpressure in the system during flushing or the pump
suction can cause ingestion of soil particles into the system.
6.1

Root intrusion

Plant roots tend to grow towards the area of highest water content that, with sub-surface drip
systems is close to the drippers, resulting in the danger of root intrusion.
Recommendations for prevention of dripper root intrusion are as follows:
(i)

Roots tend to follow seams in drip lines, reaching the drippers and causing clogging.
Drippers with openings, which close after irrigation, are less susceptible to root
intrusion. Drippers installed shallower than 150 mm (especially with cash crops) also
experience more root intrusion problems.
(ii) Super chlorination at 100 ppm to 400 ppm is done in the USA. This should be done
after harvesting for a period just long enough to fill all the drip lines.
(iii) Experts believe that root intrusion can be prevented if scheduling is correctly done and
plants are not subjected to soil water tension(3).
(iv) Plants like lettuce, asparagus, tomatoes and sweet potatoes give more root intrusion
problems than other crops.
(v) In Israel, a weed killer like Trifluralin is used every three to four months at
0,2 ml/dripper to prevent root intrusion. It is recommended that for sandy soils smaller
applications are given more regularly, e.g. 0,1 ml/dripper six to seven times per year.
Ensure that all drippers (especially at the end) are filled with Trifluralin before the
system is shut off. Rinse the application equipment with clean water after the
Trifluralin application. (The same equipment is used as for fertigation.) Trifluralin has
not yet been registered in the RSA for this purpose but is nevertheless used
successfully.
Wait for at least four to eight hours after Trifluralin application before continuing irrigation.
Test pits must regularly be dug to monitor root intrusion. The period of effective Trifluralin
release from Trifluralin impregnated drippers is presently unknown.
6.2

Chemical treatment of irrigation water

Chemical treatment of irrigation water is especially important with sub-surface drip irrigation
to prevent clogging. Clogging of drippers takes place gradually, therefore system efficiency
can reduce, adversely affecting production, without the producer being aware of it.
Clogging material is identifiable by the colour of the different deposits in the clogged dripper.
White deposits indicate salts, iron oxides appear as a rusty colour and clogging due to micro
biological activities causes black deposits. Each type of clogging has a unique solution,
therefore, it is essential to do a water analysis to indicate the nature of the clogging. This

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

16

analysis must be done when water quality is at its weakest and results should be compared
with historic figures to monitor variations in water quality where possible (Table 3).
Table 3: Water quality norms in quantifying the possibility of dripper clogging by
irrigation water(5)
Possibility of clogging
Cause

Physical
Solid materials, e.g. silt, clay
and organic material (mg/R)
Chemical
pH
Total dissolved salts (mg/R)
Manganese (mg/R)
Iron (mg/R)
Biological
Bacteria (per ml)

Low

Medium

High

< 50

50 100

> 100

< 7,0
< 500
< 0,1
< 0,2

7,0 8,0
500 2 000
0,1 1,5
0,2 1,5

> 8,0
> 2 000
> 1,5
> 1,5

< 10 000

10 000 50 000

> 50 000

These causes interact, e.g. the removal of organic material will reduce biological activity.
6.2.1

Chlorine application

Chlorine is a strong oxidising agent and is specifically used to destroy bacteria and bacterial
slime (Table 4).
The recommended concentration of chlorine is applied through the irrigation system with the
same injection pumps used for fertigation (section 2). The point of application must be as
close to the system as possible, because the residual concentration weakens with time and
distance from the point of application. Recommended concentrations are shown in Table 4.
The effectiveness of chlorination depends on the contact time and the water's pH. Periodical
applications of chlorine usually take place during the last 30 to 60 minutes of irrigation. On
completion of the irrigation, the free chlorine in the water remaining in the pipes will
suppress unwanted biological activities. The laterals should then thoroughly be flushed before
commencement of the next irrigation cycle. Chlorine is most effective at a pH of
approximately 6,5 and irrigation water must be acidified where necessary.
Table 4: Recommended chlorine concentrations(19)

Purpose of chlorination

Prevention of sedimentation
Cleaning the system

Recommended
concentration (ppm) at

Method of chlorination

Injection point

End

35

>1

10

>3

5 10

>3

15

>5

Continuously
Periodically
Continuously
Periodically

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

17

When chlorination is done to improve the filtering ability of the sand, chlorine must be
applied before the filter. For continuous chlorination, the chlorine concentration after the
filter must not be less than 1 ppm to 2 ppm and for periodical chlorination 3 ppm to 6 ppm.
Free chlorine is easily measured with a chlorine tester. The total chlorine is the sum of the
free chlorine and other chlorine compositions, but is of no value for water treatment of drip
irrigation systems.
Chlorine is available in the following forms:

Chlorine gas

Chlorine gas is supplied in 50 kg bottles. An adjustable regulator controls the flow of gas
from the bottle. The system to apply chlorine gas is relatively expensive, although
chlorine gas is the cheapest source of chlorine. Specific safety measures must be applied
during application, as chlorine gas is hazardous. The following equations are used to
determine the amount of chlorine gas to be applied (most gas flow meters record kg/day):
IR = 0,024 QC
Where:

IR
Q
C

=
=
=

(1)

injection rate of chlorine solution (kg/day)

flow rate of the system (m/h)
required application concentration (ppm).

Example 1
Determine the injection rate for a daily chlorine gas application with a concentration of
3 ppm. The system flow rate is 295 m/h.
Solution: From equation 1

IR =
=

0,024 295 3 kg/day

21,24 kg/day

Liquid sodium hypochloride

This product is expensive and comes in 20 litre plastic containers. The effective chlorine
concentration is about 12%. Do not store the liquid hypochloride in open sunlight as a
10% solution could lose 20% to 50% of the usable chlorine during a 6-month storage
period. The sodium hypochloride is usually injected right after the irrigation pumps. The
following equation is used to determine the quantity of sodium hypochloride:
IR =
Where:

IR
Q
C
P

=
=
=
=

0,1QC
P

(2)

injection rate of chlorine solution (R/h)

flow rate of the system (m/h)
required application concentration (ppm)
percentage of active chlorine in solution (%).

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

18

Example 2
Determine the injection rate of chlorine solution for a system flow rate of 50 m/h and a
required application concentration of 6 ppm. Sodium hypochloride containing 12%
chlorine in solution is to be used.
Solution: From equation 2

IR =

0,1 50 6
l/h
12

= 2,5 litres/hour

Calcium hypochloride (e.g. HTH chlorine)

HTH chlorine is in grain form and the effective concentration is 75%. Equation 2 is also
used to determine the injection rate of the chlorine solution.
Example 3
Determine the injection rate of chlorine solution for a system flow rate of 50 m/h and a
required application concentration of 6 ppm. Use HTH chlorine with a concentration of
75%. To obtain a concentration of 1% chlorine solution, 400 g HTH is dissolved in
30 litres of water.
Solution: From equation 2

IR =

0,1 50 6
l/h
1

= 30 litres/hour
6.2.2

Acid application

The presence of high calcium and magnesium concentrations in the irrigation water indicates
that deposits may form. An acid application is required to dissolve these deposits. Confirm
with equipment manufacturers that application apparatus is suited to acid application. Acid
(low pH) solutions can also corrode aluminium and steel irrigation system components. In
these cases, PVC and polyethylene fittings are recommended. The injection points should be
positioned, so that the acid solution is applied preferably after the filter. The recommended
acid solution is usually applied for an hour, whereafter the system should be flushed with
clean water. The following acid concentrations are recommended:
Table 5: Recommended acid concentrations(19)
Acid (%)

Acid type

0,6
0,6
0,6
0,6

Hydrochloric acid (HCL)

Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Nitric acid (HNO3)
Phosphoric acid(H3PO4)

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Concentration of available
products (%)
33 35
70
60
85

19

The maximum percentage acid in the water should be adjusted if the percentage acid
concentration differs from the above figures, e.g. if the available sulphuric acid has a 98%
70
concentration, the maximum percentage acid in the water will be 0,4% ( 0,6 ).
98
Other experts recommend a laboratory test of the irrigation water to determine the amount of
acid required to lower the water pH to a specific level. Every water source and type of acid
applied has an unique titration curve. Furthermore, the titration curve will change during the
year with changes in water quality. A simple method of determining the amount of acid
required is to fill a 200-litre container with irrigation water and add small amounts of the acid
solution until the required pH is reached.

PLEASE NOTE!

Do not mix acid and chlorine or store together.

Do not add water to the acid or chlorine.
Do not mix chlorine with herbicides or pesticides chlorine weakens the organic bonds
of the killing agents.
The presence of ammonia and urea in the irrigation water will reduce the effectiveness
of the chlorine.
Do not mix chlorine and fertilizer. Mixing will cause an explosion clean the mixing
tank before using chlorine.
Avoid eye and skin contact wear protective clothing and goggles when using chlorine.
Do not inhale chlorine or acid gases.

Example 4:
The system flow rate is 10 R/s. It was determined with a 200 R container, that 20 ml acid is
required to reduce the water pH to 4,0. An injection pump with a discharge of 100 R/h is used
to apply the concentrated acid solution to the system within 60 minutes. Determine the
injection rate to apply the concentrated acid and the amount of acid required.
Solution:

Required acid concentration:

20 ml
= 0,01%
200 l
The injection rate of concentrated acid to the system is:

10 3 600

0,01
= 3,6 litres / hour
100

The amount of acid required over a 60 minute period is 3,6 litres. The ratio of dilution of
the 3,6 litres of acid applied with a 100 l/h pump is 3,6%.
Institute for Agricultural Engineering

20

6.2.3

Specific clogging problems with possible solutions

Table 6: Specific clogging problems with solutions(6)

Problem

Solution

Carbonate deposit (whitish colour)

HCO3 > 2 me/R (mg/R equivalent atomic
mass) pH > 7,5

Iron deposits (reddish colour)

Iron concentration > 0,1 ppm

Manganese deposit (black colour)

Mananese concentration > 0,1 ppm

Iron bacteria (reddish slime)

Iron concentration > 0,1 ppm

Sulphur bacteria (white cotton-like slime)

Sulphide concentration > 0,1 ppm

Algae, slime
Iron sulphide (black, sandy material)
Iron and sulphide concentration > 0,1 ppm

7.

Continuous acid application maintain

pH of 5 to 7.
Shock acid application at end of irrigation
cycle maintain pH of 4 for 30 to 60
minutes.
Aeration to oxidize iron (especially suited
to high iron concentration of 10 ppm or
more.
Acid application to promote iron deposits
- Injection rate of 1 ppm chlorine per
0,7 ppm iron.
- Application before filter, so that
deposits are retained.
Lower pH to # 4 by daily acid
applications for 30 to 60 minutes to
dissolve iron deposits.
Application of 1 ppm chlorine per
1,3 ppm manganese, before filter.
Application of 1 ppm chlorine (free
clorine available) continuously or 10 ppm
to 20 ppm for 0 to 60 minutes as
required.
Continuous application of chlorine at
1 ppm per 4 ppm to 8 ppm sulphur
hydroxide.
Application of chlorine as required until
1 ppm free chlorine is available for 30 to
60 minutes.
Application of chlorine at a continuous
rate of 0,5 ppm to 1 ppm or 20 ppm for
two minutes at the end of each irrigation
cycle.
Dissolving of iron by continuous acid
application to reduce pH to between 5
and 7.

SUMMARY

Although much information on sub-surface drip irrigation is available, some questions arise
especially on the different types of drippers available, as well as effective irrigation practices
that ought to be further investigated.
The following is recommended:

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

21

Conduct practical field tests on drippers to investigate the susceptibility to root

intrusion in terms of installation depth, dripper type (especially with regard to
openings) and the influence of different chemical applications.
Do laboratory tests to determine the clogging potential of different drippers.
The tendency of different types of dripper discharge openings to plug due to soil
ingestion ought to be investigated.
The underground water distribution of different discharge drippers in different soils
ought to be investigated.
The pressure-discharge characteristics of the different thin walled drippers should be
determined in a test laboratory.

The following aspects of sub-surface drip irrigation systems should be attended to in enabling
optimal use.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

If a flushing manifold is being used, the designer should take the recommended
flushing velocities into account.
Reliable equipment should be selected and proven installation practices should be
followed.
Preventative maintenance should be applied and laterals are to be regularly flushed.
System flow should be continuously monitored to enable early detection of any
clogging possibilities.
Prerequisites for success are fertigation and effective scheduling.
Root intrusion should be monitored and Trifluralin applied if necessary.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

22

REFERENCES
1. Bosua, H. 1998. Personal communication. H. Boshua & Associates, RSA.
2. Burt, C.M. 1994. Personal communication. Cal Poly, USA.
3. Burt, C.M. and S.W. Styles 1994. Drip and Micro-irrigation for Trees, Vines, and Row
Crops. Irrigation Training and Research Center, California, USA.
4. Colback, R. 1998. Personal communication. Simunye, Swaziland.
5. Gilbert, R.G. & H.W. Ford 1986. Operational principles: Emitter clogging. In Trickle
Irrigation for crop production, eds. F.S Nakayama and D. A. Bucks. Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
6. Hanson, B., S. Grattan, T. Prichard and L. Schwankl 1992. Drip irrigation for row
crops. University of Calafornia, Davis, California, USA.
7. Hope, G. 1998. Personal communication. GH Irrigation, Australia.
8. Jorgensen, C.S. & K.N. Norum. 1993. Sub-surface Drip Irrigation: Theory, Practices and
Application. CATI Publication No. 921001, USA.
9. Kenyon, N. 1998. Personal communication. Multi-Crop CC, RSA.
10. Koegelenberg, F.H. 1994. Travel report on the attendance of the irrigation conference and
meetings with irrigation experts in the USA and Israel. Department of Agriculture,
Western Cape, RSA.
11. Lategan, M.T. and others. 1996. Irrigation designers manual. Agricultural Research
Council. Institute for Agricultural Engineering, RSA.
12. Lategan, M.T. 1998. Personal communication. Rainbird International Inc., RSA.
13. Loans, A. 1994. Personal communication. Kibbutz Hatzerim, Israel.
14. Low volume irrigation system maintenance manual. 1990. Rain Bird International Inc.,
USA.
15. Maree, P. 1998. Personal communication. Netafim South Africa, RSA.
16. Phene, C.J., K.R. Davis and others 1993. Evaluation of a sub-surface drip irrigation
system after ten cropping seasons. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, USA.
17. Phene, C.J. 1996. Personal communication. USA.
18. Prinsloo, J. 1998. Personal communication. T-Tape, RSA.
19. Thin-Walled Irrigation Dripperline Installation and Maintenance Manual. 1998. Netafim
Irrigation Equipment and drip systems, Israel.
20. T-Tape Irrigation Training Seminar 1998.
21. Van Rensburg, K. 1998. Personal communication. MBB Consulting Engineers,RSA.
22. Vermaak, P. 1998. Personal communication. A.J. Nyman (Pty) Ltd., RSA.
23. Wuertz, H. 1996. Personal communication. Sundance Farms, USA.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

23

APPENDIX

Important conversions for sub-surface drip

1. Filtration

Micron
Mesh

300
50

200
75

130
120

100
155

80
200

250
60

130
120

100
155

2. Wall thickness of dripper pipe

0,1 mm = 100 micron = 4 mil
1 mil = 0,001 inch

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

24