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12temperaturedifferencebetweentheglassandthewaterinthebasinandhenceincreasestherateof
evaporation.Single...

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13Brick,sandconcreteorwaterproofedconcretecanbeusedforthebasinofalonglifestillifitistobe
manufacture...

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14c)Supplementaryheating:Wasteheatfromanengineorthecondenserofarefrigeratorcanbeusedas
anadditionale...

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15(Masslossrate)/(Unitarea)=(VaporPressureAmbientPartialPressure)*sqrt((Molecular
Weight)/(2*pi*R*T))Th...

16Fig.1.4ComponentsofSolarStillOutput:After4hoursunderthesunanoutputof150mlofpure
distilledwater

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20CHAPTER9COSTANALYSIS&MATERIALSMaterials:1.Thesideandbottomwallsneedtobe
insulated.Thiscanbeachieved...

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24CHAPTER10BERKADSSAPPLICATIONSBerkadsareasimplewatersupplyoptionthatis
extensivelyusedinSomaliasinceth...

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25Thecondensedwatershouldbecollectedinagutterfixedalongtheloweredgeofthecover.Ontheouter
sideofthec...

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26Theresultspresentedaboveindicatethattheimplementationofasolarstillon(alreadyexistingandnew)
berkadsis...

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27filteredwitha0.45mmembranefilter,whichshouldthenbesenttoawaterlaboratory.Alsothe
bacteriologicalcont...

28CHAPTER11WaterPurifiersHistoryofdrinkingwaterfiltrationDuringthe19thand20thcenturies,
waterfiltersford...

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29smallquantitiesofdrinkingwater.Somekettleshavebuiltinfilters,primarilytoreducelimescale
buildup.Pointof...

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30greatestassuranceofremovingCryptosporidium.Aswithallfilters,followthemanufacturers
instructionsforfilter...

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Solarstill,AwaterPurifyingTechniqueProjectReport
1.1.AProjectReportOnSOLARSTILLSubmittedinpartialfulfillmentfortheawardofthedegree
ofBachelorofTechnologyInMechanicalEngineeringfromRAJASTHANTECHNICAL
UNIVERSITY,KOTASession201213GuidedBy:SubmittedBy:Mr.KapilJainAmanAgrawal
Lecturer,Mech.Deptt.BharatAjwaniVit(East),JaipurAshokKumarMeenaAmitUpadhyayKirodee
LalMeenaManojkumarNagarB.Tech.IVYr.VIIISemMechanicalEngg.Submittedto
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERINGVIVEKANANDAINSTITUTEOF
TECHNOLOGY(EAST)VITCampus,NRIRoad,Jagatpura,Jaipur303012
2.2.Deptt.OfMechanicalEngineering(Viteast,Jaipur)MagneticRefrigerationPageii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTWetakethismomentousopportunitytoexpressourheartfeltgratitude,
ineptness&regardstovulnerableandhighlyesteemedguide,Mr.RahulGoyal,HeadofDepartment
ofMechanicalEngineering,Vit(East)forprovidingusanopportunitytopresentourprojecton
SOLARSTILL.WewithfullpleasureconvergeourheartiestthankstoOurprojectguideMr.kapil
jain,Lecturer,Departmentofmechanicalengineering,Vivekanandainstituteoftechnology(East)andto
ProjectcoordinatorMr.BhanuPratapSingh,Lecturer,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineeringfortheir
invaluableadviceandwholeheartedcooperationwithoutwhichthisprojectwouldnothaveseenthe
lightofday.WeattributeheartiesthankstoallthefacultyofthedepartmentofMEandfriendsfortheir
valuableadviceandencouragement.AmanAgrawalAmitupadhyayAshokKumarMeenaBharat
AjwaniKirodeelalMeenaManojkumarNagar
3.3.Deptt.OfMechanicalEngineering(Viteast,Jaipur)MagneticRefrigerationPageiiiCERTIFICATE
ThisistocertifythatAmanAgrawal,Amitupadhyay,Bharatajwani,AshokKumarmeena,kirodeelal
Meena,ManojNagarStudentsofIVthYear,B.Tech.VIIIthSemesterMechanicalEngineeringofVit
(East),Jaipurduringtheacademicsession201213isworkingforhisprojectundermyguidance
entitledSolarStillinthepartialfulfillmentforawardthedegreeofBachelorofTechnologyin
MechanicalEngineeringfromRajasthanTechnicalUniversity,Kota.TheirWorkisFound.
ProjectGuideProjectCoordinatorMr.KapilJainMr.BhanuPratapSinghLecturer,Lecturer,Deptt.Of
MechanicalEngg.Deptt.OfMechanicalEngg.Vit(East),JaipurVit(East),Jaipur
4.4.Deptt.OfMechanicalEngineering(Viteast,Jaipur)MagneticRefrigerationPageivCONTENTS
TitlePageNoABSTRACT..1CHAPTER1
INTRODUCTION....2CHAPTER2WATER
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PURIFICATION...342.1WATER
PURIFICATION32.2OPTIONSFORWATERPURIFICATION..42.3
BENEFITSOFDISTILLATION42.4NEEDSOFWATER
PURIFICATION4CHAPTER3SOLARWATER
DISTILLATION..56CHAPTER4BASICCONCEPTOFSOLARWATER
DISTILLATION.784.1SUPPLYFILLPORT....74.2OVERFLOW
PORT...84.3DISTILLEDOUTPUTCOLLECTIONPORT..8
CHAPTER5WORKINGOFSOLARSTILL.910CHAPTER6
DESIGNOFSOLARSTILL.11166.1DESIGNOBJECTIVES
.116.2DESIGNCONSIDERATIONS.116.3SOME
PROBLEMSWITHSOLARSTILLS126.4CONCEPTSFORMAKINGAGOODSOLAR
STILL126.5DESIGNTYPESANDTHEIRPERFORMANCE13CHAPTER7
CAPABILITIES..17
5.5.Deptt.OfMechanicalEngineering(Viteast,Jaipur)MagneticRefrigerationPagevCHAPTER8
USEREXPERIENCES...1819CHAPTER9COSTANALYSIS
&MATERIALS2023CHAPTER10BERKADS
APPLICATIONS.2427CHAPTER11WATER
PURIFIERS...2832CHAPTER12SOLAR
PANELS...3334CHAPTER13WOULDASOLAR
STILLSUITOURNEEDS?.35CONCLUSIONS
.36REFERENCES...
................................37
6.6.Deptt.OfMechanicalEngineering(Viteast,Jaipur)MagneticRefrigerationPageviFIGURELIST
FigurePageNoFig.1.1BasicconceptofSolarWaterDistillation08Fig.1.2WorkingofSolarStill09
Fig.1.3LayoutofSolarStillPlant10Fig.1.4ComponentsofSolarStill16Fig.1.5PassiveSolarStill
Design22Fig.1.6DesignDrawingofSolarStill,Dimensionsincm.23Fig.1.7Berkadspractical
Application25
7.7.1LiteratureReviewABSTRACTThepurposeofthisprojectistodesignawaterdistillationsystem
thatcanpurifywaterfromnearlyanysource,asystemthatisrelativelycheap,portable,anddepends
onlyonrenewablesolarenergy.Themotivationforthisprojectisthelimitedavailabilityofcleanwater
resourcesandtheabundanceofimpurewateravailableforpotentialconversionintopotablewater,In
addition,therearemanycoastallocationswhereseawaterisabundantbutpotablewaterisnot
available.Ourprojectgoalistoefficientlyproducecleandrinkablewaterfromsolarenergy
conversion.Distillationisoneofmanyprocessesthatcanbeusedforwaterpurification.Thisrequires
anenergyinputasheat,electricityandsolarradiationcanbethesourceofenergy.WhenSolarenergy
isusedforthispurpose,itisknownasSolarwaterDistillation.SolarDistillationisanattractive
processtoproduceportablewaterusingfreeofcostsolarenergy.Thisenergyisuseddirectlyfor
evaporatingwaterinsideadeviceusuallytermedaSolarStill.Solarstillsareusedincaseswhere
rain,piped,orwellwaterisimpractical,suchasinremotehomesorduringpoweroutages.Different
versionsofastillareusedtodesalinateseawater,indesertsurvivalkitsandforhomewater
Purification.Forpeopleconcernedaboutthequalityoftheirmunicipallysupplieddrinkingwaterand
unhappywithothermethodsofadditionalpurificationavailabletothem,solardistillationoftapwater
orbrackishgroundwatercanbeapleasant,energyefficientoption.SolarDistillationisanattractive
alternativebecauseofitssimpletechnology,nonrequirementofhighlyskilledlabourformaintenance
workandlowenergyconsumption.Theuseofsolarthermalenergyinseawaterdesalination
applicationshassofarbeenrestrictedtosmallscalesystemsinruralareas.Thereasonforthishas
mainlybeenexplainedbytherelativelylowproductivityratecomparedtothehighcapitalcost.
However,thecomingshortageinfossilfuelsupplyandthegrowingneedforfreshwaterinorderto
supportincreasingwaterandirrigationneeds,havemotivatedfurtherdevelopmentofwater
desalinationandpurificationbyrenewableenergies.
8.8.2CHAPTER1INTRODUCTIONWaterisabasicnecessityofmanalongwithfoodandair.Fresh
waterresourcesusuallyavailablearerivers,lakesandundergroundwaterreservoirs.About71%ofthe
planetiscoveredinwater,yetofallofthat96.5%oftheplanet'swaterisfoundinoceans,1.7%in
groundwater,1.7%inglaciersandtheicecapsand0.001%intheairasvaporandclouds,Only2.5%
oftheEarth'swaterisfreshwaterand98.8%ofthatwaterisiniceandgroundwater.Lessthan1%of
allfreshwaterisinrivers,lakesandtheatmosphere.Distillationisoneofmanyprocessesavailablefor
waterpurification,andsunlightisoneofseveralformsofheatenergythatcanbeusedtopowerthat
process.Todispelacommonbelief,itisnotnecessarytoboilwatertodistillit.Simplyelevatingits
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temperature,shortofboiling,willadequatelyincreasetheevaporationrate.Infact,althoughvigorous
boilinghastensthedistillationprocessitalsocanforceunwantedresidueintothedistillate,defeating
purification.SolarDistillationisbyfarthemostreliable,leastcostlymethodof99.9%truepurification
ofmosttypesofcontaminatedwaterespeciallyindevelopingnationswherefuelisscarceortoo
expensive.Solardistillationisusedtoproducedrinkingwaterortoproducepurewaterforleadacid
batteries,laboratories,hospitalsandinproducingcommercialproductssuchasrosewater.
Conventionalboilingdistillationconsumesthreekilowattsofenergyforeverygallonofwater,while
solardistillationusesonlythefreepurepowerofthesun.Expensivefiltrationanddeionizingsystems
areevenmoreexpensivetopurchaseanduseandwillnottotallypurifythewaterbyremovingall
contaminants.Noadditionalheatorelectricalenergyisrequiredinourstillandevenafterthesunsets,
distillationcontinuesataslowerpaceintothenight.Recently,wevebeenexperimentingwitha
uniqueoptionalsolarenergyboosterusingourtopqualitySolaReflexreflectortoincreasethewater
vaporizationbyincreasingthetemperatureontheinternalfluidheatabsorber.Thiswilladdefficiency
andincreasestheamountofdailypurewaterproduction.
9.9.3CHAPTER2WATERPURIFICATION3.1WaterPurification:Itistheprocessofremoving
undesirablechemicals,biologicalcontaminants,suspendedsolidsandgasesfromcontaminatedwater.
Thegoalistoproducewaterfitforaspecificpurpose.Mostwaterispurifiedforhumanconsumption
(drinkingwater),butwaterpurificationmayalsobedesignedforavarietyofotherpurposes,including
meetingtherequirementsofmedical,pharmacological,chemicalandindustrialapplications.Ingeneral
themethodsusedincludephysicalprocessessuchasfiltration,sedimentation,anddistillation,
biologicalprocessessuchasslowsandfiltersorbiologicallyactivecarbon,chemicalprocessessuchas
flocculationandchlorinationandtheuseofelectromagneticradiationsuchasultravioletlight.3.2
Optionsforwaterpurification:Therearefourpossiblewaysofpurifyingwaterfordrinkingpurpose:
1.Distillation2.Filtration3.ChemicalTreatment4.IrradiativeTreatmentConsideringtheareaswhere
thetechnologyisintendedtobeusedwecanruleoutfewoftheabovementionedmethodsbasedon
theunavailabilityofmaterialsorcosts.Chemicaltreatmentisnotastandaloneprocedureandsois
irradiativetreatment.Bothcanactonlyremovesomespecificimpuritiesandhencecanonlybe
implementedincoordinationwithothertechnologies.Thisanalysisleavesuswithtwomethods
DistillationandFiltration.ByweightingthePositiveandnegativesofboththemethodswedecidedto
gobythefirstone.ThemostImportantconsiderationswerethatofcomplexity,highermaintenance
andsubsequentcostscoupledwithneedofothersophisticatedsupportingequipments.
10.10.43.3BenefitsofDistillation:Finallywedecidedtogobydistillationmethodowingtothe
followingbenefits:1.Itproduceswaterofhighquality.2.Maintenanceisalmostnegligible.3.Any
typeofwatercanbepurifiedintopotablewaterbymeansofthisprocess4.Thesystemwillnot
involveanymovingpartsandwillnotrequireelectricitytoOperate.5.Wastageofwaterwillbe
minimum.3.4NeedsandSpecificationsofwaterpurification:Ourprojectcentersonconvertingthe
roughly99.6%ofwaterthatis,initsnaturalform,undrinkable,intocleanandusablewater.After
researchingandinvestigation,weoutlinedourneedstobethefollowing:1.Efficientlyproduceat2
gallonsofpotablewaterperdayminimum2.Abletopurifywaterfromvirtuallyanysource,included
theocean3.Relativelyinexpensivetoremainaccessibletoawiderangeofaudiences4.Easytouse
interface5.Intuitivesetupandoperation6.Providecleanusefuldrinkingwaterwithouttheneedforan
externalenergysource7.ReasonablycompactandportableOuraimistoaccomplishthisgoalby
utilizingandconvertingtheincomingradioactivepowerofthesun'sraystoheatanddistilldirtyand
undrinkablewater,convertingitintocleandrinkablewater.Asolarparabolictroughisutilizedto
effectivelyconcentrateandincreasethesolidangleofincomingbeamradiation,increasingthe
efficiencyofthesystemandenablinghigherwatertemperaturestobeachieved.
11.11.5CHAPTER3SOLARWATERDISTILLATIONSolarenergyisaverylarge,inexhaustible
sourceofenergy.Thepowerfromthesuninterceptedbytheearthisapproximately1.81011MW.,
whichismanythousandstimeslargerthanthepresentallcommercialenergyconsumptionrateonthe
earth.Thusinprinciple,solarenergycouldsupplyallthepresentandfutureenergyneedsoftheworld
onacontinuousbasis.Thismakesitoneofthemostpromisingofalltheunconventionalenergy
sources.Inadditiontoitssize,solarenergyhastwootherfactorsinitsfavor.Firstly,unlikefossilfuels
andnuclearpower,itisanenvironmentallycleansourceofenergy.Secondly,itisfreeandavailablein
adequatequantity.Solarwaterdistillationisasolartechnologywithaverylonghistoryand
installationswerebuiltover2000yearsago,althoughtoproducesaltratherthandrinkingwater.
Documenteduseofsolarstillsbeganinthesixteenthcentury.Anearlylargescalesolarstillwasbuilt
in1872tosupplyaminingcommunityinChilewithdrinkingwater.Massproductionoccurredforthe
firsttimeduringtheSecondWorldWarwhen200,000inflatableplasticstillsweremadetobekeptin
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lifecraftsfortheUSNavy.Theenergyrequiredtoevaporatewater,calledthelatentheatof
vaporisationofwater,is2260kilojoulesperkilogram(kJ/kg).Thismeansthattoproduce1litre(i.e.
1kgasthedensityofwateris1kg/litre)ofpurewaterbydistillingbrackishwaterrequiresaheatinput
of2260kJ.Thisdoesnotallowfortheefficiencyofthesystemsuedwhichwillbelessthan100%,or
foranyrecoveryoflatentheatthatisrejectedwhenthewatervapouriscondensed.Itshouldbenoted
that,although2260kJ/kgisrequiredtoevaporatewater,topumpakgofwaterthrough20mhead
requiresonly0.2kJ/kg.Distillationisthereforenormallyconsideredonlywherethereisnolocalsource
offreshwaterthatcanbeeasilypumpedorlifted.Humanbeingsneed1or2litresofwateradayto
live.Theminimumrequirementfornormallifeindevelopingcountries(whichincludescooking,
cleaningandwashingclothes)is20litresperday.Yetsomefunctionscanbeperformedwithsalty
waterandatypicalrequirementfordistilledwateris5litresperpersonperday.Therefore2m2ofsolar
stillareneededforeachpersonserved.Solarstillsshouldnormallyonlybeconsideredforremovalof
dissolvedsaltsfromwater.Foroutputof1m3/dayormore,vapourcompressionorflashevaporation
willnormallybeleastcost.
12.12.6Solardistillationsystemscanbesmallorlarge.Theyaredesignedeithertoservetheneedsofa
singlefamily,producingfromto3gallonsofdrinkingwateradayontheaverage,ortoproduce
muchgreateramountsforanentireneighbourhoodorvillage.Insomepartsoftheworldthescarcityof
freshwaterispartiallyovercomebycoveringshallowsaltwaterbasinswithglassingreenhouselike
structures.Thesesolarenergydistillingplantsarerelativelyinexpensive,lowtechnologysystems,
especiallyusefulwheretheneedforsmallplantsexists.Solardistillationofpotablewaterfromsaline
(salty)waterhasbeenpracticedformanyyearsintropicalandsubtropicalregionswherefreshwater
isscare.However,wherefreshwaterisplentifulandenergyratesaremoderate,themostcosteffective
methodhasbeentopumpandpurify.Solardistillationisarelativelysimpletreatmentofbrackish(i.e.
containdissolvedsalts)watersupplies.Inthisprocess,waterisevaporatedusingtheenergyofthesun
thenthevapourcondensesaspurewater.Thisprocessremovessaltsandotherimpurities.Solar
distillationisusedtoproducedrinkingwaterortoproducepurewaterforleadacidbatteries,
laboratories,hospitalsandinproducingcommercialproductssuchasrosewater.Itisrecommended
thatdrinkingwaterhas100to1000mg/lofsalttomaintainelectrolytelevelsandfortaste.Some
salinewatermayneedtobeaddedtothedistilledwaterforacceptabledrinkingwater.Generally,solar
stillsareusedinareaswherepipedorwellwaterisimpractical.Suchareasincluderemotelocationsor
duringpoweroutages.Distillationarethereforenormallyconsideredonlywherethereisnolocal
sourceoffreshwaterthatcanbeeasilypumpedorlifted.Oneofthemainsetbacksforsolar
desalinationplantisthelowthermalefficiencyandproductivity.Inareasthatfrequentlylosspower,
Solarstillscanprovideanalternatesourceofcleanwater.Alargeuseofsolarstillsisindeveloping
countrieswherethetechnologytoeffectivelydistilllargequantitiesofwaterhasnotyetarrived.
13.13.7CHAPTER4BASICCONCEPTOFSOLARWATERDISTILLATIONThebasicprinciplesof
solarwaterdistillationaresimpleyeteffective,asdistillationreplicatesthewaynaturemakesrain.The
sun'senergyheatswatertothepointofevaporation.Asthewaterevaporates,watervaporrises,
condensingontheglasssurfaceforcollection.Thisprocessremovesimpuritiessuchassaltsandheavy
metalsaswellaseliminatesmicrobiologicalorganisms.Theendresultiswatercleanerthanthepurest
rainwater.TheSolAquastillisapassivesolardistillerthatonlyneedssunshinetooperate.Thereare
nomovingpartstowearout.ThedistilledwaterfromaSolAquastilldoesnotacquirethe"flat"taste
ofcommerciallydistilledwatersincethewaterisnotboiled(whichlowerspH).Solarstillsusenatural
evaporationandcondensation,whichistherainwaterprocess.ThisallowsfornaturalpHbufferingthat
producesexcellenttasteascomparedtosteamdistillation.Solarstillscaneasilyprovideenoughwater
forfamilydrinkingandcookingneeds.Solardistillerscanbeusedtoeffectivelyremovemany
impuritiesrangingfromsaltstomicroorganismsandareevenusedtomakedrinkingwaterfrom
seawater.SolAquastillshavebeenwellreceivedbymanyusers,bothruralandurban,fromaroundthe
globe.SolAquasolardistillerscanbesuccessfullyusedanywherethesunshines.TheSolAquasolar
stillsaresimpleandhavenomovingparts.Theyaremadeofqualitymaterialsdesignedtostandupto
theharshconditionsproducedbywaterandsunlight.Operationissimple:watershouldbeadded
(eithermanuallyorautomatically)onceadaythroughthestill'ssupplyfillport.Excesswaterwill
drainoutoftheoverflowportandthiswillkeepsaltsfrombuildingupinthebasin.Purifieddrinking
wateriscollectedfromtheoutputcollectionport.4.1SupplyFillPort:Watershouldbeaddedtothe
stillviathisport.Watercanbeaddedeithermanuallyorautomatically.Normally,waterisaddedonce
aday(inthesummerit'snormallybesttofillinthelateeveningandinthewinter,intheearly
morning).Careshouldbetakentoaddthewaterataslowenoughflowratetopreventsplashingonto
theinteriorofthestillglazingoroverflowingintothecollectiontrough.
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14.14.84.2OverflowPort:Oncethestillbasinhasfilled,excesswaterwillflowoutofthisport.SolAqua
recommendsthreetimesdailydistilledwaterproductiontobeallowedtooverflowfromthestillona
dailybasistopreventsaltbuildupinthebasin.Ifyourstillproduced2gallonsofproductwaterthen
youshouldadd6gallonsoffreshfeedwaterthroughthefillport.Ifflushedlikethisonadailybasis,
theoverflowwatercanbeusedforotherusesasappropriateforyourfeedwater(forexample,
landscapewatering).4.3DistilledOutputCollectionPort:Purifieddrinkingwateriscollectedfromthis
port,typicallywithaglasscollectioncontainer.Stillsthataremountedontheroofcanhavethe
distillateoutputpipeddirectlytoaninteriorcollectioncontainer.Foranewlyinstalledstill,allowthe
collectiontroughtobeselfcleanedbyproducingwaterforacoupleofdaysbeforeusingthedistillate
outputFig.1.1BasicconceptofSolarWaterDistillation
15.15.9CHAPTER5WORKINGOFSOLARSTILLFig.1.2WorkingofSolarStillSolarstillsare
calledstillsbecausetheydistill,orpurifywater.Asolarstilloperatesonthesameprincipleas
rainwater:evaporationandcondensation.Thewaterfromtheoceansevaporates,onlytocool,
condense,andreturntoearthasrain.Whenthewaterevaporates,itremovesonlypurewaterand
leavesallcontaminantsbehind.Solarstillsmimicthisnaturalprocess.Asolarstillhasatopcover
madeofglass,withaninteriorsurfacemadeofawaterproofmembrane.Thisinteriorsurfaceusesa
blackenedmaterialtoimproveabsorptionofthesun'srays.Watertobecleanedispouredintothestill
topartiallyfillthebasin.Theglasscoverallowsthesolarradiation(shortwave)topassintothestill,
16.16.10whichismostlyabsorbedbytheblackenedbase.Thewaterbeginstoheatupandthemoisture
contentoftheairtrappedbetweenthewatersurfaceandtheglasscoverincreases.Thebasealso
radiatesenergyintheinfraredregion(longwave)whichisreflectedbackintothestillbytheglass
cover,trappingthesolarenergyinsidethestill(the"greenhouse"effect).Theheatedwatervapor
evaporatesfromthebasinandcondensesontheinsideoftheglasscover.Inthisprocess,thesaltsand
microbesthatwereintheoriginalwaterareleftbehind.Condensedwatertricklesdowntheinclined
glasscovertoaninteriorcollectiontroughandouttoastoragebottle.Therearenomovingpartsin
Solarstillandonlythesunsenergyisrequiredforoperation.Thestillisfilledeachmorningor
evening,andthetotalwaterproductionforthedayiscollectedatthattime.Thestillwillcontinueto
producedistillateaftersundownuntilthewatertemperaturecoolsdown.Feedwatershouldbeadded
eachdaythatroughlyexceedsthedistillateproductiontoprovideproperflushingofthebasinwater
andtocleanoutexcesssaltsleftbehindduringtheevaporationprocess.Fig.1.3LayoutofSolarStill
PlantThemostimportantelementsofthedesignarethesealingofthebasewithblack
17.17.11CHAPTER6DESIGNOFSOLARSTILL6.1Designobjectivesforanefficientsolarstill:For
highefficiencythesolarstillshouldmaintain:ahighfeed(undistilled)watertemperaturealarge
temperaturedifferencebetweenfeedwaterandcondensingsurfaceLowvapourleakage.Ahighfeed
watertemperaturecanbeachievedif:Ahighproportionofincomingradiationisabsorbedbythefeed
waterasheat.Hencelowabsorptionglazingandagoodradiationabsorbingsurfacearerequiredheat
lossesfromthefloorandwallsarekeptlowThewaterisshallowsothereisnotsomuchtoheat.A
largetemperaturedifferencecanbeachievedif:thecondensingsurfaceabsorbslittleornoneofthe
incomingradiationCondensingwaterdissipatesheatwhichmustberemovedrapidlyfromthe
condensingsurfaceby,forexample,asecondflowofwaterorair,orbycondensingatnight.6.2
DesignConsiderations:Differentdesignsofsolarstillhaveemerged.Thesingleeffectsolarstillisa
Relativelysimpledevicetoconstructandoperate.However,thelowproductivityoftheSolarstill
triggeredtheinitiativestolookforwaystoimproveitsproductivityandEfficiency.Thesemaybe
classifiedintopassiveandactivemethods.Passivemethodsincludetheuseofdyeorcharcoalto
increasethesolarabsorbtivityofwater,applyinggoodinsulation,loweringthewaterdepthinthebasin
toloweritsthermalcapacity,ensuringvaportightness,usingblackgravelandrubber,usingfloating
perforatedblackplate,andusingreflectivesidewalls.Activemethodsincludetheuseofsolar
collectororwasteheattoheatthebasinwater,theuseofinternal]andexternalcondensersorapplying
vacuuminsidethesolarstilltoenhancetheevaporation/condensationprocesses,andcoolingtheglass
covertoincreasethe
18.18.12temperaturedifferencebetweentheglassandthewaterinthebasinandhenceincreasestherate
ofevaporation.Singlebasinstillshavebeenmuchstudiedandtheirbehavioriswellunderstood.The
efficiencyofsolarstillswhicharewellconstructedandmaintainedisabout50%althoughtypical
efficienciescanbe25%.Dailyoutputasafunctionofsolarirradiationisgreatestintheearlyevening
whenthefeedwaterisstillhotbutwhenoutsidetemperaturesarefalling.Atveryhighairtemperatures
suchasover45C,theplatecanbecometoowarmandcondensationonitcanbecomeproblematic,
leadingtolossofefficiency.6.3Someproblemswithsolarstillswhichwouldreducetheirefficiency
include:Poorfittingandjoints,whichincreasecolderairflowfromoutsideintothestillCracking,
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breakageorscratchesonglass,whichreducesolartransmissionorletinairGrowthofalgaeand
depositionofdust,birddroppings,etc.Toavoidthisthestillsneedtobecleanedregularlyeveryfew
daysDamageovertimetotheblackenedabsorbingsurface.Accumulationofsaltonthebottom,which
needstoberemovedperiodicallyThesalinewaterinthestillistoodeep,ordriesout.Thedepthneeds
tobemaintainedataround20mm6.4ConceptsformakingaGoodSolarstill:Thecovercanbeeither
glassorplastic.Glassispreferabletoplasticbecausemostplasticdegradesinthelongtermdueto
ultravioletlightfromsunlightandbecauseitismoredifficultforwatertocondenseontoit.Tempered
lowironglassisthebestmaterialtousebecauseitishighlytransparentandnoteasilydamaged
(Scharl&Harrs,1993).However,ifthisistooexpensiveorunavailable,normalwindowglasscanbe
used.Thishastobe4mmthinkormoretoreducebreakages.Plastic(suchaspolyethylene)canbe
usedforshorttermuse.Stillswithasingleslopingcoverwiththebackmadefromaninsulating
materialdonotsufferfromaverylowanglecoverplateatthebackreflectingsunlightandthus
reducingefficiency.Itisimportantforgreaterefficiencythatthewatercondensesontheplateasafilm
ratherthanasdroplets,whichtendtodropbackintothesalinewater.Forthisreasontheplateissetat
anangleof10to20.Thecondensatefilmisthenlikelytorundowntheplateandintotherunoff
channel.
19.19.13Brick,sandconcreteorwaterproofedconcretecanbeusedforthebasinofalonglifestillifitis
tobemanufacturedonsite,butforfactorymanufacturedstills,prefabricatedFerroconcretecanbe
used.MouldingofstillsfromfibreglasswastriedinBotswanabutinthiscasewasmoreexpensive
thanabrickstillandmoredifficulttoinsulatesufficiently,buthastheadvantageofthestillsbeing
transportable.Byplacingafaninthestillitispossibletoincreaseevaporationrates.However,the
increaseisnotlargeandthereisalsotheextracostandcomplicationofincludingandpoweringafan
inwhatisessentiallyquiteasimplepieceofequipment.Fanassistedsolardesalinationwouldonly
reallybeusefulifaparticularlevelofoutputisneededbuttheareaoccupiedbythestillsisrestricted,
asfanassistancecanenabletheareaoccupiedbyastilltobereducedforagivenoutput.6.5Design
typesandtheirperformance:Singlebasinstillshavebeenmuchstudiedandtheirbehavioriswell
understood.Efficienciesof25%aretypical.Dailyoutputasafunctionofsolarirradiationisgreatestin
theearlyeveningwhenthefeedwaterisstillhotbutwhenoutsidetemperaturesarefalling.Multiple
effectbasinstillshavetwoormorecompartments.Thecondensingsurfaceofthelowercompartment
istheflooroftheuppercompartment.Theheatgivenoffbythecondensingvapourprovidesenergyto
vaporizethefeedwaterabove.Efficiencyisthereforegreaterthanforasinglebasinstilltypically
being35%ormorebutthecostandcomplexityarecorrespondinglyhigher.Inawickstill,thefeed
waterflowsslowlythroughaporous,radiationabsorbingpad(thewick).Twoadvantagesareclaimed
overbasinstills.First,thewickcanbetiltedsothatthefeedwaterpresentsabetterangletothesun
(reducingreflectionandpresentingalargeeffectivearea).Second,lessfeedwaterisinthestillatany
timeandsothewaterisheatedmorequicklyandtoahighertemperature.Simplewickstillsaremore
efficientthanbasinstillsandsomedesignsareclaimedtocostlessthanabasinstillofthesameoutput.
EmergencystillToprovideemergencydrinkingwateronland,averysimplestillcanbemade.It
makesuseofthemoistureintheearth.Allthatisrequiredisaplasticcover,abowlorbucket,anda
pebble.HybriddesignsThereareanumberofwaysinwhichsolarstillscanusefullybecombined
withanotherfunctionoftechnology.Threeexamplesaregiven:a)Rainwatercollection:Byaddingan
externalgutter,thestillcovercanbeusedforrainwatercollectiontosupplementthesolarstilloutput.
b)Greenhousesolarstill:Theroofofagreenhousecanbeusedasthecoverofastill.
20.20.14c)Supplementaryheating:Wasteheatfromanengineorthecondenserofarefrigeratorcanbe
usedasanadditionalenergyinput.Aftergoingthroughthevariousexistingdesignsofsolarstillsthere
areafewfactsthatcometopicture:1.Theefficiencyofsinglestagestillisaround25%.2.The
efficiencyofmultistagestillsishigherthan35%.3.Mostlypeopleusethreestagedstillsbecausefor
morestagesthecostoutweighstheutility.4.Mostofthelossescanbeattributedtoheattransferlosses.
5.Thermallossesaremostlyinformofconductionandconvectionandverylittlebyradiationowing
tolowtemperatures.Sowecanassumeradiativelossestobenegligible.Alsothecostofasolarstill
whichproducesreasonableamountofpurifiedwaterishigh.Thecostofwaterproducedbythestillis
high.ThisfactattributestoalmostnegligiblepenetrationofsolarstillsinIndianvillages.While
persuingandponderingaboutthewaystoreducecoststhefirstfactorthatcomestomindiswhynot
increasetheefficiency.Butasweallknowthisismucheasiersaidthandone.Aftergivingita
considerablethoughtwecameupwithadesignthatcangreatlyimprovetheefficiencyofasolarwater
distillationsystembyminimizingthermallosses.Theequationsgoverningtheheattransferratesare:
a.ConductionQ=kAdT/dxb.ConvectionQ=hA(TsurfaceTambient)Boththelossesare
greatlydependantontheareaandtemperaturedifferencebetweenthemediumi.e.,waterandambient.
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Henceifwecanreducetemperatureofthewholesystemwecanreducetheheatlossandhence
improvetheefficiency.Butreducingoperatingtemperaturewillcomeatthecostoflowerratedof
evaporationandconsequentlylowerratedofcondensationleadingtoslowerdistillation.Sonowthe
problemboilsdowntoincreasingtheratedofevaporationatlowertemperature.
21.21.15(Masslossrate)/(Unitarea)=(VaporPressureAmbientPartialPressure)*sqrt((Molecular
Weight)/(2*pi*R*T))TheVaporPressureofaliquidatagiventemperatureisacharacteristicproperty
ofthatliquid.Vaporpressureofaliquidisintimatelyconnectedtoboilingpoint.VaporPressuresare
influencedbyTemperaturelogarithmicallyandthisrelationshipisdefinedwiththeClausiusClapyron
Equation:LogP2/P1=DeltaHvaporization[1/T11/T2]/2.303(R)where:R=universalgaslaw
constant=8.31J/molK=8.31X103Kj/molKP1andP2=vaporpressureatT1andT2T1andT2
=KelvinTemperatureattheinitialstateandfinalstateAt373Kthepressureis1atm.Weallknowthat
boilingtakesplacewhentheambienttemperatureequalsthatofthevaporpressureoftheliquid.This
meansthatwecanincreasetherateofevaporationbyreducingthepressureofthevessel.Thiswill
ensurehigherratesofevaporationevenatlowtemperatures.Constructingasolarwaterdistillerusing
availableutensilslikeplasticforcasing,aluminumforabsorptionofheat,glassandthethermocolfor
insulation.Gotthetemperatureofwaterupto60degreesand100mlofdistilledwaterin4hours.
Surfacearea:.12mtsquare(1sqfeet)
22.22.16Fig.1.4ComponentsofSolarStillOutput:After4hoursunderthesunanoutputof150mlof
puredistilledwater
23.23.17CHAPTER7CAPABILITIESAsolarstilloperatesusingthebasicprinciplesofevaporation
andcondensation.Thecontaminatedfeedwatergoesintothestillandthesun'srayspenetrateaglass
surfacecausingthewatertoheatupthroughthegreenhouseeffectandsubsequentlyevaporate.When
thewaterevaporatesinsidethestill,itleavesallcontaminantsandmicrobesbehindinthebasin.The
evaporatedandnowpurifiedwatercondensesontheundersideoftheglassandrunsintoacollection
troughandthanintoanenclosedcontainer.Inthisprocessthesaltsandmicrobesthatwereinthe
originalfeedwaterareleftbehind.Additionalwaterfedintothestillflushesoutconcentratedwaste
fromthebasintoavoidexcessivesaltbuildupfromtheevaporatedsalts.Asolarstilleffectively
eliminatesallwaterbornepathogens,salts,andheavymetals.Solarstilltechnologiesbringimmediate
benefitstousersbyalleviatinghealthproblemsassociatedwithwaterbornediseases.Forsolarstills
users,thereisaalsoasenseofsatisfactioninhavingtheirowntrustedandeasytousewatertreatment
plantonsite.Solarstillproductionisafunctionofsolarenergy(insolation)andambienttemperature.
TypicalproductionefficienciesforsinglebasinsolarstillsontheBorderareabout60percentinthe
summerand50percentduringthecolderwinter.Singlebasinstillsgenerallyproduceabout0.8liters
persunhourpersquaremeter.Giventhesmallerproductwateroutputforasolarstill,thetechnology
callsforadifferentapproachtoprovidingpurifiedwaterinthatitonlypurifiesthelimitedamountsof
waterthatwillbeingestedbyhumans.Waterusedtoflushthetoilet,takeabath,washclothes,etc.
doesnotneedtomeetthesamehighlevelofpurityaswaterthatisingested,andthusdoesnotneedto
bedistilled.Solarstillshaveproventobehighlyeffectiveincleaningupwatersuppliesandin
providingsafedrinkingwater.Theeffectivenessofdistillationforproducingsafedrinkingwateris
wellestablishedandlongrecognized.Distillationistheonlystandalonepointofuse(POU)
technologywithNSF(NationalSanitationFoundation)certificationforarsenicremoval,under
Standard62.Solardistillationremovesallsaltsandheavymetals,aswellasbiologicalcontaminants.
24.24.18CHAPTER8USEREXPERIENCESSurveyswereconductedonusersatisfactionwithproject
participantsreceivingcostsharedsolardistillers.Userswerenearlyunanimousthatowningasolar
stillwasgoodforthem.Someownersprizedtheideaofusingalternative,cleanenergytoachievetheir
purposes,whileatthesametimeleavingonlyasmallfootprintontheplanet.Allwereveryenthused
abouttheeconomicbenefitsofusingasolardistiller.Theyfoundthatpayingarelativelylowpricefor
astillwasafavorablealternativetohavingtobuywateronaregularbasiswithnoendinsighttothis
routine.Othersvaluedtheindependenceandfascinationtheyexperiencedfrombeinginvolvedinthe
productionoftheirownpurifiedwater.Mostcoloniasresidentsoftendonottrusttheirlocalwater
supplyinthosecaseswhenthereisoneavailable(e.g.,Columbus).Whilemanyhavenotedaconcern
overlocalwatersupplycolororodor,theoverwhelmingcharacteristicthatgainstheirattentionispoor
taste.Thereisagooddealofconcernwithtaste,andmostofthoseinterviewednotedthatoneofthe
reasonsforwantingawaterpurificationsystemwastoimprovethetasteoftheirlocalwatersupply.
Sincemanyofthelocalwatersuppliesarehighinsaltsandminerals(e.g.,ironorsulphur),theyoften
haveamarginalorpoortaste.Thesolarstillswereconsideredusefulbycoloniaresidentstoimprove
drinkingwatertaste.Solardistillerswereabletomeetallofthedrinkingandcookingwaterneedsofa
household.Notallofthehouseholdsreceivingsolarstillsthroughpilotprojectshadstillsoptimally
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sizedtomeetalloftheirwintertimewaterproductionneeds,butabout40percentofthehouseholds
werecompletelysatisfiedwiththeirstillwaterproduction.Allhouseholdshadsufficientwaterduring
thehighsummertimeproductionperiod,anditwasduringthewintertimewheresomefamilieshad
insufficientstillwater.Generally,itappearsthatformostBorderhouseholdsabout0.5m2meterof
solarstillisneededperpersontomeetpotablewaterneedsconsistentlythroughouttheyear.Those
householdswithinsufficientwintertimestillwaterproductiontypicallyhad0.35m2orlessofstillarea
perperson.Surveyresultsclearlyindicatethatonlyaboutathirdofcoloniasresidentsarewillingor
abletopaythefullpriceofthesolarstillupfront,becausemostsimplycouldnotaffordthehigherup
frontcapitalcost.However,interestmountedgreatlywhenthepossibilityoffinancingwasmentioned.
Thus,waterdistrictsandothersinterestedinprovidingpotablewatertoBordercoloniasshould
considerofferinganoptionforstillfinancing.Tobolsterinterest,aclear,easytofollowbreakdownof
costpaybackshouldbeprovided.Prospectivecustomersinterestispeakedwhentheyrealizethateven
atfullprice,asolarstillcanpayforitselfinless
25.25.19thantwoyearsascomparedtopurchasingbottledwater.Someprospectivecustomerswouldbe
delightedtoknowthatsavingsoveradecadeormorecouldbesubstantialandamounttothousandsof
dollars.Almostallofthosesurveyedwereusingtheirsolarstillsregularly,thusnowmeetingmostor
alloftheirdrinkingwaterandcookingwatersupplyneedsviasolardistillation.Occasionally,still
usershadtosupplementtheirstillsupplywithstoreboughtwater,especiallyinthewinter,whenstill
productiondecreasestoabouthalfofsummertimeproduction.Yettheneedforpurchasingbottled
waterfromastorewasgreatlymitigatedinallcases.Solarstillsavingswereapproximately$150
$200ayearperhouseholdinsteadofpurchasingbottledwater.Solarstilltechnologyhasgradually
improvedoverthepastdecadealongtheBorder.Thegreatestproblemforthefirstgenerationstills
designedbyEPSEAinthemid1990s(animprovementontheoriginalMcCrackensolarstill)was
thatwhentheydriedout,theinnermembranesiliconeliningwouldoutgas.Thisinturndepositeda
finefilmontheundersideoftheglass,causingthewaterdropletstobeadupandfallbackintothe
basinratherthantrickledowntheglasstothecollectiontroughandthusstillwaterproductiondrops
dramatically(about80%ormoredrop).Thefirststillusedafoodgradesiliconeandweremadeoutof
plywoodandconcretesiding.Itwasfoundthatthestills(3x8)wereoftenproducingfarmorewater
thantheusersneeded,especiallyinthesummer.Astimeevolved,asecondgenerationsolarstillwas
developedmadeoutofaluminumandsmaller(3x6and3x3).Thestillwaslighter,but
expensivetobuild.ECONOMICS:Comparedtopurchasingcomparablequantitiesofbottledwater,
theaveragereturnoninvestmentonasolarstillforafamilyistypicallyacoupleofyears.Factoringin
thehealthcostsofcontaminatedwater,paybackforasolarstillcanbeimmediate.Solardistillationis
thecheapestwaytocleanwaterforahouseholdandisquiteeconomicalascomparedtoreverse
osmosisandelectricdistillation.Asquaremeterforasinglebasinsolarstillcostsabout$400.Many
familiesintheU.S.coloniasoftenspendfrom$8to$12perweekonbottledwater.Likewise,in
northernMexicofamiliesoftenspend$3$5perweekonpurifiedwater.Thisrepresentsan
investmentofanywherefrom$150to$600peryearforbottledwater.Thus,simplepaybackonasolar
stillstrictlycomparedtopurchasingbottledwateristypicallywithintwotothreeyears.Thelevelized
energycostofsolardistilledwaterisaboutUS$.03perliter,assumingatenyearstilllifetime.Thefirst
EPSEAstillshavenowbeenoperatingforadecadeandarestillgoingstrong.
26.26.20CHAPTER9COSTANALYSIS&MATERIALSMaterials:1.Thesideandbottomwalls
needtobeinsulated.Thiscanbeachievedbyusingmultilayeredinsulator.Glasswoolwillbesand
witchedbetweentwometallicplates.Thiswillensurenegligibleheatlosstothesurroundings.2.The
mainframeiscomposedofsteelowingtoitscorrosionresistance,lowweight,longlifeandeasy
cleanability.3.Theoutsideofthecompletedistilleriscoatedwithcarbonblacktoincreaseabsorption
ofradiation.4.Thecoveronthetopismadeoftemperedglasssothatthebirdscantseetheir
reflectionandhenceavoidnuisance.CostAnalysis:TotalcostofAluminiumbox=Rs2700Costof
crushedhayandsawdust=AlmostfreeCostofcarbonblackpaint=Rs200Costoftemperedglass=
Rs800CostofReflector=Rs.500Costofinsulationandsealing=Rs.250Costofthehoisting
mechanismandotherauxiliaries=Rs500Costoflaborandmachining=Rs600Costoftransportation
=800Costofotherparts=450CostofReportWriting:Rs.700(Typing,Editing,ColorPrinting,Hard
Binding)NetcostoftheProject=Rs7500Theperlitercostofsolardistilledwatercanbecalculated
asfollows:(a)estimatetheusablelifetimeofthestill(b)addupallthecostsofconstruction,repair
andmaintenance(includinglabor)overitslifetimeand
27.27.21(c)dividethatfigurebythestill'stotalexpectedlifetimeoutputinliters.Suchacostestimateis
onlyapproximatesincetherearelargeuncertaintiesinboththelifetimeandtheyieldestimates.Costs
areusuallyconsiderablyhigherthancurrentwaterpriceswhichexplainswhysolarbackyardstillsare
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notyetmarketedwidelyinIndia.Assemblingandmanufacture:Fabricationofthewholeunitispretty
straightforwardandinvolvesmetalcutting,welding,glasscutting,sealing,paintinganddrilling.All
theseprocessescanbedoneatanylocalworkshopusingsimplemachineslathe,drill,welding,
millingetc.Thestepsintheprocessofassemblingareoutlinedasfollows:1.Theouterboxwillbe
fabricatedfirst.Itwillbemadeofdoublewallandwillbefilledwithglasswooltoprovideinsulation.
2.Thestageswillbefabricatedsecondthecollectorholeswillbemadeatthetimeoffabrication.
Finallythestageswillbeassembledinsidetheoutercovering.3.Thecollectortubesarethenmadeand
attachedtothelowermoststage.4.Theholesareprovidedfora.Collectingdistilledwaterb.
Transportingsalinewaterc.Toattachthepump5.Thewholesystemissealedusingsealanttoprevent
theairfromleakinginfromtheatmosphere.Thecostofconstructionforapassivesolarstillis
considerablycheaperthanamorecomplexhumidification/condensationflowthroughsystem.Allthat
isrequiredisalargeinsulatedboxwithsolarabsorbingmaterialinthebasin,andatransparentglazing.
Becausetheboxisnotunderanyloading,mostinsulatingfoamboardssuchasexpandedpolystyrene,
extrudedpolystyrene,andpolyisocyanurateboardcanprovidestructuralrigidityandnoothermaterials
willbeneeded.Thecostofconstructioncomponentsislistedbelow.BoxStructure/Insulation:
Extrudedpolystyrenefoamhasthebestcombinationoflightweight,rigidity,andlowcost.Foam
boardsof2thicknessmeasuring4x8canbepurchasedfor
28.28.22approximately$20fromsourcessuchasUnivfoamandFoamControl.Threeboardsare
requiredfortheconstructionasolarstillwithbasedimensionsof1x2.25m,witha20inclinedslope
glazing.Themaximumsideheightis0.50m,theminimumsideheightis0.14m.Glazing:Onesolid
pieceofpolycarbonatemeasuring1x2.25mwillberequiredfortheglazing.Thiscanbepurchased
fromsourcessuchasEplasticsandUSplasticforaround$70fora1/16thicksheetmeasuring4x8.
Theexcessfromthissheetwillbeusedtoconstructthecatchforthedistilledwater.SolarRadiation
Absorber:Anothersheetofthesamepolycarbonatesheetusedfortheglazingcanbepaintedblackand
usedasasolarheatabsorber.ApictureofthepassivesolarstillisshownbelowinFig.10,and
dimensionsareshowninFig.11.Thedimensionsofthewaterrefillportarearbitrary,oriftubefilling
ischosenasthefillingmode,itcanbeomitted.Theactualcatchfordistillwaterisnotshown,but
simplyconsistsofastripofpolycarbonatefixedtotheslopedglazingnearthebottom,tocatchand
directthecondensateoutthroughthedripspout.
29.29.23Figure1.5PassiveSolarStillDesignFigure1.6DesignDrawingofSolarStill,Dimensionsin
cm.
30.30.24CHAPTER10BERKADSSAPPLICATIONSBerkadsareasimplewatersupplyoptionthatis
extensivelyusedinSomaliasincethe1950s.Aberkadisanartificialcatchmentthatcollectssurface
runoffthatresultsfromintenserainfallepisodes.Theyareusuallylinedwithmasonryand/orconcrete,
andoftenincludeononesideacatchpoolthattrapsthecoarsesediment.Berkadsaregenerally
constructedingentlyslopingareas,wherelowbarriersaresometimespresenttodirectrunofftowards
thecatchpoolandthentothecistern.Duringtheintenserainfallepisodes,berkadsmayfillupwithin
severalhoursandlastformonthsthroughoutadryperiod(Banks,2008).Theyarethemainwater
sourceforboththehumanandlivestockwaterneeds.Thestudiedberkadsareonaverage20mlong,
10mwideand3.5mdeep.Theirvolumethusis700m3.PracticalapplicationWhenimplementinga
solarstillsystemontheberkadsitisessentialthatthedesignisassimpleaspossiblebutstilleffective.
Keepinginmindtheeconomicandlogisticaspects,affordableandlocalmaterialsshouldbeused
wheneverpossible.Nevertheless,toguaranteeagoodfunctioningofthesystem,somepartsneedtobe
imported.ForBudunbuto,asingleslopesolarstillispreferredaboveadoubleslopesolarstill,as
havingonlyoneslopeequalstohavingonlyoneinternalgutterwhichcanbeeasilyconnectedtothe
drinkwaterstoragetank.Toincreasethesolarinterception,thesolarstillneedsanequatorfacingtop
cover,withthelengththereforelinedonaneastwestaxis(thismightbeproblematicforalready
existingberkads,whichmightnotbeorientatedproperly).Thetopcovershouldbesetatanangleof
10,whichisconsideredtobethemostacceptedangleforasingleslopesolarstillatthislatitude
(Khalifa,2010).Itshouldbemadeeitheroutofa34mmthickglassoraultravioletresistant
polyvinylchloride(PVC)sheet.Asmentionedabove,glassisthepreferredmaterialasitincreasesthe
efficiencyofthesolarstill.Whenchoosingforaglasscover,itisimportantthatthestructureofthe
stillisbuildtocarrytheweightoftherelativelyheavyglass.Thesidesofthestillshouldbeclosedin
ordertomakethestillairtight.Thiscouldbedonebyusingthesamematerialchosenforthetopcover.
Attheinletofthesurfacerunoffwater,aonewaydoorshouldbeplaced(Figure6).Thiswouldallow
thesurfacerunoffwatertoflowintotheberkadduringperiodsofrainfall,asthedoorwouldthenopen
undertheweightofthewater,butitwouldremainshutduringdryperiods.
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31.31.25Thecondensedwatershouldbecollectedinagutterfixedalongtheloweredgeofthecover.On
theoutersideofthecoverasimilarguttershouldbeplacedforthecollectionoftherainwater.Both
guttersshouldbeplacedonasmallangletoletthewaterruntowardstheairtightpipesthatconnectit
tothedrinkingwatertank.Bothguttersshouldalsobemadeofamaterialthatisnotaffectingthe
propertiesofthewaterandsoshouldtheairtightpipesbe.Particularattentionneedstobeusedwhen
installingtherainwatercollectiongutter,asfactorsastheweightofthewaterinthegutterandthe
windeffectsshouldbeconsidered.Itisalsoadvisedtoaddagutterscreen(e.g.asimplemeshwitha
finepattern),asdebrisfromtheroofmaycollectinthegutter,obstructingit.Thecleanwaterstorage
tankshouldbeplacedintheimmediatevicinityoftheberkadandshouldbeproperlyclosed,
preventinganylightfromentering.Itisadvisedtoplacethedrinkingwatertankintheground(lower
thanthegutters),asinthiswaythewaterwouldflowundergravitytowardsthetank.Ahandpump
shouldbeusedfortheextractionofthedrinkingwaterfromthetank,whichshouldsolelybeusedfor
humanconsumption.Anotherhandpumpshouldbeusedfortheextractionofthewaterfromthe
berkad,whichshouldbeusedforanimalwateringandotherdomesticuse(washing,cooking,etc.).
Veryimportantinthedesignofthesystemisthatallthejointsandfittingsareaccuratelyisolatedto
preventheatloss.Forthisreason,aonewayvalvecouldbeplacedatconnectionpointoftheinternal
gutterandthepipethatgoestothedrinkingwatertank..Discussionandrecommendations
32.32.26Theresultspresentedaboveindicatethattheimplementationofasolarstillon(alreadyexisting
andnew)berkadsisafeasiblemeasurefortheimprovementofthewaterquantityandqualityinthe
villageBudunbuto.Abovethis,itisgenerallyagreedthatsolarstillsareagoodoptioninremoteareas
wherethewaterdemanddoesnotexceedthe200m3/day(Tiwarietal.,2003andFath,1998).
However,theapproachusedisverytheoreticalandabstract,whatinevitablymayhaveleadtosome
inaccuracies:Theevaporationlosshasbeencalculatedbasedmostlyonremotelysenseddata,which
isavailableonlyatalargescaleforthestudiedlocation.Thisisasourceofinaccuracywithinthe
resultsofthePenmanopenwaterevaporationequation.However,itisimportanttonoticethatdueto
theavailabilityofthisdataitisactuallypossibletomakeestimatesoveranotherwisedatascarce
region.Theactualwaterconsumptionrate,andthustheamountofberkadsneededwithasolarstill
system,mightdifferfromwhathasbeenestimated.Thisbecausethewaterconsumptionratesandthe
numberofinhabitantsofBudunbutoarealsoanestimationbasedonthelittleinformationthatis
available.Thetheoreticalapproachusedtoestimatetheoutputfromthesolarstillisveryabstractand
mightbeinaccurate.Ontheotherhand,thisseemsthemostreasonableapproachtousewhen
estimatingsolarstilloutputtheoretically,asitispossibletomakeassumptionsfortheefficiencyofthe
systemandtheremainingparametersareallknown.Thesolarstilldesignasdescribedaboveresulted
tobethemostsuitableforBudunbuto.However,astheapproachusedisverytheoretical,itmaynotbe
themostfunctionaldesigninpractice.Thereforeitisrecommendedtotestvarioussimplesolarstill
designsduringthepilotproject.Thiscouldbedonebyconstructingbothsingleanddoubleslopesolar
stills,usingplasticandglasstopcovers.Althoughtheabovedescribedinaccuraciesarepresent,the
informationofthisreportwillprovideareliableguidelineforthepilotproject,duringwhichthe
workingofthesystemwillbetested.Itisexpectedthattheactualproductionrateofthesolarstillwill
bewithintherangeestimatedandthattheefficiencywillmostlikelybearound15%.However,to
satisfythewaterdemandforanimalwateringanddomesticuse(about35.5m3/yr),moreberkadsare
needed.Theseberkadsobviouslydonotneedasolarstillsystem,asthewaterdoesnotneedtobe
withinthemineralogicalandbacteriologicalstandardusedfordrinkingwater.Duringthepilotphaseof
theproject,itisadvisedtoaccuratelymeasureboththequantityandqualityofthewaterproducedby
thestill.Theelectricalconductivity,pH,NO3andthealkalinityofthewatershoulddirectlybe
measuredinthefield.Fortheanalysisofthemajorcationsandanions,itisadvisedtotake10ml
samples13
33.33.27filteredwitha0.45mmembranefilter,whichshouldthenbesenttoawaterlaboratory.Also
thebacteriologicalcontentofthewatershouldbeanalysed,tomakesurethatthebacteriaandviruses
areactuallynotpresentinthedrinkingwater.Thesemeasurementswouldcertainlycontributeto
increasetheknowledgeregardingthepurificationofcontaminatedwaterbyusingsolarstills.Oncethe
workingofthesystemhasproventobeeffective,itisimportantthatthewaterusersarewellinformed
aboutthesolarstillinordertoensureitscorrectfunctioninganditssustainability.Itisessentialto
emphasizethatthesolarstillwillonlyproducetheexpectedoutputwhenitisfullyairtight.Thismeans
thatthewaterinletshouldneverbeopenedbytheuserstoextractthewaterfromtheberkadsasthe
handpumpsshouldsolelybeusedforthat.Thesameholdsforthedrinkingwatertankwhichshould
alsoneverbeopened.Anotherimportantpointisthatthemaintenanceoftheberkadsisregularly
carriedoutandthatpossibleleaksareimmediatelydetectedandrepaired.Particularattentionshouldbe
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paidforthedrinkingwatertank,whichispositionedintheground,whatmakesitdifficulttodetect
possibleleaks.TheabovedescribedadvisabledesignforthesolarstillsinBudunbutoisverysimple
and(thus)notoptimallyefficient.Ithasbeenchosentokeepthedesignsimplebecauseanincreasein
theefficiencyandproductivityofthestillisusuallycoupledtoanincreaseincost,whichisan
undesirableresult.Withthisdesign,thesolarstillsrepresentalowcosttechnologywithlowcost
maintenance,whichcanbecarriedoutbyunskilledmanpower.
34.34.28CHAPTER11WaterPurifiersHistoryofdrinkingwaterfiltrationDuringthe19thand20th
centuries,waterfiltersfordomesticwaterproductionweregenerallydividedintoslowsandfiltersand
rapidsandfilters(alsocalledmechanicalfiltersandAmericanfilters).Whilethereweremanysmall
scalewaterfiltrationsystemspriorto1800,Paisley,Scotlandisgenerallyacknowledgedasthefirst
citytoreceivefilteredwaterforanentiretown.ThePaisleyfilterbeganoperationin1804andwasan
earlytypeofslowsandfilter.Throughoutthe1800s,hundredsofslowsandfilterswereconstructedin
theUKandontheEuropeancontinent.Anintermittentslowsandfilterwasconstructedandoperated
atLawrence,Massachusettsin1893duetocontinuingtyphoidfeverepidemicscausedbysewage
contaminationofthewatersupply.[1]Thefirstcontinuouslyoperatingslowsandfilterwasdesigned
byAllenHazenforthecityofAlbany,NewYorkin1897.[2]Themostcomprehensivehistoryofwater
filtrationwaspublishedbyMosesN.Bakerin1948andreprintedin1981.[1]Inthe1800s,mechanical
filtrationwasanindustrialprocessthatdependedontheadditionofaluminumsulfatepriortothe
filtrationprocess.Thefiltrationrateformechanicalfiltrationwastypicallymorethan60timesfaster
thanslowsandfilters,thusrequiringsignificantlylesslandarea.Thefirstmodernmechanicalfiltration
plantintheU.S.wasbuiltatLittleFalls,NewJerseyfortheEastJerseyWaterCompany.GeorgeW.
Fullerdesignedandsupervisedtheconstructionoftheplantwhichwentintooperationin1902.[3]In
1924,JohnR.Baylisdevelopedafixedgridbackwashassistsystemwhichconsistedofpipeswith
nozzlesthatinjectedjetsofwaterintothefiltermaterialduringexpansion.Typesoffilters:Water
treatmentplantfiltersTypesofwaterfiltersmediafilters,screenfilters,diskfilters,slowsandfilter
beds,rapidsandfiltersandclothfilters.Pointofusefiltersforhomeuseincludegranularactivated
carbonfilters(GAC)usedforcarbonfiltering,metallicalloyfilters,microporousceramicfilters,
carbonblockresin(CBR),microfiltrationandultrafiltrationmembranes.Somefiltersusemorethan
onefiltrationmethod.Anexampleofthisisamultibarriersystem.Jugfilterscanbeusedfor
35.35.29smallquantitiesofdrinkingwater.Somekettleshavebuiltinfilters,primarilytoreduce
limescalebuildup.Pointofusemicrofiltrationdevicescanbedirectlyinstalledatwateroutlets
(faucets,showers)inordertoprotectusersagainstLegionellaspp.,Pseudomonasspp.,Nontuberculous
mycobacteria,Escherichiacoliandotherpotentiallyharmfulwaterpathogensbyprovidingabarrierto
themand/orminimizingpatientexposure.CertificationofWaterFilters:Threeorganizationsare
accreditedbytheAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute,andeachoneofthemcertifyproductsusing
ANSI/NSFstandards.EachANSI/NSFstandardrequiresverificationofcontaminantreduction
performanceclaims,anevaluationoftheunit,includingitsmaterialsandstructuralintegrity,anda
reviewoftheproductlabelsandsalesliterature.Eachcertifiesthathomewatertreatmentunitsmeetor
exceedANSI/NSFandEnvironmentalProtectionAgencydrinkingwaterstandards.ANSI/NSF
standardsareissuedintwodifferentsets,oneforhealthconcerns(suchasremovalofspecific
contaminants(Standard53,HealthEffects)andoneforaestheticconcerns(AestheticEffects,suchas
improvingtasteorappearanceofwater).Certificationfromtheseorganizationswillspecifyoneor
bothofthesespecificstandards.NSFInternational:TheNSFWatertreatmentDeviceCertification
Programrequiresextensiveproducttestingandunannouncedauditsofproductionfacilities.Thegoal
ofthisprogramistoprovideassurancetoconsumersthatthewatertreatmentdevicestheyare
purchasingmeetthedesign,material,andperformancerequirementsofnationalstandards.
UnderwritersLaboratories:UnderwritersLaboratories,Inc.,isanindependent,accreditedtestingand
certificationorganizationthatcertifieshomewatertreatmentunitswhichmeetorexceedEPAand
ANSI/NSFdrinkingwaterstandardsofcontaminantreduction,aestheticconcerns,structuralintegrity,
andmaterialssafety.WaterQualityAssociation:TheWaterQualityAssociationisatradeorganization
thattestswatertreatmentequipment,andawardsitsGoldSealtosystemsthatmeetorexceed
ANSI/NSFstandardsforcontaminantreductionperformance,structuralintegrity,andmaterialssafety.
Filtersthatusereverseosmosis,thoselabeledasabsoluteonemicronfilters,orthoselabeledas
certifiedbyanAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(ANSI)accreditedorganizationtoANSI/NSF
Standard53forCystRemovalprovidethe
36.36.30greatestassuranceofremovingCryptosporidium.Aswithallfilters,followthemanufacturers
instructionsforfilteruseandreplacement.[6]PortablewaterfiltersMainarticle:Portablewater
purificationWaterfiltersareusedbyhikers,byaidorganizationsduringhumanitarianemergencies,
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andbythemilitary.Thesefiltersareusuallysmall,portableandlight(12pounds/0.51.0kgorless),
andusuallyfilterwaterbyworkingamechanicalhandpump,althoughsomeuseasiphondripsystem
toforcewaterthroughwhileothersarebuiltintowaterbottles.Dirtywaterispumpedviaascreen
filteredflexiblesilicontubethroughaspecializedfilter,endingupinacontainer.Thesefiltersworkto
removebacteria,protozoaandmicrobialcyststhatcancausedisease.Filtersmayhavefinemeshesthat
mustbereplacedorcleaned,andceramicwaterfiltersmusthavetheiroutsideabradedwhentheyhave
becomecloggedwithimpurities.Thesewaterfiltersshouldnotbeconfusedwithdevicesortabletsthat
arewaterpurifiers,someofwhichremoveorkillvirusessuchashepatitisAandrotavirus.Water
polishingThetermwaterpolishingcanrefertoanyprocessthatremovessmall(usuallymicroscopic)
particulatematerial,orremovesverylowconcentrationsofdissolvedmaterialfromwater.Theprocess
anditsmeaningvaryfromsettingtosetting:amanufacturerofaquariumfiltersmayclaimthatits
filtersperformwaterpolishingbycapturing"microparticles"withinnylonorpolyesterpadsjustasa
chemicalengineercanusethetermtorefertotheremovalofmagneticresinsfromasolutionby
passingthesolutionoverabedofmagneticparticulate.[7]Inthissense,waterpolishingissimply
anothertermforwholehousewaterfiltrationsystems.Goodmaterialstocreateafilterissand,gravel,
activatedcarbonandwindowscreens.Thenextworldwarifeverwillnotbeoverland,buton
WATER.Globallymorethanonebillionpeoplelackaccesstosafedrinkingwater,nearlyallofthemin
thedevelopingcountries,includingIndia.Nearlyonethirdofthepopulationworldwideliveinareas
whicharewaterstressed.Thisfigureisexpectedtoincreasefurtherbyafoldby2025.Approximately
80%ofdiseasesinIndiaarecausedbywaterbornemicroorganisms.Thisistrueinruralaswellas
urbanIndia.However,awarenessofhealthriskslinkedtounsafewaterisstillverylowamongtherural
population.Thefewwhotreatwaterresorttoboilingorusedomesticcandlefilters.Withmore&more
numberpeoplearebecomingconsciousaboutcontaminateddrinkingwaterthedemandforwater
purifiersisrapidlyrisingespeciallyinIndia.Inthepastfewyears,Indianwater
37.37.31purifierindustryhasseenanexponentialgrowthof22%CAGR(CompoundedAnnualGrowth
Rate).TherearethreetypesofWaterPurifiersinthemarket:1.UltraVioletBased2.ReverseOsmosis
Based3.ChemicalBasedTheUVsegmentconstitutesmorethan55%oftheindustryandhasitskey
focusareaforwaterPurifiermanufacturersbecauseofhighermarginsitoffer.TheIndianwater
purifiermarkethastremendouspotentialwithamarketsizeofapproximatelyINR1400Crore.Itis
moreevidentfromthefactthatglobalmajorssuchasPhilipsandHindustanUnileverhavesteppedin
thearea.Intheyearstocome,wecanexpecttoseeothersenteringthebattle.FEATURESOFA
GOODPURIFIERItshouldretainnaturalqualityofwaterUserfriendlyfeatures.Absolutelysafefor
drinkingpurposeasperWHOstandards.LongLife.InbuiltstoragetankAvoidsallcontamination
withlastpointpurification.LowMaintenance..ABOUTTHEPRODUCTWATERPURIFIER
PUREITPureitistheworldsmostadvancedinhomewaterpurifier.Pureit,abreakthroughoffering
ofHindustanUnilever(HUL),providescompleteprotectionfromallwaterbornediseases,unmatched
convenienceandaffordability.PureitsuniqueGermkillBatterytechnologykillsallharmfulviruses
andbacteriaandremovesparasitesandpesticideimpurities,givingyouwaterthatisassafeasboiled
water".Itassuresyourfamily100%protectionfromallwaterbornediseaseslikejaundice,diarrhoea,
typhoidandcholera.Pureitnotonlyrendersmicrobiologicalsafewater,butalsomakesthewater
clear,odorlessandgoodtasting.Pureitdoesnotleaveanyresidualchlorineintheoutputwater.The
outputwaterfromPureitmeetsstringentcriteriaformicrobiologicallysafedrinkingwaterfromoneof
thetoughestregulatoryagenciesintheUSA,EPA(EnvironmentalProtectionAgency).The
performanceofPureithasalsobeentested
38.38.32byleadingscientificandmedicalinstitutionsinIndiaandabroad.Thispatentedtechnological
breakthroughhasbeendevelopedbyHUL.Pureitrunswithaunique,GermkillBatteryKithat
typicallylastsfor1500litersofwater.Consumerwillget4litersofwaterthatisassafeasboiledwater
forjustonerupee.Pureitinhomepurificationsystemusesa4stagepurificationprocesstodeliveras
safeasboiledwaterwithouttheuseofelectricityandpressurizedtapwater.Pureitpurifiestheinput
drinkingwaterinfourstages,namely1.MICROFIBERMESHRemovesvisibledirt.2.COMPACT
CARBONTRAPRemovesremainingdirt,harmfulparasites&pesticideImpurities.2.GERMKILL
PROCESSORuses'programmedchlorinereleasetechnologyanditsStoredGermkillprocess
targetsandkillsharmfulvirusandbacteria.4.POLISHERRemovesresidualchlorineandall
disinfectantbyproducts,givingclearodorlessandgreattastingwater.5.BATTERYLIFE
INDICATOREnsurestotalsafetybecausewhenthegermkillpowerisexhausted,theindicatorturns
red,warningyoutoreplacethebattery.
39.39.33CHAPTER12SolarPanel4.1SolarPanelAsolarpanel(alsosolarmodule,photovoltaic
moduleorphotovoltaicpanel)isapackagedconnectedassemblyofphotovoltaiccells.Thesolarpanel
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canbeusedasacomponentofalargerphotovoltaicsystemtogenerateandsupplyelectricityin
commercialandresidentialapplications.EachpanelisratedbyitsDCoutputpowerunderstandard
testconditions,andtypicallyrangesfrom100to320watts.Theefficiencyofapaneldeterminesthe
areaofapanelgiventhesameratedoutputan8%efficient230wattpanelwillhavetwicetheareaof
a16%efficient230wattpanel.Becauseasinglesolarpanelcanproduceonlyalimitedamountof
power,mostinstallationscontainmultiplepanels.Aphotovoltaicsystemtypicallyincludesanarrayof
solarpanels,aninverter,andsometimesabatteryandorsolartrackerandinterconnectionwiring.FIG.
SolarPanel
40.40.344.2TheoryandconstructionSolarpanelsuselightenergy(photons)fromthesuntogenerate
electricitythroughthephotovoltaiceffect.Themajorityofmodulesusewaferbasedcrystallinesilicon
cellsorthinfilmcellsbasedoncadmiumtellurideorsilicon.Thestructural(loadcarrying)memberof
amodulecaneitherbethetoplayerorthebacklayer.Cellsmustalsobeprotectedfrommechanical
damageandmoisture.Mostsolarpanelsarerigid,butsemiflexibleonesareavailable,basedonthin
filmcells.Electricalconnectionsaremadeinseriestoachieveadesiredoutputvoltageand/orin
paralleltoprovideadesiredcurrentcapability.Theconductingwiresthattakethecurrentoffthe
panelsmaycontainsilver,copperorothernonmagneticconductivetransitionmetals.Thecellsmust
beconnectedelectricallytooneanotherandtotherestofthesystem.Externally,popularterrestrial
usagephotovoltaicpanelsuseMC3(older)orMC4connectorstofacilitateeasyweatherproof
connectionstotherestofthesystem.Bypassdiodesmaybeincorporatedorusedexternally,incaseof
partialpanelshading,tomaximizetheoutputofpanelsectionsstillilluminated.Thepnjunctionsof
monocrystallinesiliconcellsmayhaveadequatereversevoltagecharacteristicstopreventdamaging
panelsectionreversecurrent.Reversecurrentscouldleadtooverheatingofshadedcells.Solarcells
becomelessefficientathighertemperaturesandinstallerstrytoprovidegoodventilationbehindsolar
panels.4.3EfficienciesDependingonconstruction,photovoltaicpanelscanproduceelectricityfroma
rangeoffrequenciesoflight,butusuallycannotcovertheentiresolarrange(specifically,ultraviolet,
infraredandlowordiffusedlight).Hencemuchoftheincidentsunlightenergyiswastedbysolar
panels,andtheycangivefarhigherefficienciesifilluminatedwithmonochromaticlight.Therefore,
anotherdesignconceptistosplitthelightintodifferentwavelengthrangesanddirectthebeamsonto
differentcellstunedtothoseranges.[2]Thishasbeenprojectedtobecapableofraisingefficiencyby
50%.Currentlythebestachievedsunlightconversionrate(solarpanelefficiency)isaround21%in
commercialproducts,typicallylowerthantheefficienciesoftheircellsinisolation.Theenergydensity
ofasolarpanelistheefficiencydescribedintermsofpeakpoweroutputperunitofsurfacearea,
commonlyexpressedinunitsofwattspersquarefoot(W/ft2).Themostefficientmassproducedsolar
panelshaveenergydensityvaluesofgreaterthan13W/ft2(140W/m2).
41.41.35CHAPTER13Wouldasolarstillsuitourneeds?Humanbeingsneed1or2litresofwateraday
tolive.Theminimumrequirementfornormallifeindevelopingcountries(whichincludescooking,
cleaningandwashingclothes)is20litresperday(intheindustrialisedworld200to400litresperday
istypical).Yetsomefunctionscanbeperformedwithsaltywaterandatypicalrequirementfordistilled
wateris5litresperpersonperday.Therefore2mofstillareneededforeachpersonserved.Solar
stillsshouldnormallyonlybeconsideredforremovalofdissolvedsaltsfromwater.Ifthereisachoice
betweenbrackishgroundwaterorpollutedsurfacewater,itwillusuallybecheapertouseaslowsand
filterorothertreatmentdevice.Ifthereisnofreshwaterthenthemainalternativesaredesalination,
transportationandrainwatercollection.Unlikeothertechniquesofdesalination,solarstillsaremore
attractive,thesmallertherequiredoutput.Theinitialcapitalcostofstillsisroughlyproportionalto
capacity,whereasothermethodshavesignificanteconomiesofscale.Fortheindividualhousehold,
therefore,thesolarstillismosteconomic.Foroutputsof1m/dayormore,reverseosmosisor
electrodialysisshouldbeconsideredasanalternativetosolarstills.Muchwilldependonthe
availabilityandpriceofelectricalpower.SolardistillationPracticalAction5Foroutputsof200m/day
ormore,vapourcompressionorflashevaporationwillnormallybeleastcost.Thelattertechnology
canhavepartofitsenergyrequirementmetbysolarwaterheaters.Inmanypartsoftheworld,fresh
wateristransportedfromanotherregionorlocationbyboat,train,truckorpipeline.Thecostofwater
transportedbyvehiclesistypicallyofthesameorderofmagnitudeasthatproducedbysolarstills.A
pipelinemaybelessexpensiveforverylargequantities.Rainwatercollectionisanevensimpler
techniquethansolardistillationinareaswhererainisnotscarce,butrequiresagreaterareaandusually
alargerstoragetank.Ifreadymadecollectionsurfacesexist.DistillationPurificationCapabilities:
Solarstillshaveproventobehighlyeffectiveincleaningupwatersuppliestoprovidesafedrinking
water.Theeffectivenessofdistillationforproducingsafedrinkingwateriswellestablishedand
recognized.Mostcommercialstillsandwaterpurificationsystemsrequireelectricalorotherfossil
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fueledpowersources.Solardistillationtechnologyproducesthesamesafequalitydrinkingwateras
otherdistillationtechnologiesonlytheenergysourceisdifferent:thesun.
42.42.36CHAPTER14CONCLUSIONDistillationisamethodwherewaterisremovedfromthe
contaminationsratherthantoremovecontaminantsfromthewater.Solarenergyisapromisingsource
toachievethis.Thisisduetovariousadvantagesinvolvedinsolardistillation.TheSolardistillation
involveszeromaintenancecostandnoenergycostsasitinvolvesonlysolarenegywhichisfreeof
cost.Itwasfoundfromtheexperimentalanalysisthatincreasingtheambienttemperaturefrom32Cto
47Cwillincreasetheproductivitybyapprox12to23%,whichshowsthatthesystemperformedmore
distillationathigherambienttemperatures.Wheninvertedtypeabsorberplatewasusedthermal
efficiencyofsingleslopesolarstillwasincreasedby7%.Itwasobservedthatwhenthewaterdepth
increasesfrom0.01mto0.03mtheproductivitydecreasedby5%.Theseresultsshowthatthewater
mass(waterdepth)hasanintenseeffectonthedistillateoutputofthesolarstillsystem.Solarstill
productivitycanalsoincreasebyuseofreflectorby3%.Theuseofthemirrorreflectorwillincrease
thetemperatureofthesolarstillbasinsuchanincreaseinthetemperatureisbecauseofthe
improvementinsolarradiationconcentration.Thesolarradiationincreasefrom0MJ/m2/hto6
MJ/m2/hhasincreasedtheproductivityofthestillby15to32%.Howevertheincreaseofthesolar
radiationparameterwillincreasethesolarenergyabsorbedbythebasinliner.Themaindisadvantage
ofthissolarstillisthelowproductivityorhighcapitalcostperunitoutputofdistillate.Thiscouldbe
improvedbyanumberofactions,e.g.injectingblackdyeintheseawater,usinginternalandexternal
mirror,usingwick,reducingheatconductionthroughbasinwallsandtopcoverorreusingthelatent
heatemittedfromthecondensingvapourontheglasscover.Capitalcostcanbereducedbyusing
differentdesignsandnewmaterialsforconstructionofsolarstills.
43.43.37References1)BOOKRenewableEnergySourcesByG.D.Rai2)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_still3)http://www.solaqua.com/solstilbas.html4)
http://practicalaction.org/solardistillation15)http://www.motherearthnews.com/Renewable
Energy/19740901/HowToBuildandUseASolarStill.aspx6)
http://www.desertusa.com/mag98/dec/stories/water.html
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http://www.slideshare.net/eramanagrawal/solarstillawaterpurifyingtechniqueprojectreport

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9/5/2016

Solarstill,AwaterPurifyingTechniqueProjectReport

http://www.slideshare.net/eramanagrawal/solarstillawaterpurifyingtechniqueprojectreport

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