1.

0 MINERALS

MINERALS
The minerals

AND IMPORTANT

are homogeneous

MINERAL

crystalline

GROUPS

materials

but not necessarily

pure substances.

Most

rock-forming minerals, or minerals found most abundantly in the rocks of the crust, have variable
compositions caused by ionic substitution 01' sonic clements for other clements. These substitutions
are distributed at random throughout the crystalline structure. Such replacement is called solid
solution. The resultant mineral is homogeneous and has the same physical properties throughout,
but its composition is slightly variable.
More than two thousand different minerals have been identified; so, it is desirable to use some
system of classification. The most convenient and useful system is one that groups minerals
according to chemical composition. The "native" elements are minerals that ,!re all composed of a
single element, and they are put in a class together. All other minerals are compounds of several
clements or groups of elements; they are put in classes defined by the negative ion or ion group.
Thus, the sulfur compounds make up a group called sulfides, and the compounds with the complex
negative ion of carbon and oxygen (COl- ) are known as carbonates. A list of the groups and some
common examples are given in Table I:
TABLE 1: Summary of the organization

of some common minerals*

Cornpoun d rruncra s
Oxides

mementol
Minerals

Silicates
[clements

Copper
Diamond
Gold
Graphite
Platinum
Silver
Sulfur

Fcrromagncsian
Augite
Biotite
Hornblende
Olivine
Non Icrromaancsian

+ SiO~t]

(clements
+0)

Sullldcs
(clements

+S)

Curbonutcs
[dements +
(CO})2-j

Sulfates
[clements +
S04tl

Calcite
Dolomite
Magnesite

Anhvdritc

1I1IIiues
[clements +
CI', 1', Or', or

F-)

Cassiterite
Corundum
l lcrnatitc
Ice
Muanctitc

Chalcocite
Galena
Pyrite
Snhalcritc

Halite
Sylvite

--

Feldspars
Orthoclase
Plagioclase
Albite
Anorthite
Muscovite
Quartz

Gypsum

"Minerals may be either clements or compounds, but not all clements or compounds are minerals

MINERAL GROUPS
The Silicates
Most of the material near the earth's surface is made up of only a few clements. Of these, oxygen,
and silicon are far more abundant than any other clement. These, together with aluminum, iron,
calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium, account for about 99 percent or the earth outside the
central core. Their abundance alone would lead us to expect compounds of silicon and oxygen, the
silicates, to be important constituents 01' rocks, and they arc indeed by far the most important group

it

of rock-forming minerals. For this reason we will study their structure and some common minerals
of this group ,in greater detail.

Structure of tile silicates

The chief structural component, sometimes called the building block of the silicates, is
oxygen tetrahedron (Figs. 1 & 2). Silicon, atomic number 14, has four electrons in its
and oxygen, atomic number 8, has six electrons in its outer orbit. These two elements
come together and share electrons. The size or silicon is such that four oxygen atoms
around it to form a tetrahedron.

the siliconouter orbit,

commonly
can cluster

I,

(b)

(a)

Fig. I

The silicon-oxygen
tetrahedron, (SiO.I)'1 : (a) from above, (b) from the side. This is the most important complex ion in &coloBY because it is the central building unit 1)1' Ilc<lrly ')0 percent or the minerals of the curth's
crust.

,.,.,4

::..'

I ...:. ',.
'.,'. ': ... :

\ "-

\,_/ K'-../ J

~
Fig. 2:

"- \

I /'

Various ways or representing

the slliccn-oxygcn
tctruhcdrul grouping. The silicon atom is located
center, as shown in the enlarged view <Itlclt. The lour oxygcns occupy the corners or a tetrahedron.

in the
.

Oxygen is bound to silicon by a single electron-pair bond, leaving each or the four oxygens with
seven electrons in its outer shell free to bond to another atom or to accept one more electron. Thus,
the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron has a net negative charge or minus four (Si04)4-.
In ionic compounds the charges on ions and some ionic groupings, such as the silicon oxygen
tetrahedra, are equalized or neutralized by opposite charges or other ions in the compound; thus, the
compound has no net electrostatic charge. In all silicates, this is accomplished in whole or in part
by the sharing of one or more of the oxygen atoms by adjacent tetrahedra. Thus, although a single
tetrahedron has a net charge of --4, two adjacent tetrahedra sharing un oxygen atom as shown in
Fig. 3 have a total net charge of -6 (-3 each for each tetrahedron). If each of the oxygens of a
tetrahedron is shared by another tetrahedron, the net charge is reduced to zero, and the resultant
ratio of silicon atoms to oxygen atoms is I :2. This structure is found in onc of the minerals, quartz,
Si02, a common constituent of many rocks.

,'
:f
~'? ..
. ,"

;:,,'

"

CI~
Figure 3 : Two silicon-oxygen

tetrahedra linked,

The silicate minerals are classified according to how the silicon-oxygen

tetrahedra are
connected. The simplest group includes minerals composed of independent tetrahedral groups that
are not directly linked together but are bound to positive mctal ions such as magnesium or iron.
Olivine, (Fe,MghSi04,
is such a silicate. The next more complex silicate is composed of double
tetrahedra that share one oxygen (as in Fig. 3) and are bound by other positive ions. Silicate ring
structures are produced by the sharing of oxygen by three, four, or six tetrahedra in such a way as to
form a ring (Fig. 4). An example is the mineral beryl. Chains linking tetrahedra into either single
chains (Si:O ratio 1:3), or double chains consisting of cross-linked chains with Si:Q ratios of 4: II '
are the basic structures of the minerals pyroxene and amphibole, respectively. Sheet structures
produced by the sharing of each of three oxygen with adjacent tetrahedra to form an extensive
sheet, such as that found in the mica minerals. Three-dimensional
networks like that of quartz
constitute the last group of silicates. A summary of the sillicatc minerals is given in Tablc-Z,
Metal ions fit into the silicate structures to satisfy the net electrical charges on these tetrahedral
groupings and to bind the sheets, rings, and chains together. Water molecules (H20), hydroxyl
groups (a combination of one oxygen with one hydrogen, OH), and additional oxygen atoms also
are found with some of the silicate tetrahedral groupings. Aluminum is especially important. It is
abundant, and because it is similar in size to silicon it can replace silicon in the Si04 tetrahedra if the
charge balance can be maintained when AI+J is substituted for Si+4
:'

""

'

.'

;;

"

Figure 4 : Ring structure formed by silicon-oxygen

tetrahedra.

&

Table 2 : Summary
Structure

Isolated
tetrahedra
Single
chains
Double
chains
Sheets
Framework

of Silicate Structures

Mineral
group

Ferromagne
sian
minerals?

Olivine

Yes

Volume %
in earth's
crust

SilO

sio, or

Yes

Amphibole

Yes

Mica Clay
Minerals
Feldspar

Either yes
of no

Si20s. or

No

Silica

No

3.27 to 4.37

Volume of
unit cell
(cubic
angstroms")
About 300
:

Si"OI6
Si03, or
Si4012
SiqOII, or

Pyroxene

Density
g/cm '

About 430

17

3.11 to 3.3
About 925

2.8 to 3.3

About 980

(Si.AI)'IOx

60

2.5 to 2.8

About 800
to 1500

Si02, or
Si40x

12

2.6

si.o.,

All other minerals (nonsillicates and miscellaneous

One angstrom is one ten-billionth of a meter.

sillicatc)

31100

Olivine group. Olivine is an especially important mineral because it is a component, and-possibly

the main one, of the outer half of the earth. Olivine is also found in stony meteorites thought to be
derived from the break-up of planet like bodies, and it is found in many rocks, especially those
igneous and volcanic rocks that contain large quantities of iron and magnesium (gabbro, dunite,
basalt). Only rarely are quartz and olivine found in the same rock. Olivine docs occur, though not
commonly, in metamorphic rocks, but because it breaks down rapidly ill water it is rarely found in
sediments or sedimentary rocks.
Olivine is an example of a mineral that undergoes compositional changes, Its formula is (Mg,
Fe2Si04. The proportions of magnesium and iron vary; so their symbols are in parentheses. The
proportion of silicon and oxygen remains constant. Iron and magnesium substitute for one another
quite freely in olivine's crystalline structure as they each have two electrons in the outer shell and
their ionic radii are almost identical, 0.97 and 0.99 A. The general tendency for two or more ions to
substitute for one another is known as isomorphism. When the ions substitute. in a continuous
series (like magnesium and iron in olivines) the process is called a solid-solution
mineral series.
The end members of the olivine series are Iorstcritc and Iuyalitc: When the positive ions are all
magnesium, the mineral is Iorstcritc, Mg2Si04; when they arc all iron, the mineral is fayalitc,
FC2Si04.
'

 Silicon

Fig. 5: Silicon-oxygen
tetrahedra in olivine form rows and columns in all three dimensions. Magnesium and ferrous
iron ions occupy regular prescribed spaces amongst the tetrahedra, but whether any given cation siteis tilled by iron or
magnesium is a matter of chance. The box encloses the atoms in one unit cell-the
simplest repeating pattern.

Olivine is nonmetallic; it has a characteristic olive to grayish green color, which in combination
with its glassy appearance and occurrence as masses of grains (granular texture) makes it easy to
identify. Olivine is composed of isolated silicon-oxygen tetrahedra held together by positive ions of
magnesium and iron. Because there are no planes of weakness and its clements are so firmly held
together by the ionic bonds (Fig. 5), olivine exhibits no cleavage but rather fractures when struck a
blow. It is a relatively hard mineral having hardness, 6.5 to 7 and specific gravity 3.27 to 4.37,
increasing with iron content.

Pyroxene group. The pyroxenes arc more frequently found in igneous and metamorphic rocks than
in sediments or sedimentary rocks, 1'01',like olivine, they tend to weather rapidly, decomposing to
clay minerals. They arc 1110;;tabundant in the igneous roeks that crystallize Irom magmas rich in
magnesium and iron; so, they arc present in gabbro, basalt, peridotite, and ultramafic rocks, One of
the pyroxenes, diopside, is often formed when rocks rich in carbonate minerals are thermally metamorphosed.
The pyroxenes are silicate minerals having single chain tetrahedra (Fig. 6) and contain varying
amounts of magnesium, iron, and calcium. Lithium, sodium, and aluminum may also be present.
These metal ions join chains of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra that share oxygen atoms on two corners.
The general formula for the pyroxenes is (Cu. Mg,Fe)Si30'J.

--~

---------------------------------------------------------------~------------~~

o
t

5;-0-S.'

/1

(II)

6 --D

(h)

Fig. 6

Single chain of tetrahedra viewed (a) from above and (h) from an end. Each silicon ion (small black sphere)
has two of the four oxygen ions of its tetrahedron bonded exclusively lo itself, and it shares the other two with
neighboring tetrahedra fore and ul]. The resulting individual chains lire in turn bon ded to one another by
positive metallic ions. Because these bonus lire weaker than the silicon-oxygen
bonds that form each chain,
cleavage develops parullel to the chains.
I

One of the most important mineral of the pyroxene group is Augite having chemical formula Ca
(Mg, Fe, AI) (AI Sh06). In augite single chains of tetrahedra arc joined by ions of iron, magnesium,
calcium, sodium, and aluminum. It is dark green to black, with a colorless streak. Its hardness is 5
to 6, and its specific gravity ranges from 3.2 to 3.4. It has rather poor cleavage along two planes
,almost at right angles to each other. This cleavage angle is important in distinguishing augite (Fig .
. 7). The cleavage results from the contrast between the stronger covalent bonding within the chains
of silica tetrahedra, and the weaker ionic bonding between adjacent chains and the intervening
cations.

amphibole

Fig. 7 : The cleavages of pyroxenes and amphiboles (both Ii:r-romagncslan

silicates) rcllcct thc configuration
of slliccn-oxygen
tetrahedrons In the minerals. Dark lines show that both minerals break between the silicon-oxygen
chains. Because single chains
and double chains differ in cross section, the cleavage angles arc different.

group. The amphiboles are common constituents of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
They' occur especially in those igneous rocks that are intermediate or rich in silica content and in
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks.
Amphibole

The main feature of amphibole structure is a double-linked chain Fig. 8 in which silicon-oxygen
and silicon-aluminum tetrahedra are bound by sharing oxygen. The double chains are joined by the
various positive ions and, OH ions are also present.
A wide range of chemical composition is found among the amphiboles, because the structure
allows easy substitution of one ion far another. The amphiboles are silicates, and they may contain
calcium, sodium, potassium, manganese, magnesium, iron, aluminum, and some other less common
ions. A general formula for amphibole is (.\)(y)(=)012(Olfh where x may be Ca, Na, K, or Mn; y
may be Mg, Fe, or AI; and z may be Si or AI.

0-

s~

S,'

..,.
\

.\
0

,
$,-

S,' -

O-

0
-$,'-

\.

\
0- Sf

,0
'/'

s,-o

\.

0
Fig. 8:

0- O,pf'U. (\

o-s,

\
0

-D- $; -0

or

(b)

Doublc chain
tetrahedra viewed (a) from above and (11) from an end. The doubling
accomplished by the sharing
oxygen utoms by adjacent chains.

or

or the

chain

or Fig.

(j

is

The most abundant amphibole, hornblende, is NaCa2Mg4AI3Si6022(OH)2. Hornblende tends to

occur as long prismatic crystals or masses of small crystals that are black in color and have a
hardness of 5 to 6 and Sp. Gr. 3.2. The two good cleavages, which form angles of 56 and 124,
provide the best means of distinguishing hornblende from the pyroxene augite, which is similar in
hardness and color but has cleavages at right angles (Fig. 7).

Mica group.

or

Mica is familiar to most

us as the sheetlike material used in fuses and other
applications where resistance to high temperature or electric current is required. The micas are
common constituents of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The group includes black
mica, biotite, which is found in many different rocks, and white mica, muscovite, which is rare in
sediments but crystallizes from some melts at 700C and may form in a solid state at lower
temperatures. A third mica, glauconite or greensand, is found in marine sediments and occurs as
rounded, fine-grained aggregates .

Fig. 9:

Tetrahedral sheets. Each tetrahedron is surrounded by three others, and each silicon ion 'has one of the four
oxygen ions to itself, sharing the other three with its neighbors.

The essential feature of mica structure is the presence of large sheets of silicon-oxygen
tetrahedra formed by the sharing or .9xygen (Fig. 9). These sheets are joined together by a layer of
positive ions as is shown in Fig. 10. In addition to silicon and oxygen, micas may contain a great
variety of other clements, so a number of chemical compositions arc possible. The general formula
for mica is: X2Y4-6ZS020(OH,F)4 where x is usually K, Na, or Ca; y is AI, Mg, or Fe; and z is Si or
AI.

O+OH,

, ~,

} Tel,shed,s

~N

. ~.

..

"1'

~.1" .:..,.

t~,

-'0

...

plano

} T olroho<.l,.

''\
"',
'

~_
i.'tl
(a)

Cloavage

) .Tolrahepra

(b)

(e)

K.Na.Ca

Fig: 10: (a) Photograph or mica. (b) The must common crystal Iorrn or micas, (c) 1\ sectional sketch illustrating
way the Si04 tetrahedra are bound together in sheets that are joined by K. Na, or C~ ions.

the

Biotite, black mica, is a potassium-magnesiull1-iroil-aluminum

silicate, K(Mg,Fe)3[A1ShOIO(OH)2]'
(It was named for a distinguished French physicist, J. 13. Biot.) Like other micas, it is constructed of

tetrahedra in sheets, as shown in Fig. 9. Each silicon ion shares three oxygen ions with adjacent
silicon ionsto form a pattern like wire netting. The fourth, unsharcd oxygen ion of each tetrahedron

10

stands above the plane of all the others. The basic structural unit of mica consists of two of these
sheets of tetrahedra with their flat surfaces facing outward and their inner surfaces held together by
positive ions. In biotite the ions are magnesium and iron. These basic double sheets of mica, in turn,
are loosely joined together by positive ions of potassium (Fig: IOc).
Layers of biotite or of any of the other micas can be peeled off easily (Fig. II) because there is a
distinct contrast between the stronger covalent bonding within a sheet, and the weaker ionic
bonding between adjacent sheets and with the intervening cations. In thick blocks, biotite is usually
dark green or brown to black. Its hardness is 2.5 to 3, and its specific gravity is 2.H to 3.2.

Muscovite is white mica, so named because it was once used as a substitute for glass in old Russia
(Muscovy). It has the same basic crystalline structure as biotite, but in muscovite
tetrahedra sheets is tightly cemented together by ions of aluminum. As in biotite,
double sheets are held together loosely by potassium ions, along which cleavage
place. It has a formula of, essentially, KAbAISi30lO (OH)2. In thick blocks the color
is light yellow, brown, green, or red. Its hardness ranges from 2 to 2.5, with specific
3.1.

each pair of
however, the
readily lakes
of muscovite
gravity 2.8 to

. ', ~_ .,__ \. _ .... ~\~~ .. !t;.,~.Y" ,

,

t,'

'

. ....:,:

~ 'i

Fig. 11 Mica cleavage. The large block (or "book") is bounded 011 the sides by crystal races. Cleavage fragments lying
in front of the block are of different thicknesses, :IS indicated by their degrees or transparency. The reference grid is
made of 5-ern squares. [Walter R. Flcischcr.)

Feldspar group. The group of minerals known as the feldspars are the most abundant minerals in
the earth's crust. They are especially prominent as components of many igneous and metamorphic
rocks frequently appearing as large crystals in these rocks. Unlike quartz, however, the feldspars
slowly decompose to form clay when they come in contact with water and carbon dioxide at the
ground surface. For this reason they may be completely absent even from sediments derived from
rocks like granite that contain abundant feldspar. Other sediments that were buried rapidly may
contain large quantities of the feldspars. Like quartz the feldspars are silicates; but unlike quartz,
.they may differ in composition. All feldspars are aluminum silicates, bound together in a threedimensional network of silicon-oxygen and aluminum-oxygen
tetrahedra. Positive ions 01' potassium (K), sodium (Na), and/or c1acium (Ca) lit into the spaces created by the tetrahedra. Those
feldspars that contain potassium or sodium are called the alkali feldspars, and those containing
sodium and/or calcium are' called plagioclase feldspars (Fig. 12). The potassium feldspar
(orthoclase) has a composition KAlSi30s. The plagioclase feldspars contain varying amounts ofNa
and Ca (Table 3).

II

Orthoclase

(Na)

Albite

(Ga)

Anorthite
Plagioclase feldspars

Fig. 12: The compositional

variuticns in the feldspar group can be represented on a triangular diagram like this one.
The plagioclase feldspars show a continuous variation in the relative amounts of positive ions Na and Ca
present from 100 percent Ca to 100 percent Na. The alkali feldspars do not exhibit a continuous variation, but
both albite and orthoclase belong to this group.

Table 3 : The Feldspars

Diagnostic
ion

Name

Symbol

K+
Na+
Ca2+

Orthoclase (potassium feldspar)

Albite (sodium plagioclase)

Or
Ab

Anorthite (calcium plagioclase)

Formulu"

K(AlSi3,OIl)
Na(AlSi3,Os)
Ca(AI2Si20s)

-In these formulas the symbols inside the parentheses indicate the tetrahedra.
indicate the diagnostic ions that are worked in among the tetrahedra.

The symbols

outside the parentheses

Feldspars arc the most abundant rock-forming silicates. Their name comes from the German
feld, "field," and "spath," a term used by miners lor various nonmetallic minerals. The name reflects
the abundance of these minerals: "field minerals." or minerals found in any field. Feldspars make
up nearly 54 percent of the minerals in the earth's crust.
In feldspars all the oxygen ions in the tetrahedra arc shared by adjoining silicon ions in a threedimensional network. However, in the centers of one-quarter to one-half of, the tetrahedra,
aluminum ions with a radius of 0.51 A and an electric charge of 3+ have replaced silicon ions with
their radius of 0.42A and electric charge or 4+. The negative electric charge resulting from this
substitution is corrected by the entry of K+, Na ~ or Ca2+ into the crystalline structures. Crystals of"
feldspars of different systems resemble each other closely in angles and crystal habit. They all show
good cleavages in two directions, which make an angle of 90 or close to 90 with each other. Their
hardness is ~bout 6, and their specific gravity ranges from 2.55 to 2.76.
Two feldspars arc orthoclase with potassium and plagioclase with sodium or calcium (see
Table 3). Orthoclase is named from the Greek orthos, "straight," and klasis,
breaking," because
the two dominant cleavages intersect at a right angle when a piece of orthoclase is broken.
Aluminum replaces silicon in every fourth tetrahedron, and positive ions of potassium correct the
Ita

12

electrical unbalance. The introduction of aluminum

solution. Aluminum is not a vicarious constituent
sample to sample or which may be wholly replaced
not replaceable by silicon without breakdown of the
or pinkish; its streak is white; and its specific gravity

in the tetrahedra cannot be regarded as solid

or orthoclase whose percentage varies from
by silicon; It Is an csscntlul constituent and is
crystal fine structure. Orthoclase is white, gray,
is 2.57.

Plagioclase ("oblique-breaking") feldspars have cleavage planes that intersect at about 86. One
of the cleavage planes is marked -by striations. Plagioclase feldspars may be colorless, white, bluegray, or black, and some samples show a striking play of colors called opalescence.
The plagioclase feldspars albite and anorthite arc end members of a solid-solution series Fig. 12.
The relative amounts of calcium and sodium vary in proportion to the amount of aluminum in order
to maintain electrical neutrality; the more calcium, the greater the amount of aluminum. Here the
variation in amount of aluminum may be properly regarded as ionic substitution. The number of
ions of calcium that replace sodium is equaled by the number of aluminum ions replacing silicon in
the silicon-oxygen framework. Sodium can substitute quite easily for calcium in a mineral's crystalline structure because their ionic radii are almost identical, 0.97 and 0.99 A, even though there is
a difference in electrons present in the outer shell-one in sodium and two in calcium.
In albite, aluminum replaces silicon in every fourth tetrahedron, and positive ions 'of sodium
correct the electrical unbalance. The specific gravity of albite is 2.62. In anorthite, aluminum
repJaces silicon in every second tetrahedron, and positive ions of calcium correct the electrical
unbalance. The specific gravity of anorthite is 2.76.
Although the plagioclase feldspars have di Ilcrcnt compositions, they have the same crystal
form and for that reason are called isomorphous. At the same time they can be thought of as
solutions of albite in anorthite in varying proportions, or the reverse. For that reason, they have
been called examples of solid solution. This term, however, does not imply that in the intermediate
minerals there are molecules of either albite or anorthite as there would be or, say, sodium and .
chlorine in a solution of salt in water. Intermediate minerals simply have compositions that arc
conveniently described as mixtures of the pure end members of the series.
The feldspars are nonmetallic and ha~e colors ranging from white (usually albite), pink
(orthoclase), to pearl gray (Ca-Na plagioclase). The hardness is 6, and two cleavages are present at
right angles. Plagioclase exhibits twinning, a systematic pattern of reversed atomic arrangement,
which appears as a set of fine straight lines (striations) on some cleavage faces. Orthoclase usually
has white string-like intergrowths in it, but does not show twinning striations.
Quartz. As the second most abundant mineral ill the earth's crust, quartz (Si02) is a common
constituent of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. It has a framework -structurc (Fig. 12).
~s these rocks break down, pieces of quartz or silica in solution are freed. Because quartz is nearly
msoluble and very hard and durable, it remains as an important component of sediment. Sometimes
it is the main mineral in sediment, as is frequently the case with the sand on beaches and in sand
dunes; more commonly it is mixed with clay and other products of the decay and disintegration of
rocks.

13

I'll', 13 Structure of qUUI'I:t,(SiOz), Each silkol1-o:o>ygcll ietruhcdron shares ils oxygen ions with adjacent tetrahedra to
form an extremely stable crystal. (From Dynamic t.arth: An Introduction tv Earth Science by I lenry Lepp.
Copyright <0 1973 by Mcciraw-l lilt. IIIL', Used with permission of McGrall'-/lilllJvvk
Co.)

Quartz probably occurs in a greater variety of forms than any other mineral. In addition to its
fragmental forms, the silica that goes into solution as rock slowly breaks down is often deposited
chemically 'or by organisms. Some animals build their hard skeletal parts out of silica, and
occasionally the carbonate shells of invertebrate animals are found replaced by silica, as is the
woody matter of petrified wood. Many of the sedimentary rocks have their fragmental parts
cemented together by quartz. It may occur as veins in all types of rocks, and sometimes cracks
through rocks are found lined with quartz and quartz crystals where silica has been chemically deposited from water moving through the crack, Some springs arc sites of deposition of silica from
hot waters, and nodules composed of silica occur in marine sediments where the quartz apparently
formed while the sediments were being changed into rock.

, 'I

Quartz can generally be identified by its physical properties. It has a hardness of 7; its specific
gravity is 2.65. It has no cleavage because the bonds in its three-dimensional network of tetrahedra
are strong in all directions through the structure. Its fracture is conchoidal. Color is not an accurate
criterion for identification because minute quantities of impurities give quartz a wide range of
shades of color.
Because the bonds are strong in every direction through quartz, the mineral is hard, It does not
break in any preferred direction (it has no cleavage) but has a conchoidal fracture, and it has a high
melting point, 1470 C. Three dimensional networks of tetrahedra 'occur in a few other silicate
minerals, but none is as simple as that of quartz, and in no other mineral are all of the oxygen atoms
in the tetrahedra shared by other tetrahedra.
I

The Carbonates
The essential structural unit of minerals in the carbonate group is (C03)2- ion. Although it occurs
compounded with manganese, iron, barium, strontium, and other positive ions, by far the most
abundant carbonates are those of calcium, 'CaC03 (calcite), and a combination of calcium and
magnesium, ~aMg(C03)2 a mineral known as dolomite. Because these are such abundant minerals
among the rocks found at the earth's surface, special attention is focused on them here.

Calcite: Calcite and quartz probably occur in a greater variety or forms than any other minerals. In
the case of calcite, this is attributable in part to the fact that calcium carbonate is soluble and moves
around as a constituent of ground water and even surface ~ater. Calcite, CaC03, is most commonly
14

found in sediment and sedimentary rocks. but it may also be found in some igneous and
metamorphic rocks. Many sea organisms use calcium carbonate derived from .sea water to build
shells and other hard parts that eventually become constituents of sediment. Calcium carbonate may
also be chemically precipitated from sea water under favorable conditions. Limestones are made up
of compacted-and consolidated deposits of calcium carbonate, and when these have been subjected
to heat and pressure, marble is formed. Calcite may occur in veins, collect in pockets, or form
coatings on plants where a fine mist of water is produced or around springs, to list but a few of the
ways it is formed through chemica!" precipitation. Most cave formations are also created by
chemical precipitation of calcite from ground water.

"

1-

Carbonate Ion (CO, )

Calcium

Fig. 14 In calcite, a layer containing calcium ions rests upon a layer or carbonate
another layer of Ca2+ (not shown), then a layer or CO,' . etc. .
"

. Oxygen

ions, Beneath the carbonate

The structure (Fig. 14) of calcite resembles that of sodium chloride,

rhombohedral (Fig. 15) instead of cubic in shape, Calcite has a hardness
greatly in color, and is often nearly clear. It has

layer is

except that the crystal is

varies

or 3, is nonmetallic,

I.

(d)

Fig. 15 : (a) Electrom~crograph

of calcite in a molluscan shell. The bar is 2~. long (0.002 0101), (b) Common
shape for calcite. (c) Cleavage rhomb or calcite. shown in a sketch here, is also seen.

crystal

15

rhombohedral cleavage-three
perfect cleavages, none of which intersect at right angles. Treated
with dilute hydrochloric acid, calcite fizzes as carbon dioxide is released. Its solubility is greatly
increased by the presence of carbon dioxide, and unlike most other minerals it tends to become
more soluble at lower temperatures.

OXIDE MINERALS
Oxide minerals are formed by the direct union of an clement with oxygen. These have relatively
simple formulas compared to the complicated silicates. The oxide minerals are usually harder than
any other class except the silicates, and they are heavier than others except the sulfides. Within the
oxide class are the chief ores of aluminum, iron, tin, chromium, and manganese. So we have the
common oxide minerals ice, I-hO, corundum, /\b OJ, hematite, Fe20J (Fig. 16), magnetite, Fe)04
(Fig. 16), and cassiterite, Sn02;.

Hematite

Magnetite

Fig. 16: Two ways to pack equal-sized spheres as close together as possible are Illustrated by the way oxygen atoms are positioned in
hematite end magnellle.

SULFIDE MINERALS
Sulfide' minerals
most commonly
of these sulfide
galena, PbS, and

are formed by the direct union of an clement with sulfur. The clements that occur
in combination with sulfur are iron, copper, lead, zinc, silver, and mercury. Some
minerals occur as valuable ores, such as pyrite, FCS2 (Fig. 17), chalcocite, Cu2S,
sphalerite, ZnS.

1.6

Sodium chloride

Pyrlto

Iron
Sodium

Fig. 17 (a) Crystal structures of sodium chloride and pyrite are similar, In pyrite. we find iron instead of sodium. and dumbbell-shaped
clusters of two sulfur atoms instead of chloride ions, (b) A common shape of pyrite crystals is the cube-the same as the shape of the
unit cell.

HALIDES
A variety of minerals results from the combination or certain clements (positive ions) with the
halogen clements (chlorine, iodine, bromine, and fluorine): the very common rock salt, halite,
NaCI, its poisonous partner, sylvite, KC 1, and many other chlorides, iodides, bromides, and
fluorides. Halides occur as precipitates from evaporating ponds, salt flats, and natural brines (Fig.
17).
2.0 MINERALOIDS

Some substances. do not yield definite chemical formulas upon analysis and show no sign of
crystallinity. These are said to be amorphous and have been called mincraloids. A mineral may,
exist in a crystalline phase with a definite composition and crystalline structure, or under certain
conditions of formation practically the same substance may occur as a mineraloid. Mincraloids are
formed under conditions of low pressure and temperature and are commonly substances originating

17

during the process of weathering of the materials or the earth's crust. They characteristically occur
in mammillary, botryoidal, stalactitic, and similar-shaped masses. Their ability to absorb other substances accounts for their wide variations in chemical composition. Bauxite, limonite, and opal are
examples of mincraloids.
.

3.0 CHARACTERISTICS

OF MINERALS

All the properties of minerals are determined by the composition and internal atomic arrangement
of their elements. Although we can identify minerals on the basis of their chemical properties,
physical properties are the ones most often used. Such physical properties include crystal form,
hardness, specific gravity, cleavage, color, streak, and striations.

Crystal form When a mineral grows without interference or obstacle, it will be bounded by plane
surfaces symmetrically arranged and will acquire a characteristic crystal form. which is the external
expression of its internal crystalline structure. The races of crystals are defined by sur race layers or
atoms. These faces lie at angles to one another, angles that have definite characteristic values, with
the same value for all specimens or the same mineral. The size of the faces may vary from
specimen to specimen, but the angles between the races remain constant.

Every crystal consists of atoms arranged in a three-dimensional pattern that repeats itself regularly.
A combination of atoms whose repetition can produce a given mineral is called its unit cell. In a
crystal of copper all the atoms are alike and are arranged in a cube. This arrangement is limited by
the size of the copper atoms. By repetition the entire crystal is built up (see Figure 16). The
principal surface layers correspond to the faces of a cube; the smaller surface layer obtained by
cutting off a corner of a cube is called an octahedral face. Native copper found in deposits of
copper ore is often found in the form or crystals with cubic and -octahedral races. Remember that
the atoms in the figure are greatly enlarged: If the crystal had sides only 0.1 mjn (millimeter) long,
there would be about 400,000 atoms in a row along eaeh edge .

.,

Fig. 18 An atomic view of a copper crystal, showing small octahedral Iuccs and large cubic faces. (/\ Iter LinuS
Pauling, General Chemistry. p. 23, W. II. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, copyright 1953.1

In crystals of halite there arc ions or two different kinds arranged in the regular pattern shown in
Fig; 17. The smaller ones arc those or sodium, and the larger ones are those of chlorine. The atomic
arrangement is limited by the size of the ions. Halite is a cube made up of six chlorine ions

".

during the process of weathering of the materials of the earth's crust. They characteristically occur
in mammillary, botryoidal, stalactitic, and similar-shaped masses. Their ability to absorb other substances accounts for their wide variations in chemical composition. Bauxite, limonite, and opal are
examples of mincraloids.
.

3.0 CHARACTERISTICS

OF MINERALS

All the properties of minerals arc determined by the composition and internal atomic arrangement
of their elements. Although we can identify minerals on the basis of their chemical properties,
physical properties are the ones most often used. Such physical properties include crystal form,
hardness, specific gravity, cleavage, color, streak, and striations.
Crystal form When a mineral grows without interference or obstacle, it will be bounded by plane
surfaces symmetrically arranged and will acquire a characteristic crystal form. which is the external
expression of its internal crystalline structure. The faces of crystals are defined by surface layers of
atoms. These faces lie at angles to one another, angles that have definite characteristic values, with
the same value for all specimens of the same mineral. The size of the faces may vary from
specimen to specimen, but the angles between the faces remain constant.
-

Every crystal consists of atoms arranged in a three-dimensional pattern that repeats itself regularly.
A combination of atoms whose repetition can produce a given mineral is called its unit cell. III a
crystal of copper all the atoms are alike and are arranged in a cube, This arrangement is limited by
, the size of the copper atoms. By repetition .the entire crystal is built up (see Figure 16). The
principal surface layers correspond to the faces of a cube; the smaller surface layer obtained by
cutting off a corner of a cube is called an octahedral face. Native copper found in deposits of
copper ore is often found in the form of crystals with cubic and' octahedral faces. Remember that
the atoms in the figure are greatly enlarged: If the crystal had sides only 0.1 mjn (millimeter) long,
there would be about 400,000 atoms in a row along each edge .

.,

Fig. 18 An atomic view of a copper crystal. showing small octahedral races and large cubic faces. (1\ fler LinuS
Pauling, General Chemistry. p. 23, W. 11. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, copyright 1953.1

In erystals of halite there are ions of two different kinds arranged in the regular pattern shown in
Fig: 17. The smaller ones are those of sodium, and the larger ones are those of chlorine. The atomic
arrangement is limited by the size of the ions. Hal itc is a cube made up of six chlorine ions

. so dirum Ions,
.
surrounding one sodium ion, and each chlorine ion is surrounded by SIX
a II bei
eing~
equidistant. Repetition of the unit cell in three dimensions forms the cubic halite crystal.

The mineral quartz occurs in many rocks as irregular 'grains because its growth has been
constricted. Even in these irregular grains, however. the atoms arc arranged according to their
typical crystalline structure. And where conditions have permitted the mineral to develop .freely, it
forms crystals that are always six-sided prisms. Whether an individual crystal of quartz IS only I
mm long or 25 em, the faces of the prism always meet at the same angle (see Fig. \9). This is an
example of the constancy of interfacial angles. Although faces of a crystal may be of different sizes

Fig. 19 Quartz crystals. Regardless of the shape or size or crystals, the angles between true crystal faces remain the
same. Transverse striations on prism races are most clearly seen on the lower face; but striations are present on the
other prism faces too. The large crystal is about 10 em long. (M. E. Kuulfinan.]

and shapes because of malformation,

their similarity is frequently demonstrated by natural
striations, etchings, or growths. On some crystals the similarity of faces of-a form can be seen only
after etching with acid.
Some clements or compounds may develop several di ffcrcnt crystal forms, producing di ffcrcnt
minerals. This assumption of two or more crystal forms by the same substance is called
polymorphism.
Each of these crystal forms results from the conditions under which it was made.
For example, carbon's two common forms arc graphite and diamond: The crystal form of diamond
is an eight-sided solid, an octahedron; the crystal form of graphite is a Oat crystal with six sides. Although both minerals are composed of carbon, the difference in their crystal forms comes from the
arrangement of their carbon atoms--one pattern in diamond, another in graphite. The crystal form
of pyrite is a cube (Fig. 20), and that of marcasite is a flattened tubular shape. Both arc composed of
FeSs. Hereagain the reason for the difference ill crystal Corm lies in the internal arrangement of the

'atoms.
Every mineral has a characteristic
crystalline structure.

crystal form, which is the external shape produced by its

Scanning electron microscopes The crystalline (arm of even submicroscopic crystals can now
be observed by use of a scanning electron microscope, which focuses beams of electrons across a
specimen. Theseelectrons
are electrically or magnetically moved sequentially back and forth until
the reflected and emitted electrons produce an image of the sample. A great depth of field permits
examination of three-dimensional
opaque objects, with enormous magnifications (as much as
100,000 times). (See Fig. 21).

19

Cleavage Cleavage is the tendency or a mineral to break in certain preferred directions along
smooth plane surfaces. Cleavage planes arc governed by the internal arrangement of the atoms;
they represent the directions in which the atomic bonds are relatively weak. Because cleavage is the
breaking of a crystal between atomic planes, it is a directional property. and any plane throughout a
crystal parallel to a cleavage surface is a potential cleavage plane. Moreover, the cleavage IS always
parallel to crystal faces or possible crystal faces because faces and cleavage both reflect the same
crystalline structure .

Fig. 20 Cubic crystals of' pyrite. Striations an: clear on the large specimen. Note that those in adjacent faces arc- perpendicular to each other. The small specimen. about 5 em wide, consists of' three intcrgrown cubes. (Waller R.
Fleischer, Harvard Mineralogical Collcction.)

Cleavage is a dlrcctlou or weakness, und a mineral sample tenus to break along planes parallel
to this direction. This weakness may be due to a weaker type of atomic bond, as we have indicated,
to greater atomic spacing, or frequently to a combination of the two. Graphite has a platy cleavage
because of relatively weak bonds between the carbon layers. Diamond has but one bond joining all
its carbon atoms; its cleavage takes place along planes having the largest atomic spacing.
Cleavage may be perfect. as in thc micas, more or less obscure, as in beryl and apatite, or
entirely lacking, as in quartz.'
Striations
A few common minerals have parallel, threadlike lines or narrow bands, called'
striations, running across their crystal faces or cleavage surfaces. These lines can be clearly seen on
crystal faces of quartz and pyrite (see Fig. 20).

'See Appendix

A of this chapter for certain specific mineral names and characteristics.

20

Fig. 21 Scanning electron micrograph of books of chamosite, an iron alumino-silicutc,

0" in oolitic ironstone from Aswan, Egypt. [Dcba Bhuttuchuryya.]

and rosettes of hematite,

Fc!

Once again, this property is a reflection of the internal arrangement of the atoms and the conditions
of growth of the crystals.
Hardness Hardness

is another physical property governed by the internal atomic arrangement of

the mineral elements. (The stronger the binding forces between the atoms, the harder the mineral.)
The degree of hardness is determined by the relative ease or difficulty with which one mineral is.
scratched by another or by a fingernail or knife. It might be called the mineral's "scratchability."
Hardness (H) ranges, from 1 through 10:

Range

Scratchability

H<2,5
2.5 < H < 3
3 <J-l<5.5

Will leave
Cannot be
Cannot be
Cannot be
Cannot be

5.5 <J-l<7
7<1-1

mark on paper; can be scratched by fingernail

scratched by fingernail; can be scratched by penny
scratched by penny; can be scratched by knife
scratched by knife; can be scratched by quartz
scr~lchcd by quartz

To illustrate, if you pick up a piece of granite and try to scratch one of its light-colored grains with
a steel knife blade, this mineral simply refuses to be scratched. But if you drag one of these grains
across a piece of glass, the glass is easily scratched. Clearly, then, these particular mineral grains in
granite are harder than either steel or glass. But if you have a piece or topaz handy, you can reveal
their vulnerability; for although they arc harder than steel or glass, they arc not as ,hard as topaz.

21

Mineral~ diff~r wide.ly in') hardness (see /\Ppen~ix /\~: ~ol~le ~re so ~o.n that th~Y. can be
scratched With a fingernail; some arc so hard that a steel knife IS required to sratch them, diamond,
the hardest mineral known, c9~not be scratched by any other substance .

..

Specific gravity Every mi~leral has an average mass per unit volume. This characteristic
mass is
usually described in comparison
with the mass
the same volume of water. The number that
represents ,this ratio is known as the specific gravity of the mineral. Density is given in grams per
cubic centimeter
(g/cnr') or tonnes per cubic meter (t/nr') and is equal to specific gravity in
numerical value.

or

The specific gravity of a mineral increases roughly with the mass of its constituent clements
and with the closeness with which these clements are packed together in their crystalline structure.
Most rock-forming
minerals have a specific gravity or around 2.7, although the average specific
gravity of metallic minerals is 5, Pure gold has the highest specific gravity, 19.3.
It is not difficult to acquire a sense or relative weight by which to compare specific gravities.
We can learn to diFtinguish between two bugs 01" equal size, one tilled with feathers and one tilled
with lead, and experience in hefting stones has given most of us a sense of the "normal" weight of
rocks.
I
Color Although color is not a reliable property in identifying
most minerals, it is strikingly
characteristic
for a few, These include the intense azure blue of azur-ite, the bright green of
malachite, and the pale yellow of sulfur. Magnetite is iron black, and galena is lead gray. The color
of other minerals, such as qu~rtz, can be quite variable because of slight impurities,
Minerals containing iron arc usually ','dark-colored."
In geologic usage, dark includes dark gray,
dark green, and black. Minerals that contain aluminum as a predominant element are usually "lightcolored," a term that includes purples, deep red, and some browns.
Streak The streak of a mineral is the color it displays in finely powdered form. The streak may be
different from the color of the hand specimen. Although the color of a mineral may vary between
wide limits, the streak is usually constant.
One of the simplest ways of determining the streak of a mineral is to rub a specimen across a
piece of unglazed porcelain known as a streak plate. The color of the powder left behind on the
streak plate helps to.identify some minerals. Because the streak plate has a hardness of 7, it cannot
be used to identify minerals with greater hardness.
Hematite, FC203 may be reddish brown to black; its streak, however, is light to dark blood-red,
which becomes
black on heating. Limonite,
FeO(OI-I).nl-hO,
sometimes
known as "brown
hematite" or "bog-iron are," has a color that is dark brown to black but a streak that is yellowish
brown. Cassiterite, SI102 (tinstone), is usually brown or black, but it has a white streak.

Other physical
properties
Minerals have other physical properties
that may be helpful in
identification: .ma~netism,
electrical properties, luster, fluorescence,
fusibility, solubility, fracture,
and tenacity (see Appendix A).

22 .

3.0 MINERAL STRUCTURE

.L
I

In the section on crystal form we have seen that atoms of clements in a mineral assume an orderly
pattern, its crystalline
the ions of chlorine.)

.1

structure.

(For example, in halite the ions of sodium are ill alternation with

Each mineral has a unique crystalline structure that will distinguish it from another mineral, even if
the two are composed of the same clement or clements. Let us again consider the minerals diamond
and graphite. Each is composed of only one clement, carbon (Figure 22). In diamond, each atom of
carbon is bonded (see next section) to four neighboring carbon atoms. This complete joining of all
its atoms results in very stable bonds and is the reason why diamond is so hard. In graphite, each
atom of carbon is bonded in a plane to three neighboring atoms. This bonding forms sheets, or
layers, of carbon piled one on another, but the sheets can easily be separated. Thus graphite is a soft
substance. Pyrite and marcasite are another pair

(a)

c,./:
......
c-f-t-'
I
I.-:'
"

-c

I"
I

I
"

~C-+ilII

C
I ,

i i",c-i: : I

I
...

<,
.:......
<-cft
c----lc
If......

I
"}....l

I
I

: ~-:I',

,
1/ . -: "
11~r.--"'>l,
I .
/c--c"
: c--c
: CI---.
c--c/ .
! c-6/!

r.>

c
(b)

c--c

: c

i/

Fig. 22 Different arrangements of atoms of carbon produce thc crystalline structure or (a) diamond and (b) graphite.
[Aller Linus Pauling, Genera! Chemistry, W. II. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, copyright \953.)

23

of minerals with identical composition, FI.:S2, but with different crystalline structures. In pyrite, ions
of iron are equally spaced in all directions. In marcasite, they are not equally spaced. The difference
. .in spacing accounts for their being two different minerals,

APPENDIX A

25

24

-----_ .._-----_

Mineral
Graphite C

Color

Black to gray

Streak

Black

.. .

..

----2.3

1-2

...

Reddish
brown

Pyrite FeS2 Light brassy

yellow

Greenish
black

6.5

Magnetite
FeJO.

Black

Black

Galena
PbS

Gray

Gray

2.5

Bornite
CusFeS.

Bronze, yellow,
tarnishes to
dark blue,
purple

Grayish
black

CopperCu

Copper red,
tarnishes to
black

Copporred

Hematite
(specular)
Fe2 OJ

Silver gray

-- -

Specific
Gravity

Hardness

-- .-- ---_ ... _- .--- ..-.-.-~---.--.---.-..-------------,

Shape

Hexagonal

Breakage Pattern

- Perfect

Other Properties

basal

Greasy, soft, smudges fingers

cleavage

__ ._._- _.5.3

Hexagonal massive

Uneven fracture, no
cleavage

Earthy, brittle, source of iron

5.0

Cubic, massive

Conchoidal

fracture

Alters to limonite, 'fool's gold'

Conchoidal

fracture

Naturally magnetic, source 01

iron

----- -----5.2
Cubic.
---'7.5

----- ...-. ----5.0

granular

--Cubic,

massive,
granular, fibrous

Cubic cleavage. even

fracture (rare)

Source of lead, often with

sphalerite (zinc-containing
mineral)

Uneven fracture. poor

octahedral cleavage

Purple-tarnished surface
looks like hard coal and gives
rise to name 'peacock ore'

.. -

Cubic, massive,
compact

--Cubic,
... ------- - -------wire-like lorm Hackly lracturn
8.1
-

26

Malleable and ductile

Appendix A Contd.
Mineral

Color

Streak

,-._--Hardness

---- ----.
Specific
Gravity

.__ .

_._._-._._-

-.--.-

Shape

--_.

..

Breakage Pattern

Other Properties

_--_ ..__ ..

..

Talc
White,
Mg3(OH)2SI greenish
4010

While

2.8

Monoclinic,
massive, granular

Gypsum
While, gray,
CaS04.2H2 brown
0

While

2.3

Monoclinic, massive' Basal cleavage,

fibrous fracture

Pearly, silky, dull, glassy

While (pure), While

varied (impure)

2.7

Hexagonal, massive Rhombohedral

cleavage, conchoidal
fracture

Dull or pearly, releases CO2

when HCI is added

Calcile
CaC03

Fluorite
CaF2

_ ..
.. _--- -_._-----.
While, green, Colorless
4
3-3.3
, yellow, purple,
red, blue

Apalile
While, yellow,
Cas(CI,F)(P brown, blue,
04)3
green

While

Feldspar
While 10 gray,
(orthoclase) red, green
KAISbO,
(rare)

Colorless

Feldspar
Gray. green,
(plagioclase while

Colorless

3.2

---------

"-'--

Octahedral cleavage, Giassy to dull, brittle,

conchoidal fracture
fluorescent. phosphorescent,
twin crystats common

--_.__ .
Hexagonal, massive Conchoidal fracture

Glassy to dull. brittle, granular

:

--

.- --------.-

2.5

-----6

2.5

(Na,Ca)(AI,
Si)AISIzOa

'Garnet
(pyrope)
MgJAlz SiJ
012

---

------

Cubic. octahedral

Cleavage in one
Pearly, soapy, easily cut
direction, thin sheets,
unoven fracture

-----_ .

Deep yeilOW:- Colorless

red

__ ._---_.

..__

.._--------

----"--""'-

3.5

----- - - ---- ---

---. ------------Monoclinic, massive Two cleavage planes Fine

parallel lines on cleavage
meet at 90 angles,
surface dislinguish feldspar
conchoidal fracture
(plagioclase) from feldspar
(orthoclase)

...

7.5

--

Monoclinic, massive Two cleavage planes Common in igneous rock

meet at 90 angles,
conchoidal fracture

Cubic

._----

27

- -- --

---

-_.-

- - --- --.-- -- -------

Unoven to conchoidal Glassy, very common mineral,

fracture, no cleavage pyrope used in garnel
sandpaper
I

, Mineral

Color

rzr:

Quartz SiO, Colorl~

through
various colors

Streak

'Colorless -

{..-

..

..

White, yellow, Colorless

Topaz
AI2Si04(F,O pale blue, pink
H)2

Brown, green. Colorless

pink, blue, red.
black, violet

Corundum
AbOl

Specific
Gra vily

Hardness

-.-

3.53. 6

3.0 3.3

77.5

Sulfur
S

Yellow to
white

2.5

2.0

---3.5-4

..

While

Orthorhombic,
massive

Perfect basal
Glassy
cleavage. conchoidal
fracture

fraclure, no cleavage

Colorless

Dolomite
White \0 pink
CaMg(C03) to gray, green
or black
l,

-------1---,----.....-4-,----------1

'3"94
-.i-' Hexagonal, massive Conchoidal or uneven Barrelshaped, dull in some

Tourmaline Black, green,

brown, while,
series
(Na,Ca)
red, blue
(AI,Fe,Li,Mg
)3BJAh (Ah
5i60,,)
(O,OH,F)~
Yellow

Breakage Pattern

HoxagonaCmassi~o" COIl'choldallraclurc-- WilXY-orglassy;speCfes-includes chalcedony,

agate,and onyx; rock cryslal
and urnolhys: are crystalline I
varieties.

2.65

Shilpe

varieties, may sparkle In gem

varieties (ruby, sapphire),
briUie,often tough

Hexagonal. massive Uneven to conchoidal Glassy, long direction ohen

fracture
has fine parallel lines, brittle

...
_------.1---------\-----------1
.-----._

2.8

Orthorhombic,
massive

--

Conchoidal fracture

Brittle, odor of sulfur, melts

easily

--------1----Hexagonal
Rhombohedral

._--'-'---

cleavage, conchoidal
fracture

+-

Glassy to dull, will bubble with

hot acid

----- ----c-----I-::--c-.,-------i-:---------l

Halite NaCI Cotorless.

Colorless
reddish, white,
blue

2.5

2.1

Cubic

Cubic cleavage,
conchoidal fracture

Hematite
(red ocher)
FelD3

5.3

Hexagonal massive

Uneven to conchoidal Dull to earthy, source of iron

fracture, no cleavage

Reddish brown Reddish

to black
brown

--- ....-. _.

_.__ .

.-'--

Glassy to dull, salty taste,

soluble in water

--'-

--'--.J

Appendix A ~ontd.

-_._._._-

t.1ineral

Streak

Specific
Gravity

Hardness

._-- -----Shape

..

-- ..--- ... -.-----Massive, often

Yellow, brown
or black

Yellow
brown

5.5

Serpentine
Mg3SbOs(OH

White, red,
green, black.
brown, yellow

Colorless

2-5

2.2-2.6

Asbestos
(serpentine,
chrysotile)
MglSi20s
(OH).

Green to
yellow green

Colorless

2.2

Bauxite
AI(OH)3

Gray, red,
white, brown

Gray

1-3

Conchoidal fracture,
none to fibrous
cleavage

Silky, greasy to waxy

Monoclinic

Fibrous cleavage

Silky, separates into threadlike fibers

Rounded masses

Earthy fracture

Dull, source of aluminum

Hornblende
CaNa(Mg,
Fe).
(AtJe,Ti)JSi6
022(00H12

Green to black

Gray to
white

5-6

Cleavage in two
directions, uneven to
subconchoidal
fracture

GIC!ssy to silky

Kaolinite AI2
SI2 Os(OH)f

Red or reddish
brown to white
or black

White

Augite
(ca,mg,ai,fe)
(ai,si)l06

Black to dark
green

Colorless

Olivine
(Mg.Fe)lSiO.

Olive green

Colorless

6.5

Muscovite
KAbSiJOlo(O
H)2

White to light
gray

Colorless

2.5

Biotite
Black to dark
K(Mg,Fe)3
brown
. AISiJOIO(OH)2

Colorless

2.5

..
---- -_
Monoclinic

--.--- ---.
2

------ ..
6

2.0-2.5

- ... - .. __ ...- ... -.- ...

Monoclinic

3.4

2.6

3.5

Triclinic

.. .. ...

3.5

-----_. __ ..- ---.-.----

Earthy fracture.
perfect basal
cleavage

--_ .. _-

2.83.4

--.---

,.-._- .------Orthorhombic,
Imperfecl Cleavage,
granular
conchoidal fracture

-----------

Perfect basal
cleavage

._--_ ... _-- - -----------

Monoclinic

-------

Perfect basal
cleavage

0.

20

DUIi. earthy odor, often

pliable, greasy, used in
ceramics

.._._-- ._--_ ..
Dull. granular
Cleavage in two
directions

.----- -.

._-_.
Monoclinic

2.8

..-

_. Monoclinic

1-::-_-------

Other Properties

Dull to glassy, iron-rust

appearance, coloring mailer
of soils

powdery

-.---.

-----------_._--,...--.
Breakage Pattern

No cleavage,
conchoidal to earthy
fracture

,4.0

Limonite
(yellow
ocher)
2Fei>3-H20

" I

Color

.-

__

- ------_. -_._-

Glassy, common in
meteorites

Plates flexible and elastic,

large crystals in pegmatites,
member of mica group

Plates flexible and elastic,

common mineral of
pegmatites, member of mica
group

2.5 THE MOST COMMON

MINERALS

SILICATES
More than 90 percent of the rock-forming
minerals arc silicates, compounds
containing silicon,
oxygen, and one or more metals. Each si Iicatc mineral has as its fundamental
unit the sil iconoxygen tetrahedron
(see Figure 2.17). This is a combination
of one "small" silicon ion, with a
radius of 0.42 1\, surrounded as closely as geometrically possible by lour "large" oxygen ions, each
with a radius of 1.40 1\, forming a tetrahedron.
The oxygen ions contribute
an electric charge 01" 8- to the tetrahedron,
and the silicon ion
contributes 4+.Therefore the silicon-oxygen
tetrahedron is a complex ion with a net charge of 4-.
Its symbol is (Si04)4-.
The most common of the rock-forming silicates arc olivine, augite, hornblende. biotite, muscovite,
feldspars, and quartz. They arc listed and classified in Table 2.3.
Ferromagucsians
In the first lour or these rock-forming silicates-olivine,
augite, hornblende; and
, biotite-the
silicon-oxygen
tetrahedra arc joined by ions or iron and magnesium.
These silicate
minerals arc known us fcrromagncsians,
1"1'0111 the joining
of the Latin ferrum, "iron," and
"magnesium."
1\11 four fcrromagncsians arc very dark or black and have a higher specific gravity
than do the other rock-forming
minerals .
.TABLE 2.3
Silicate classification
Arrangement
ofSi04 tetrahedra

SilO ratio

Rock-form ing

Isolated

1:4

Olivine

Rings

1:3

Beryl (beryllium

Chains (single)

1:3

Augite (pyroxene

Chains (double)

4:11

Ilornblende

Sheets

2:5

Frameworks

3:8
3:8

lliotitc (black mica)

Muscovite (white mica)
Orthoclase (potassium feldspar)
Plagioclase (calcium-sodium
feldspar)

1:2

Quartz

III

inerals

aluminosilicatc)
family)

(amphibole

family)

Hornblende has a crystalline structure based 011 double chains 01" tetrahedra, as shown in Figure
2.20, joined by the iron and magnesium
ions common to all Icrromagncsians and by ions of
calcium, sodium, and aluminum. Hornblende's color is dark green to black, like that of augite; its
streak, colorless; its hardness, 5 to 6; and its specific gravity, 3.'2. Two directions or good cleavage
meet a.t angles of 560 and 1240, wh ich helps d isti ngu ish hornblende from augite.

:;0

t'

t
.:
Hornblende is an important and widely
istributcd rock-forming
mineral. lt is the commonest
mineral of a group called the amphiboles,
which closely p!li.lIl~1 the pyroxenes in composition but'
. contain ~)'droxyJ. 01-1. Amphiboles are chuructcrlzcd by double chains of tetrahedra. The minerals
clasaificd as hornblendes
are ih reality u 10I11pll.::-.:mliU'-suJutlon series from' anthophyllite
to
hornblende (see Appendix B).
;

Hornblende is an important and widely distributed rock-forming

mineral. It is the commonest
mineral of a group called the amphiboles,
which closely parallelthe
pyroxenes in composition but
contain hydroxyl, OH. Amphiboles
arc characterized by double. chains of tetrahedra. The minerals
classified as hornblendes
are in reality a complex solid-solution
series from an-thophyllite
to
hornblende (see Appendix 13).
Biotite;
black
mica,
is
a
potassium-magnesium-iron-aluminum
silicate,
K(Mg,FeMAlSbOIO(OH)2]'
(It was named for a distinguished
French physicist, J. B. Biot.) Like
other micas, it is constructed
of tetrahedra in sheets. as shown in Figure 2.22. Each silicon ion
shares three oxygen ions with adjacent silicon ions to form a pattern like wire netting. The fourth,
unshared oxygen ion of each tetrahedron
stands above the plane 01' all the others. The basic
structural unit of mica consists of two 01' thcs: ~heets 01' tetrahedra with their nut surfaces facing
outward and their inner surfaces held together by positive ions. In biotite the ions arc magnesium
and iron. These basic double sheets or mica, in turn . Ire loosely joined together by positive ions or
potassium.
Layers or biotite or or any or the other I\)icus
there is a distinct contrast between the stronger
ionic bonding between adjacent sheets and with
usually dark green or brown to black. Its hardness

can be peeled off easily (see Figure 2.23) because

covulcut hondin]; within a sheet. and the weaker
the intervening cations. In thick blocks. biotite is
is 2.5 to 3, and its specific gravity is 2.8 to 3.2.

Nonfcrromagncslans
The other common rock-running
silicate minerals, nonfcrrornagncsians
contain magnesium or iron (such minerals 'IS muscovite, feldspars, anti quartz). TIlI':y arc all
marked by their light colors and relatively low xpccific gravities. rangin]; [rum 2.0 in 2.9.

UO

1':0/

Quartz is the most common rock-forming xi licutc mineral that is composed "exclusively" or
tetrahedra. Every oxygen ion is shared by adjacent silicon ions, which means that there arc two ions
or oxygen for every ion of silicon. This rclationxhip is presented by th~ lormula SiO;. Because of its
crystalline structure, quartz is a relatively hard mineral. 7. Because there arc no planes of weakness
in its crystalline structure, it docs not exhibit cleavage but fractures along curved surfaces when
struck a blow. Being composed or fairly light clements. its specific gravity is 2.65.
Of all the rock-forming
minerals, quartz i~ most nearly a pure chemical compound. However,
spectra-graphic
analyses show that CVCII ill its IIlml perfect crystals there arc traces or other
clements. Quartz usually appears smoky to clc.ir ill color, but less COIllI1WIl varieties include purple
or violet amethyst, massive rose-red or pink rose quart/ .. smoky yellow to brown smoky quartz, and
milky quartz. These color differences arc caused by the other clements present as minor impurities.

:;1

2.6 ORGANISATION AND ASSO('lI\TION OF MINI~RI\I.S

. ,.

.'

W~

know'
Table 2.5)
element
crystalline
crystalline

'0;

that minerals <Ire 's~~cilit' dOillhillatilllls uI

and now we .. n compkh: our lklinitioil
compound
in the solid state; (2) it has' a
structure; and (4) it exhibits certain physical
structure.

;;-t

clements

"6r' compounds
~I) It is a
diagnostic con{pbslt,o'n;
properties as a restllt of'
.

olu mineral:

')".1

(s'CI! summarizing
naturally oc iirring
(3) u' has :( oniquc
its composition
and

2.6 ASSOCIATIONS OF MINERALS

Certain 'groups of minerals are most commonly found associated in spcci fie geological settings. For
example,
some minerals
formed at high temperatures
commonly
occur in igneous racks that
crystallize
deep within the earth. Other mineral assemblages
reflect their origin under the high
temperatures
and increased pressures associated with metamorphic
events. Finally. there arc some
mineral groupings that usually develop under conditions approaching the atmospheric
temperatures
and pressures found at the earth's surface. Such mineral associations
arc useful indicators or past
conditions at the time 01' either their origin or their recombination
to form new minerals, where
temperature,
pressure, or chemical environment
has changed.
2.7 RESHUFFLING

THE ELEMENTS

AND MINERALS

.As we noted in Chapter I, rocks continuously

undergo changes during their cyclic passage through
time, and the minerals making up rocks arc thus changed. Likewise, the clements constituting these
minerals are rearranged in combinations
with new clements in varying proportions.
One location where much or tili~ reorganization
occurs is alor.g plate boundaries within the
earth's lith-osphere
(see Section 1.3). For example. at the trailing edge of a plate, new material is
welling up from the deeper portion or the earth's mantle. solidifying and being added as new plate
material.
On the other hand, at the leading edge or a Iitho-sphcric plate other possibilities exist. T'>c plate
may be moving down into the mantle along a subduction zone, I lcrc the increased temperature a:d
pressure cause the minerals in the rucks to unc.crgo changes into other minerals and even to be
melted if carried deep enough.
Another possibility
exists at the lcadin]; cd,;c or a lithospheric
plate. The plate may ca.r; a
continent upon its back, and this coutincnt.t]
m;l~s may encounter another similar mass carried by a
plate approaching
Irom the opposite direction.
The resulting continent-to-continent
collision
produces both uplift of mou ilia ins and downw.up
"roots" under tlosc mountains (set; Chapter S).
Elements, minerals, and rocks round in the mountains will undergo changes during uplift, including
weathering and erosion, Similarly. those mak:,,,'.; I~;und in the roots
the mountains will undergo
changes
resulting
from increased
tcmpcr.uur.:
and pressure:
mc lting or remelting
or the
constituents.

or

or

In this way earth materials art; constantly undcrpoin]; a reshuffling in terms or their combinations,
relative proportions,
and associations.
New mineral.s .1Ie formed from old. new concentrations
of
clements and minerals develop where they did nut exist previously, and old minerals arc broken
down into their constituent
parts (element or combinations
or clements)
and recombined
in
differing arrangements
clements. mincruls. anu rocks.

or

f
)

"