VOLUME 24, NO.

In
This
Issue
FEATURE ARTICLE:

Play: An Important Tool for

Cognitive Development

Play: An Important

by Shannon Lockhart, HighScope Senior Early Childhood Specialist

Tool for Cognitive

Development

Take a look at the play of Gabrielle, a

page 1

three-year-old who has a plan to play with

CLASSROOM HINTS:

Planning Assists
Childrens Executive
Function
page 9

SPECIAL EDUCATION:

Play An Intentional
Intervention!
page 12

TRAINER-TO-TRAINER:

Supporting Executive
Function in Childrens
Play
page 14

NEWS BRIEFS
page 16
ASK US
page 16

magnetic tiles:
At planning time, Gabrielle says, Im
going to play with the doggies and
Magnatiles in the toy area. Im making
a tall elevator. At work time, Gabrielle
builds with the magnetic tiles while
playing with the small toy dogs, as she
planned. She stacks the tiles on top of
one another in a tower-like formher
Planning and recall times help children
elevatorthen places some dogs in
develop key cognitive skills that are part
it. The elevator then falls over. She reof executive function.
peats this several times but the elevator continues to fall over. Gabrielle then
arranges the magnetic tiles into squares, connecting them to form a row. Gabrielle says to Shannon, her teacher, Im making doghouses because the elevator
keeps falling down. Shannon says, I was wondering what you were building,
because you planned to make a tall elevator going up vertically, and now you
are using them to make doghouses in a long horizontal row. You solved the
problem by changing the way you were building. Gabrielle uses pretend talk
while moving the dogs around. At one point she says, Mommy, Mommy, we
are hungry and opens one of the doghouses and moves the dog inside where
a bigger dog is placed. Gabrielle says, Mommy says the foods not ready, so
go play.

While moving the dogs around, Gabrielle says to herself out loud,
We have to find something to do until the food is ready. Gabrielle says
to Shannon, Lets pretend we are going to the park. Shannon agrees
and says, Im going to slide down the slide three times and then jump off
the climber. As Shannon pretends to do this with one of the dogs, Gabrielle watches then copies her and says, My dog jumped higher than
yours. She then says, Mommy says we have to go home now. We need
to move our dogs over there so they can eat. The pretend play continues.

HIGHSCOPE | Extensions
Play: An Important Tool for Cognitive Development, continued

At recall time, Gabrielle is using a scarf to hide some objects she
played with. When it is her turn to recall, she gives clues about what is
under the scarf. She shows the group a couple of magnetic tiles and dogs.
Shannon asks her what she did with these materials during work time. Gabrielle talks about the problem with the falling elevator and then recounts
the story about the doggies.

Early childhood educators often make the point that children learn through play.
But what does this statement really mean? In the scenario described above, what
exactly is Gabriella learning as she plays? She is planning what she is going to do, carrying out her plan, and then recalling what she did (in the HighScope Curriculum, this
is known as the plan-do-review process). But did we realize that she is developing key
cognitive functions such as working memory, self-regulation (e.g., being aware of and
Pretend play is particularly conducive to the development of self-talk,
or childrens internal language about
what they are doing and what they
will do next.

controlling her feelings and actions), internal language or self-talk, and the ability
to organize, focus, plan, strategize, prioritize, initiate, and perform other skills that
determine later success in school? Indeed she is, and these cognitive skills are all part
of what we call executive function the cognitive abilities that control and regulate
other behavior. Play helps young children develop these abilities. Unfortunately, due
to the demands for accountability in public schools and pressure to accelerate young
childrens academic learning, time for play is either being eliminated or limited, and
play is much less often child-initiated or free from constraints.
In this article, we will review the legitimacy and validity of child-initiated play in
young childrens lives, and we will address the basics of executive function so that we
can become more intentional in our planning of, and support for, childrens play.

The Importance of Play

PUBLISHER CREDITS
HighScope Extensions is a practical resource for early
childhood teachers, trainers, administrators, and child care
providers. It contains useful information on the HighScope
Curriculum and on HighScopes training network.
Jennifer Burd
Marcella Weiner
Joanne Tangorra
Editors
Katie Bruckner
Publications Assistant

Stuart Brown, Founder of the National Institute for Play, has said that play is anything that spontaneously is done for its own sakeappears purposeless, produces
pleasure and joy, leads one to the next stage of mastery (as cited in Tippett, July
2008; italics added). Edward Miller and Joan Almon describe play as activities that
are freely chosen and directed by children and arise from intrinsic motivation
(2009, p. 15). Jeannine Ouellette refers to play as activity that is unencumbered by

Nancy Brickman
Director of Publications

adult direction, and does not depend on manufactured items or rules imposed by

Kacey Beach
Marketing Specialist

someone other than the kids themselves (Ouellette, 2007, para. 13). When children

Sherry Barker
Membership Manager

play, they are actively engaged in activities they have freely chosen; that is, they are

Kathleen Woodard
Director of Marketing and Communication

self-directed and motivated from within.

Produced by HighScope Press, a division of HighScope

Educational Research Foundation
ISSN 2155-3548
2010 HighScope Foundation
The HighScope Foundation is an independent, nonprofit
organization founded by David Weikart in Ypsilanti, MI
in 1970.

Kenneth Ginsburg, stating the position of the American Academy of Pediatrics,

says that play is essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive,

physical, social, and emotional well-being of children and youth (Ginsburg, January
2007, p. 182). Play is so important to childrens development that the United Nations
High Commission for Human Rights (1989) recognizes it as a basic right of every child.
VOLUME 24, NO. 3 page 2

HIGHSCOPE | Extensions
Play: An Important Tool for Cognitive Development, continued

The many books and articles written on the subject list a wide range of cognitive, emotional,
interpersonal, and creative benefits (refer to the sidebar on p. 4 for some highlights).

What Is Executive Function?

Executive function (EF) is a term used to de-

Many experts agree that play provides the foundation for learning and later academic

success. For example, research demonstrates the importance of child-initiated play (as op-

scribe a set of mental processes that are

posed to play defined and directed by adults) in the development of language and literacy

central to helping us organize and order our

skills. When children determine the direction and content of their own play, they have

actions and behaviors (Packer, 2009). It re-

many opportunities to hear and practice language. This type of language-rich play directly

fers to the cognitive abilities that control and

influences future development of higher mental functions (Bodrova & Leong, 2007). When

regulate other behaviors, and therefore en-

children are allowed to initiate their own play, they are then able to express those choices in

able goal-directed behavior. These include

words and to interact and converse freely with other children and adults. The International

the ability to initiate and stop actions, assess

Association for the Evaluation of Educational

and change behavior when needed, an-

Achievement (IEA) Preprimary Project, a cross-

ticipate outcomes, and plan future behavior

national longitudinal study, found that childrens

(Zelazo, Muller, Frye, & Marcovitch, 2003).

Executive function thus involves both concrete
behaviors and the ability to form abstract
concepts. We use executive function when
we perform such activities as planning, organizing, strategizing, delaying impulses, and
paying attention to and remembering details.
Children with high levels of self-regulation

language performance at age seven was significantly higher when teachers had allowed children
to choose their own activities at age four (Montie,
Xiang, & Schweinhart, 2007).

Developmental psychologists identify four

types of child-initiated play: exploratory play

(discovering the properties of materials and tools,

and executive functioning do better in school,

not to make something, but for the pleasure of

both in academic areas such as literacy and

doing it); constructive play (making things);

mathematics, and also in social adjustment

dramatic play (acting out make believe or

(Bodrova & Leong, 2007). Poor execu-

pretend situations and assuming various roles);

tive function is associated with high dropout

and for older children, games with rules.

rates, drug use, and crime[whereas] good

executive function is a better predictor of suc-

of play, but especially in dramatic (make-believe)

cess in school than a childs IQ (Spiegel,

play. When children spend time in make-believe play, they use self-directed talk and

2008). These cognitive functions are begin-

develop other features of the critical cognitive skills of executive function (Spiegel, 2008).

ning to be developed long before children

enter formal schooling. In fact, the years
between three and five are especially important in the development of executive function
because of changes in brain development
during this period, particularly in the frontal
cortex, which is responsible for regulating
and expressing emotion (Shore, 2003). Engagement in play is thus a major contributor
to physical and mental development.

Gabrielle was engaging in the first three types

By stocking the classroom with

interesting materials that children can
manipulate in various ways, teachers
help children build organization and
planning skills and develop their
working memory.

We will look at how child-initiated play in general, and make-believe play in particular,
help to develop executive function.

Components of Executive Function

Although researchers have not completely agreed on the elements of executive function,
Chris Dendy (2008) outlines five general components based on Russell Barkley and Tom
Browns work on attention deficit disorders. These components are presented below, with
the plan-do-review sequence described in Gabrielles play at the beginning of this article
serving to illustrate the connection between play and executive function.

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HIGHSCOPE | Extensions
Play: An Important Tool for Cognitive Development, continued

Working Memory and Recall

The first component of executive function is working memory and recall, which is the ability to hold facts in ones mind as well as being able to access them from ones long-term

The Importance of Play

memory at any point in time (Dendy, 2008). In the HighScope preschool daily routine,

In its position statement on

developmentally appropriate
practice, the National Association for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC) states,
Research shows that childguided, teacher-supported play
benefits children in many ways.
When children play, they engage in many important tasks,
such as developing and practicing newly acquired skills, using
language, taking turns, making
friends, and regulating emotions
and behavior according to the
demands of the situation. This
is why play needs to be a significant part of the young childs
day (Copple & Bredekamp,
2009, p. 328).

planning and recall times are opportunities for children to tap into their working memory
and articulate their ideas, choices, and decisions about what they want to do (planning
time), and remember and reflect on their work-time actions and experiences (recall time).
Planning builds childrens self-confidence and self-control while leading to more concentrated, complex play. Recall time exercises childrens capacities to form and talk about
mental images, helps them build their memory skills, and expands their awareness of time
outside the present. As presented in the diagram below, Gabrielle is exhibiting these functions during her planning and recall.

Components of Executive Function in Gabrielles Play

1. Working
Memory and
Recall

2. Activation,
arousal, and
effort

Recalls what
an elevator
looks like and
how to build
one out of
magnetic tiles.

Gets the materials

needed to
complete her plan.

Recalls the
problem with
the tiles and
describes
details of the
stories about
the dogs

Follows through
with plan while
adding to it and
adapting to
problems.

3. Controlling
emotions

4. Internalizing
language

Controls her
emotions by not
getting upset or
showing frustration
when the materials
dont work the way
she wants them to.

Talks to herself as
she moves the
dogs around,
pretending.

Patiently waits for

her turn at recall.

5. Taking an issue
apart, analyzing the
pieces, reconstituting
and organizing it

Works out the problem with

the magnetic tiles by using
them in a different way.

Uses self talk

during play as she
manipulates the
materials and
pretends

Listens to others
ideas at recall.

Understands
and uses basic
concepts and
roles of daily
living.

Activation, Arousal, and Effort

The second component includes activation (getting started), arousal (paying attention),
and effort (finishing work). On a larger scale, this would apply to the whole plan-do-review
process. However, work time is the part of the day when children use these functions the
most because children are following through with their plans by getting the appropriate materials, carrying through with their intentions while adapting to and solving any
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HIGHSCOPE | Extensions
Play: An Important Tool for Cognitive Development, continued

Child-Driven Play
When children pursue play under
their own impulse and initiative,
they

problems that arise, and then completing the task. During work time, these functions are
used over and over again as children make new plans and follow through with them. As
presented in the diagram on p. 4, Gabrielle sticks with her plan throughout work time,
is highly engaged with pretend play, and solves problems and carries through with her
intentions until cleanup time. It is important to recognize that it takes purposeful play
for these cognitive functions to fully develop. Because their play is self-directed and

Practice decision-making skills

Discover their own interests
Engage fully in what they want
to pursue
Develop creative problemsolving skills
Practice skills in resolving conflicts
Develop self-regulation
Develop trust, empathy, and
social skills
Develop language and
communication skills
Use their creativity and
imagination
Develop skills for critical thinking
and leadership
Analyze and reflect on their
experiences
Reduce stress in their everyday
lives

therefore meaningful and purposeful to them children are highly motivated to maintain
their engagement. Children who aimlessly wander around during free play are not exhibiting the highest levels of complex play and strategizing needed to use and develop these
higher-level thinking skills. Likewise, when childrens play activities are directed by adults,
initiation (activation) is taken out of their hands, interest (arousal) is diminished, and
actions (effort) may be aimed at pleasing others rather than thinking about and learning
from their own experiences.

Controlling Emotions
The third component of executive function is controlling emotions, that is, the ability to
tolerate frustration and to think before acting or speaking. This is part of self-regulation.
Children with developed self-regulation are more able to control their emotions and behaviors, resist impulses, and exert self-discipline (Bodrova & Leong, 2007). Children who
participate in a consistent, reliable problem-solving approach (e.g., HighScopes six steps
to resolving conflicts; Evans, 2002) learn to express strong emotions in nonhurtful ways;
appreciate their own views as well as the views of others; listen and discuss the details
of problems; recognize that when there is a problem, there are lots of possibilities for
solutions; and deliberate, negotiate, and collaborate with others while staying calm when
confronted with a conflict or a problem. When the magnetic tiles continued to fall down,
Gabrielle could have had an emotional melt down or shown strong frustration by kicking
at the tiles and walking away. However, due to her self-regulation skills, she stuck with the
task and solved the problem by building with the tiles another way. There is evidence that
some children who spend a significant amount of time using video games and watching
violent media programming imitate what they see, thinking these are acceptable behaviors, and do not know how to self-regulate when frustrated. These children may get angry,
even at the game itself (Anderson & Bushman, 2001).

Internalizing Language
The fourth component is internalizing language using self talk to control ones
behavior and direct future actions. As adults, we internally talk to ourselves throughout
the day (e.g., to master problems, control emotions, and plan) we just remind ourselves
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HIGHSCOPE | Extensions
Play: An Important Tool for Cognitive Development, continued

Where Has Play Gone?

Many of us remember when we could go outside and play until the street lights came on or, in more
inclement weather, when we played make-believe games with a friend in our bedroom or build
things out of items we found lying around the house. Sadly, a daily time for children to freely choose
what they want to do, whether indoors or outdoors, is in jeopardy. More and more, outdoor play is
perceived as being too dangerous for children, so children are cooped up in their homes (Metrocom International, 2007). Both at home and at school, children are bombarded by television, DVD
and computer games, violent toys that inhibit imaginative play, extracurricular activities, and academic
pressure. Needless to say, little time is being allocated to creative play.
Among the greatest threats to childrens creative play are television, video and DVD games, and
computers. When children are mindlessly watching a screen, they are not engaging all of their senses. According to the Alliance for Childhood, children spend four-and-a-half hours per day involved in
these activities (July 2009). Following a study connecting television watching with attention problems,
the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP; 2001) has recommended that young children especially those under three who are in the formative years of brain development have no exposure
to television, as a preventative measure against attention problems and subsequent risk of attention
deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Christakis, Zimmerman, DiGiuseppe, & McCarty, 2004). Yet
studies cited by AAP and the White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity (2010) show 43% of
children under age two watch television daily, and 90% of children aged 4 to 6 use screen media
an average of two hours per day.
A position statement by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC),
asserts that research demonstrates that watching violent programs is related to less imaginative play
and more imitative play in which the child simply mimics the aggressive acts observed on television
(The National Institute of Mental Health, 1982, as cited in NAEYC, 1994, p. 2). Furthermore, the
majority of toys that children play with tend to be violent and expensive toys based on media programs and which encourage children to reenact the aggressive behaviors they see on television, in
commercials, or in movies. As children spend more time with media and items that promote violence,
the less time they are engaged in activities that help them process violence. Thus, as the need to
work through violence increases, childrens ability to work it through can be seriously impaired
(Levin, 2007, p. 3).
Another major threat to play is pressure to introduce academics. In Crisis in The Kindergarten
(Miller & Almon, 2009), the authors argue that children are spending the majority of their day in
literacy and math instruction and in standardized testing and test preparation, leaving less than 30
minutes (and sometimes no time at all) in play or choice time. The same restrictions and pressures
are being placed on preschoolers. Research shows that the knowledge gained through this type
of cramming and early pressure to learn ABCs and 123s fades by fourth grade (Miller & Almon,
2009).

VOLUME 24, NO. 3 page 6

HIGHSCOPE | Extensions
Play: An Important Tool for Cognitive Development, continued

not to talk back! With young children, private speech is key to these functions because
it helps the children direct their own actions; for example, what to do with their hands,
bodies, and voices, which in turn is part of developing self-regulation. Make-believe play
in particular is most helpful for the development of private speech. Alix Spiegel quotes
Laura Berk: This type of self-regulating languagehas been shown in many studies to be
predictive of executive function (Berk as cited in Spiegel, 2008). Returning to the opening scenario, as Gabrielle plays with the dogs, she uses private speech (internal dialogue)
as she directs the pretend play. Children who spend the majority of their time in teacherdirected activities or watching television or computer screens that is, listening to others
talk miss out on opportunities to develop self-regulation through internal dialogue and
thought.
When adults are intentional in their
interactions with children, validating
their emotions and helping them find
solutions to problems, children are
better able to manage their own feelings and behaviors.

Complex Problem Solving

The fifth component of executive function is complex problem solving taking an issue
apart, analyzing the pieces, and reconstituting and reorganizing it into new ideas. During
work time and small-group time, children are faced with many challenging problems as
part of carrying out their plans and completing tasks. Part of problem solving with young
children is helping them recognize that there is a problem and then involving them in the
process of finding a solution. When children are engaged and adults avoid jumping in and
solving problems for them, the children learn to rely on their own ideas and decisionmaking skills and to see themselves as confident problem solvers. For Gabrielle, through
many experiences with magnetic tiles and solving problems, she needed no assistance in
solving the problem and coming up with a new idea to continue her plans. Children who
lack the experiences in play, and who spend most of their time in adult-organized activities, lack the creativity that it takes to solve problems mentally.

In summary, we as educators are entrusted with the responsibility of fully engag-

ing childrens minds and bodies in the way they learn best. By understanding the importance of play, how it helps to develop key cognitive functions, and what these functions are,
we can become more effective in protecting purposeful play and more intentional in our
interactions with children during their play. In this issues Classroom Hints article, we
will discuss strategies that assist in the development of execution function in young children. However, most important, we must remember that play is simply about having fun!
Click here for entire newsletter

VOLUME 24, NO. 3 page 7

HIGHSCOPE | Extensions
Play: An Important Tool for Cognitive Development, continued

Shannon D. Lockhart, M.A., is a senior

early childhood specialist with the
HighScope Educational Research
Foundation in Ypsilanti, MI. Shannon has served as a national and
international researcher; curriculum
developer for infants, toddlers, and
preschoolers; trainer; teacher; and
educational consultant in the United
States and abroad.

References
Alliance for Childhood. (n.d.). Time for play, every day: Its fun and fundamental. Retrieved July 23, 2009
from http://www.allianceforchildhood.org/sites/allianceforchildhood.org/files/file/pdf/projects/play/
pdf_files/play_fact_sheet.pdf
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Public Education. (2001). Children, adolescents, and television. Retrieved May 13, 2010, from: http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/
pediatrics;107/2/423.pdf.
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001, September). Effects of violent video games on aggressive
behaviour, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behaviour: A
meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12(5), 353359.
Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2007). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education. Columbus, Ohio: Pearson.
Christakis, D. A., Zimmerman, F. J., DiGiuseppe, D. L., & McCarty, C. A. (April 2004). Early television
exposure and subsequent attentional problems in children. American Academy of Pediatrics, 113(4),
708713.
Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood
programs: Serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Dendy, C. A. (February 2002). Executive FunctionWhat is this anyway? Retrieved February 29, 2008,
from http://www.chrisdendy.com/executive.htm
Evans, B. (2002). You cant come to my birthday party! Conflict resolution with young children. Ypsilanti, MI:
HighScope Press.
Ginsburg, K. R. (January, 2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds. American Academy of Pediatrics, 119(1), 182191.
Levin, D. (2007). Meeting childrens needs in violent times. In R. New & M. Cochran (Eds.), Early childhood
education: An international encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Metrocom International (Producer) for Michigan Television. (2007). Where do the children play? [DVD]. Ann
Arbor: Regents of the University of Michigan.
Miller, E., & Almon, J. (March 2009). Crisis in the kindergarten: Why children need to play in school. Retrieved March 27, 2009, from www.allianceforchildhood.org
Montie, J., Xiang, Z., & Schweinhart, L. (2007). The role of preschool experience in childrens development:
Longitudinal findings from 10 Countries. Ypsilanti, MI: HighScope Press.
National Association for the Education of Young Children (July 1994). Media violence in childrens lives.
Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://www.naeyc.org/positionstatements
Ouellette, J. (October 16, 2007). The death and life of American imagination. The Rake: Magazine. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://www.secretsofthecity.com/magazine/reporting/features/death-andlife-american-imagination
Packer, L. (December 9, 2004). What are the executive functions? Retrieved July 23, 2009, from http://
www.schoolbehavior.com/conditions_edfoverview.htm
Shore, R. (2003). Rethinking the brain: New insights into early development, revised edition. New York:
Families and Work Institute.
Spiegel, A. (February 29, 2008). Creative play makes for kids in control. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=76838388
Tippet, K. (host and producer). (24 July, 2008). Play, spirit, and character. [interview]. Speaking of faith.
[Radio broadcast]. St. Paul, Minnesota: American Public Media.
United Nations High Commission for Human Rights. (20 November 1989). Convention on the rights of the
child (resolution 44/25). New York: Author.
White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity. (2010). Solving the problem of childhood obesity within
a generation: Report to the President. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved May 12, 2010, from http://
www.letsmove.gov/tfco_fullreport_may2010.pdf.
Zelazo, P. D., Muller, U., Frye, D., & Marcovitch, S. (2003). The development of executive function. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Volume 68.

VOLUME 24, NO. 3 page 8

HIGHSCOPE | Extensions

classroom hints
Planning Assists Childrens Executive Function
By Shannon Lockhart

Yesterday, a number of children had difficulty

staying engaged in large-group time. The teachers decided that it was not active enough and
took too long. Today, the teachers decide to use
the freeze song to help children understand
where their bodies are in space and to give
them opportunities to connect the words they
use to the actions they perform to the music. As
the music plays, the teachers imitate childrens
actions. At certain points, the music stops, or
freezes. At one point when the music stops,
a teacher says, Jamie, how should we make
our bodies freeze? Jamie says, Touch your
back. The teacher says, Everyone stop your
bodies and touch your back. Then the music
starts again and children and teachers freely
move their bodies. From this activity, children
begin to learn how to control their bodies and
actions, which in turn helps them to regulate
their thoughts and feelings. At first, children will
still move their bodies to the freeze parts, but
once they have had more experiences with this
start-and-stop action, they will become successful.

Planning the Learning Environment

Stable learning areas. By strategically arranging and organizing the classroom with stable learning areas (e.g., house, block, art,
book, and toy areas) and by stocking these areas with appropriate
open-ended materials (e.g., dishes, wooden blocks, paints), we begin
to help children see an organization in their environment upon
which they can rely. Children can then easily categorize and classify
information about their room and use this information to plan and
recall as well as carry out their intentions during work time. An or-

The scenario above illustrates how adults can help children develop

ganized learning environment also helps children who have trouble

key cognitive skills (see What Is Executive Function in the feature

regulating their emotions, in that it provides consistency in their

article). Teachers who are knowledgeable about self-regulation and

everyday lives.

executive function are able to plan numerous activities that support

Visual Supports. You can also create visual supports for children

children in learning how to put words to their actions and control

and place them in the classroom where children can easily see and

their bodies. By setting up the classroom environment and the daily

use them. For example, you can make a pictorial daily routine chart;

routine for active learning, and by planning intentional interactions

a sequence chart that shows a step-by-step process for a task such

with children, teachers help children to develop working memory,

as washing hands; and social stories, which are simple drawings

self-regulation, internal language, and organization, planning,

illustrating classroom problem-solving scenarios, such as what to do

and initiating skills, as well as other important cognitive abilities.

when one child accidentally knocks over another childs block tower.

Next, we will look at ideas and strategies for planning the learning

Timers (e.g., oven timers or homemade sand/salt timers in differ-

environment, the daily routine, and intentional interactions to help

ent sizes) help children gain a sense of time and are often useful in

develop childrens executive function.

helping children resolve issues that arise during play, such as those

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HIGHSCOPE | Extensions
Classroom Hints, continued

dealing with sharing and turn-taking. You can also use sign language
and make sign-language cards for children to view, and for children
who are having difficulty knowing where to place their bodies during
an activity, you can use visual markers such as carpet squares or
hula hoops.
Materials. Provide a variety of materials that support executive
function. For example, different types of small manipulatives (rocks,
shells, and shapes; small replicas of people, animals, and cars) lead
to childrens pretend play and the development of self-talk. Natural,
found, and recycled materials lend themselves to open-ended play,
including complex play, such as when children pretend restaurant
using sheets of paper for menus, yellow sponges and rocks for food,

when a transition is approaching. This develops their ability to antic-

and dishes. Dramatic play props also contribute to cooperative play

ipate events and plan accordingly. In addition, give children choices

in which children negotiate roles, act out scenes, and problem-solve

(control) about what to do during transitions. When possible, ask for

situations.

and use childrens ideas about what to do during transitions.

One rule of thumb is to provide some but not all the props for

When changes take place within the routine, such as when a

dramatic play scenarios, so that children tap into their imagination

teacher is absent or a special guest is visiting, report these to chil-

and creativity to seek various materials from the different classroom

dren by using a message board with simple drawings or by playing

learning areas for making their own props.

guessing games. These strategies further give children a sense of

Another suggestion that helps with self-regulation as well

control over their day and allow them to anticipate events.

as reducing the number of conflicts within the childrens day is

The transition from home to school can set the whole tone of

to have multiples of popular toys and materials. To enlist the full

the day for a child and determine how much he or she will partici-

range of childrens perceptual and cognitive abilities, these materials

pate. Therefore, teachers need to help parent-child partners estab-

should appeal to all of childrens senses (e.g., things made of metal;

lish consistent morning rituals that children can trust in. Children,

objects having different textures; heavy objects such as small and

like adults, find it easier to regulate their emotions when they know

large wooden blocks; and sand and water).

what to expect and are reassured their needs will be met.

Plan-do-review. The plan-do-review sequence is an important

Planning the Daily Routine

process that assists in the development of working memory and

The overall routine. By providing consistency and opportuni-

recall as well as the other cognitive functions discussed in the lead

ties for active learning, the overall daily routine plays an important

article. However, there are a few other strategies you can use to sup-

role in how children express their emotions; pay attention; and

port childrens self-regulation and internal language: hide-and-seek

solve complex problems, both those having a social basis and those

games; games that require children to stop and think (e.g., a modi-

involving materials. Each part of the routine provides active learning

fied Simon Says game without winners and losers, or a freeze song

opportunities and allows for child choice even when tasks such as

with actions, as illustrated in the opening scenario); made-up stories

cleaning up have to be done.

for children to act out; and large-group times in which children have

It is also important to limit the number of transitions but to

the opportunity to talk about what they are doing and to release

plan for the transitions that are needed. For example, warn children

energy by stomping, jumping, twisting, bending, and squatting.

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HIGHSCOPE | Extensions
Classroom Hints, continued

Planning Intentional Interactions

Intentionally plan for activities that support executive function
and self-regulation throughout the daily routine. In this regard, it
is especially important to allot enough time for child-driven play
(4560 minutes). During this time, which is called work time in the
HighScope Curriculum, play as a partner with children and follow
the childrens leads. You can facilitate childrens developing executive
function abilities by taking on roles assigned to you by the children
and modeling role playing without taking over the play. Model the
kind of language used in self-talk, or private speech, by telling children what you are doing (e.g., Im going to wash off the table first
and then sit down in my seat for recall). Additionally, when conflicts
or problems arise, implement the six steps to problem solving:

timer, when other children have a problem with taking turns,

The Six Steps to Conflict Resolution

Step 1: Approach calmly, stopping any hurtful actions.
Step 2: Acknowledge childrens feelings.
Step 3: Gather information.
Step 4: Restate the problem.
Step 5: Ask for ideas for solutions and choose one
together.
Step 6: Give follow-up support as needed.
For more information, see
You Cant Come to My Birthday Party!
Conflict Resolution With Young Children, by Betsy
Evans (HighScope Press, 2002).

she can suggest using the sand timer. With repeated experience
in this role, she will understand that she can use the timer as
well and may have fewer emotional outbursts.
Another suggestion offered by Bodrova and Leong to help
children develop other-regulation is to plan experiences in
which children have to identify mistakes in the teachers work
or in written information for example, to deliberately make
mistakes on the message board that children can correct, such
as the block symbol drawn in for the art area, or when copying
the movement of a child acting as leader during large-group
time. Children then see the adults as well as other children making mistakes and can help correct them. When they do this, they
begin to internalize strategies for self-regulation when involved
in conflicts. By correcting adults who did not write on the message board correctly or who miscopied an action, they begin to

Using the six problem-solving steps specifically helps children

develop self-regulation as well as what is called other-regulation.

see themselves as competent problem solvers.

According to Bodrova and Leong (2007), children engage in other-

By intentionally planning the classroom learning environment,

regulation before developing self-regulation. That is, they learn

the daily routine, and our interactions with children, we can do

about their own behaviors through recognizing and assisting in

a great deal to support young childrens developing executive

the change of others behaviors. Take, for example, a child who has

function and self-regulation skills!

difficulty taking turns. By placing that child in charge of the sand

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HIGHSCOPE | Extensions

special education
Play An Intentional Intervention!
By Terri Mitchell, HIGHSCOPE FIELD CONSULTANT AND Early Childhood Administrator, Canyons School District, Sandy, Utah

At planning time, Alyia points to the picture of

the sand and water table. Today in the table
there is water and dish soap. Children have
been washing a variety of materials such as
plates, cars, and Legos. After Alyia points to
the picture, her teacher comments, Alyia, I see
you pointing to the water table. You must want
to wash today. Alyia looks at her teacher and
moves over to the water table and finds an item
to wash. She is fascinated by the bubbles created by the dish soap and picks some up in her
hand and lets them fall back in the water. About
seven minutes pass, and an adult comes over
to tell Alyia that she needs to come work with
her but that Alyia can come back in a few minutes. Alyia resists moving away from the activity
she has just chosen but reluctantly complies as
the adult negotiates with her. After several minutes of working together, the adult continues to
insist that Alyia stay, even though Alyia tries to
indicate she is finished. After about 15 minutes Alyia is released to go back to her choice
of activities. Alyia does not return to the water
table but moves about the room, searching for
someone or something to engage with.
Whether it is playing in the block area with the plastic airplanes or
dressing the baby dolls, young children with disabilities can often
have difficulty maintaining engagement in play scenarios because
teachers and programs do not fully support uninterrupted free-play
time. In this article, we will look at why this is so and how adults can
support childrens free play.
Both HighScope and the National Association for the Education
of Young Children (NAEYC) recommend that children have at least
one hour of free play in a half-day session. Children with special
needs receive the same benefit if not more from this uninterrupted time to engage with materials and people of their choice.
Most early childhood classrooms that are inclusive or are designed for children with special needs proclaim that play is central
to their program. Yet, in my experience, play time (work time in
the HighScope Curriculum) is often when adults pull children out
of their play to work with them in a directive way or to work on IEP
goals. I believe scenarios such as the one of the adult working with

Alyia happen because

adults do not understand
their role in play development and intervention
and how IEP goals can be
met within the context of
childrens play.
When children have a
developmental delay or
a disability, we provide
interventions to close
the gap, regardless of
the delay or disability.
Considering a childs
delay in language, social
development, physical
development, or cognitive
development, for example, doesnt it make sense that allowing the
child more time to explore materials and people would help close
the gap? The research does, in fact, support this strategy. It is also
important to remember that adult support to the child is key.
For instance, if a child is delayed in his or her social development,
we would provide opportunities for the child to practice interacting with peers, and we would do so through the support we give the
child within the context of the experience. So, for example, if Tomas
is reluctant to join a group of other children, we might imitate what
he does as he plays by himself a few feet away from the group and
then model how he might join in with the others. But when we pull
children away from natural opportunities to practice interacting
with peers and receive adult support in that context, we tend to send
a message that their choices and interests are not important.
As explained in the lead article, there is a growing body of evidence supporting the many connections between cognitive development and play initiated and sustained by children. Additionally, play
supports the development of language and social-emotional regulation. So, as educators of young children with or without disabilities,
we need to recognize childrens ability to use play as an avenue to
learning and generalizing new skills or concepts. Therefore, play
with adult scaffolding that is, supporting children at their current developmental level and introducing new materials and gentle
challenges as children are ready is an intentional intervention.
The support the adult gives to Tomas, above, is an example of this
approach.

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HIGHSCOPE | Extensions
Special Education, continued

When children are allowed to make choices and follow through

on their choices, with adult scaffolding children are much more likely
to maintain a topic in conversational turn taking; use and pretend
with materials; and initiate or invite others into their space. Choice
promotes self-confidence and self-control and leads to more focus,
concentration, and play. However, when adults pull children aside
to directively teach them for example, about vocabulary, shapes,
or counting they send the message that the adults agenda to complete a specific task is more important than the childs choice. We can
avoid sending this message by providing time, allowing for choice,
and engaging with children using appropriate interaction strategies.
That is, we can scaffold childrens learning in the context of their chosen play rather than taking them away from their free-play activities.

Nathan as he flies his plane closer to Haydens

space. Hayden smiles and begins to imitate the
up-and-down motion with Nathan, who says, My
plane is going to land (making plane sounds)
down, down, downstop. Hayden stops to
watch, then runs off to another area.

The sample work-time scenario with Nathan (a teacher) and Hayden,

below, illustrates how supportive interaction strategies in the context
of childrens play create conditions for successful interventions with
young children.

In this intervention scenario, Nathan scaffolds Haydens learning in the context of Haydens
play by imitating Hayden and then expanding on
Haydens play (by making plane sounds), and finally commenting on his own actions. This drew
Hayden, even for a short while, into a beginning
play scenario. This intentional intervention was
specifically designed to support Haydens IEP
goals of language development, initiative, and
time on task. The anecdotal notes that Nathan
might now write could include the amount of time
Hayden engaged with Nathan and/or any language, sounds, or gestures Hayden used. In the
next intentional intervention, Nathan may choose
to comment on Haydens actions.

Nathan and Hayden are in the block area.

Hayden, who uses only a few words, typically
moves from area to area with little intention to
play and with low engagement with materials.
Nathan notices as Hayden picks up a small
plastic airplane and begins to move it around
in the air. Nathan chooses to move a bit closer
and picks up another nearby plastic airplane.
Nathan begins making airplane noises. Hayden
pauses the movement of his plane. Nathan
states, Plane flying! Hayden begins to move
his plane again. Plane upplane down, says

Adults can support childrens play by providing comments that

assist children in maintaining focus on the play, as Nathan did in the
scenario above. Adults make the comments, but they do so without the
expectation of a response from the child. The goal of this type of intervention is to simply support the child in maintaining focus and expanding upon his or her play, not to direct the play in any particular way.

Interaction strategies such as commenting, imitating, expanding on
childrens play, and repeating and rephrasing what children say are all
adult scaffolding strategies that help young children with disabilities
progress. We can also use them as part of intentional interventions
with young children as we validate childrens interests.

Scaffolding in the Context of a Childs

Chosen Play

Terri Mitchell is a HighScope field consultant and currently serves as the Early Childhood Administrator in
Canyons School District in Sandy, Utah. Prior to joining Canyons, Terri was an educational specialist for
the Utah Personnel Development Center, where she
directed the training initiatives for early childhood
special education classrooms across the state of
Utah. Terri is a certified teacher in special education
and early childhood special education. She has contributed her experience with instructional coaching,
assessment, and systems change to the development
of several high-quality early childhood programs.

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HIGHSCOPE | Extensions

Trainer-to-Trainer
Supporting Executive Function in Childrens Play
By SHANNON LOCKHART

This two-hour workshop is designed to inform teachers about what

executive function is and how they can support it through childrens
play. The objectives of this workshop are to enable practitioners to
(1) discuss the importance of play in childrens development;
(2) define executive function; and (3) identify intentional strategies
to assist in the development of executive function in the classroom.
What Youll Need: Chart paper (Opening Activity and Central Ideas
and Practice); handout made from the sidebar in the feature article
titled Child-Driven Play (Central Ideas and Practice); pictures of
children at play (Central Ideas and Practice); definition of executive
function and the five components from the feature article (Central
Ideas and Practice); Initiative and Social Relations Key Experience
DVD segment on power belts or footage of children involved
in pretend play or complex play and/or solving problems in play
(Central Ideas and Practice); executive function card game (make
by listing each of the five components of executive function on a
separate colored card, and make a set for each table; (Central Ideas
and Practice); support strategies from this issues Classroom Hints
article (Central Ideas and Practice).

Opening Activity
Favorite Activity
(1520 minutes)
1. Have participants individually think about a favorite activity or
something they love to do and then share it with others at their
table while discussing the following questions:
Why is this your favorite activity?
What are some skills you learn from this activity?
How does this activity support your knowledge, development, or
other aspects of your life?
2. After about 10 minutes, discuss participant answers as a whole
group. What will emerge from the discussion is that the activities people tend to love the most are those they choose to do, feel
confident doing, and are intrinsically motivated to engage in.
When they are the ones making choices and decisions about their
time and the activity, then they tend to be more engaged, they
learn new skills or hone existing skills, and they want to repeat the
activity which in turn helps them become more confident and
successful. These are activities they find fun and interesting.
On chart paper, list the five factors of intrinsic motivation: enjoyment, interest, sense of control, probability of success,
and feelings of competence and self-confidence (High-

Scope Educational Research Foundation, 2010). Emphasize that

play is what children do best!

Central Ideas and Practice

What Is So Important About Play?
(1520 minutes)
3. Have participants form small groups. Pass out pictures of
children at play to each group. As participants look through the
pictures, ask groups to discuss why play is important to childrens
development. Create a master list by recording their answers on
chart paper.
4. Compare the list created in step 3 to the main points and sidebar
from the lead article. Be sure to emphasize that play is simply
about having fun! Summarize by explaining that play is vital to
childrens learning and that it is key to the development of executive function.
What Is Executive Function? (40 minutes)
5. Define executive function using the definition in the feature
article. Explain that executive function encompasses key cognitive
skills that children need for success later in school, and that even
very young children can begin developing these skills. Mention
that the more that we as teachers know about executive function,
the more effective we can be in helping children develop these
skills.
6. Discuss the five components of executive function as presented in
the feature article. Use the example of Gabrielles play from that
article or use examples from your own experiences with children.
7. Show the Initiative and Social Relations Key Experience DVD
segment on power belts and ask participants to look for the five
components of executive function as children are playing and
problem solving. Discuss responses as a whole group.
8. Pass out the executive function card game sets to each group
and have group members spread the five component cards out
across their tables. Then, using the pictures of children at play,
have the participants place the pictures under the component that
best describes what children are doing and learning. Have them
discuss why they chose that component. (Note: The play depicted
in the pictures may illustrate more than one component, but have
participants just choose one). Once all groups have completed the
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HIGHSCOPE | Extensions
Trainer-to-Trainer, continued

matching, have group members choose one picture and explain

the component to the whole group.
How Do We support Executive Function?
(25 minutes)
9. Divide participants into three groups. Assign each group one of
the following topics:
Environment support
Daily routine support
Interaction support
Ask groups to come up with ideas that would support childrens
development of executive function according to their topic.
10. Once groups have finished, have each group present its group
members ideas. Compare their lists with the main points
presented in this issues Classroom Hints article, discussing any
strategies that were not covered.

Application Activity
(10 minutes)
11. Together with the others in their group, have group members list
some strategies that will support the development of executive
function with the children in their own program.

Implementation Plan
(5 minutes)
12. Have individual participants use the list from the application activity to develop a plan of action for implementing these strategies
in their classroom.

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VOLUME 24, NO. 3 page 15

HIGHSCOPE | Extensions

news briefs
Introducing a new scoring level for the OnlineCOR!
We are very excited to announce that a new scoring level for
our OnlineCOR, preschool version, is now available. Based on
research that we have been conducting during the last year, as
well as in response to customer feedback, we will have a Level O
option available for OnlineCOR, preschool version, in addition to
the existing Levels 15. This feature has been research-validated
and will be especially helpful when assessing children who have
not yet met Level 1, and for children with special needs. For more
detailed information about this new Level O, and the research
supporting it, please click here.

Need a jump-start on your plans for large- or smallgroup times this fall? HighScopes Ideas From the
Field can help!
Ideas From the Field is a place where real teachers share their
favorite activities for large- and small-group times. We choose
the most innovative plans teachers send us and then post them
in an easy-to-follow format on HighScopes Forums so that you
can quickly go from looking at an activity online to adapting it for
your classroom. Ideas From the Field is updated on a regular basis, so be sure to check back often to see a fresh idea for a teachertested activity that you can use in your classroom (see our latest
Ideas From the Field now)

Save the date!

2011 HighScope International Conference
Plan to join us in Ypsilanti, Michigan, May 46, 2011, for this
popular annual event! Watch our Web site for details at
highscope.org as more information becomes available.

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ask us
by SHANNON LOCKHART, M.A.

A child in my classroom is having a difficult time

following through with routines. He tends to
wander or run around at recall or snacktime and
does not follow through with what he is supposed to be doing. This is very frustrating to the
teachers and disruptive to the class. Do you have
any suggestions on how to help him?
A Preschool Teacher
The first suggestion is to make sure that you are following a consistent daily routine and that the child knows all
about the routine. One way to make the routine concrete
for this child is to display it pictorially on the wall, so he
can see and refer to the daily routine segments throughout the day. Another
way would be to get
pictures of this child
during each part of the
day and put them in
a small photo album
that he can look at
in the classroom
and with his parents
at home. This will
help build the childs
memory of what takes
place first, second,
third, etc., and how
he is involved in each
part of the day.
The second suggestion
is to make sure that
you are incorporating
active learning. Take a
look at your routine and determine what parts of the day
the child is having the most difficulty with. Then determine if all the ingredients of active learning are present
(materials, manipulation, choice, child language and
thought, and adult scaffolding). If he is not being allowed
to make choices, this can lead to his not wanting to participate because his interests are not being challenged.
For example, if he never participates in large-group time,
which is active and engaging, you could give him two

VOLUME 24, NO. 3 page 16

HIGHSCOPE | Extensions

ask us,

cont.

choices that you can live with. For example, you might say,
If you dont want to participate in the group, you can stay
at the table or you can get a book to look at, but it is not a
choice to play with the toys during large-group time. Be
consistent about following through with whatever choices
you are giving him.
A final suggestion: If the child is having problems following
routine tasks like getting ready for mealtimes or going to
the bathroom, then you may need to make a step-by-step
pictorial sequence of what he is supposed to do so he can
remember each part of the routine task. Children who have
problems with self-regulation and executive function are
often unable to remember each part of a simple task. They
only remember the last thing you told them. For example,
for washing hands you could take photographs of the child
(1) turning on the water, (2) wetting his hands, (3) rubbing
soap on his hands, (4) rinsing the soap off his hands, (5)
turning the water off, (6) getting a paper towel, (7) throwing
the paper towel away, and (8) going to the table for snack.
In this sequence, the child learns how to follow each step
so that he knows what he is to do with his body during this
time. After reviewing this repeatedly, these steps will eventually become a habit for the child and will be internalized
in his long-term memory.

Ann S. Epstein, PhD, is Senior

Director of Curriculum Development at HighScope and
is the author or coauthor of
numerous research and curriculum publications, including The Intentional Teacher:
Choosing the Best Strategies
for Young Childrens Learning
(published by the National
Association for the Education
of Young Children).

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VOLUME 24, NO. 3 page 17