Large Hadron Collider

Large Hadron Collider
Experiments, Technology, Theory and Future
Contents
1
Overview
1.1
CERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Particle accelerators
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
Sites
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
Participation and funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5
Public exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6
In popular culture
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.2.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.2.2
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.2.3
Design
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.2.4
Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.2.5
Timeline of operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.2.6
Findings and discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.2.7
Planned high-luminosity upgrade
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.2.8
Safety of particle collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.2.9
Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.2.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.2.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.2.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
1.2
Experiments
26
2.1
List of LHC experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.1.1
Large Hadron Collider experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.1.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.1.3
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
ii
CONTENTS
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.1.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.1.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
ALICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.2.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.2.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.2.3
Heavy-Ion Collisions at the LHC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.2.4
The ALICE detectors
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.2.5
Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
2.2.6
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
2.2.7
Upgrades and Future plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
2.2.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
2.2.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
ATLAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
2.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
2.3.2
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
2.3.3
Physics program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.3.4
Micro black holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
2.3.5
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
2.3.6
Data systems and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
2.3.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
2.3.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
2.3.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
2.3.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
CMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
2.4.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
2.4.2
Physics goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
2.4.3
Detector summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
2.4.4
CMS by layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
2.4.5
Collecting and collating the data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
2.4.6
Milestones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.4.7
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.4.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.4.9
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
2.4.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
VELO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
2.5.1
Physics goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.5.2
The LHCb detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
CONTENTS
2.6
2.7
2.8
iii
2.5.3
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
2.5.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
2.5.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
2.5.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
LHCf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.6.1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.6.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.6.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
FP420 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.7.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.7.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.7.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
TOTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
2.8.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
2.8.2
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
2.8.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Technology
58
3.1
Beetle ASIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
3.1.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
3.1.2
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
LHC Computing Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
3.2.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.2.2
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.2.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.2.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.2.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
LHC@home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.3.1
SixTrack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.3.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.3.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.3.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
Proton Synchrotron Booster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.4.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.4.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.4.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
VELO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.5.1
Physics goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.5.2
The LHCb detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
iv
CONTENTS
3.5.3
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.5.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.5.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
3.5.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
Theory
64
4.1
Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
4.1.1
Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
4.1.2
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
4.1.3
Particle content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
4.1.4
Theoretical aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
4.1.5
Fundamental forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
4.1.6
Tests and predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
4.1.7
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
4.1.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
4.1.9
Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
4.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
4.1.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
Particle physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
4.2.1
Subatomic particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
4.2.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
4.2.3
Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.2.4
Experimental laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.2.5
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.2.6
Practical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.2.7
Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.2.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.2.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.2.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
Superpartner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.3.1
Theoretical predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.3.2
Recreating superpartners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.3.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.3.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
4.3.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
Supersymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
4.4.1
77
4.2
4.3
4.4
Motivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
4.5
4.4.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
4.4.3
Applications
78
4.4.4
General supersymmetry
4.4.5
Supersymmetry in quantum gravity
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
4.4.6
Current status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.4.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.4.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.4.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
Higgs boson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
4.5.1
A non-technical summary
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
4.5.2
Signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
4.5.3
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
4.5.4
Theoretical properties
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
4.5.5
Experimental search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.5.6
Public discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
4.5.7
Technical aspects and mathematical formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
4.5.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
4.5.9
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
4.5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

4.5.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.5.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5
Safety
5.1
5.2
111
Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

5.1.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.1.2
Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.1.3
Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.1.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.1.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.1.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Micro black hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

5.2.1
Minimum mass of a black hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.2.2
Stability of a micro black hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.2.3
Primordial black holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.2.4
Man-made micro black holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.2.5
Black holes in quantum theories of gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.2.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.2.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
vi
CONTENTS
5.2.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2.9
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

5.3
5.3.1
Theoretical possibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.3.2
Natural or articial occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3.3
Dangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3.4
Debate about the strange matter hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3.5
In ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.3.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.3.8
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Future
6.1
6.2
Strangelet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
129
Super Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

6.1.1
Injector upgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.1.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.1.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Very Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

6.2.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.2.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.2.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
131
7.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.3
Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Chapter 1
Overview
1.1 CERN
For the company with the ticker symbol CERN, see
Cerner. For the rocket nozzle, see SERN.
Coordinates:
6.05278E
461403N 60310E / 46.23417N
The European Organization for Nuclear Research

(French: Organisation europenne pour la recherche nuclaire), known as CERN (/srn/; French pronunciation:
[sn]; derived from the name Conseil Europen pour la
Recherche Nuclaire; see History), is a European research
organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, the organization is
based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the FrancoSwiss
border, (46143N 6319E / 46.23417N 6.05528E)
and has 22 member states.[3] Israel is the only non-European
country granted full membership.[4]
[1]
The term CERN is also used to refer to the laboratory, The 12 founding member states of CERN in 1954 (map borders
which in 2013 had 2,513 sta members, and hosted some from 1954-1990)
12,313 fellows, associates, apprentices as well as visiting
scientists and engineers[5] representing 608 universities and
research facilities.[6]
acronym CERN originally represented the French words
CERNs main function is to provide the particle accelera- for Conseil Europen pour la Recherche Nuclaire (Eurotors and other infrastructure needed for high-energy physics pean Council for Nuclear Research), which was a proviresearch as a result, numerous experiments have been con- sional council for building the laboratory, established by
structed at CERN as a result of international collaborations. 12 European governments in 1952. The acronym was reCERN is also the birthplace of the World Wide Web. tained for the new laboratory after the provisional council
The main site at Meyrin has a large computer facility con- was dissolved, even though the name changed to the curtaining powerful data processing facilities, primarily for rent Organisation Europenne pour la Recherche Nuclaire
[7]
experimental-data analysis; because of the need to make (European Organization for Nuclear Research) in 1954.
these facilities available to researchers elsewhere, it has his- According to Lew Kowarski, a former director of CERN,
when the name was changed, the acronym could have betorically been a major wide area network hub.
come the awkward OERN, and Heisenberg said that the
acronym could still be CERN even if the name is [not]".
1.1.1
History
CERNs rst president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser.

Edoardo Amaldi was the general secretary of CERN at its
The convention establishing CERN was ratied on 29 early stages when operations were still provisional, while the
September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe.[1] The rst Director-General (1954) was Felix Bloch.[8]
1
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
The laboratory was originally devoted to study of atomic

nuclei, but was soon applied to higher-energy physics,
concerned mainly with the study of interactions between
subatomic particles. Therefore, the laboratory operated by
CERN is commonly referred to as the European laboratory for particle physics (Laboratoire europen pour la
physique des particules), which better describes the research
being performed there.
Scientic achievements
Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was intended

to facilitate sharing of information among researchers. The
rst website was activated in 1991. On 30 April 1993,
CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free
to anyone. A copy[17] of the original rst webpage, created
by Berners-Lee, is still published on the World Wide Web
Consortium's website as a historical document.
Prior to the Webs development, CERN had pioneered the
introduction of Internet technology, beginning in the early
1980s. A short history of this period can be found at
CERN.ch.[18]
Several important achievements in particle physics have More recently, CERN has become a facility for the develbeen made through experiments at CERN. They include:
opment of grid computing, hosting projects including the
Enabling Grids for E-sciencE (EGEE) and LHC Comput 1973: The discovery of neutral currents in the ing Grid. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point
Gargamelle bubble chamber;[9]
(CIXP), one of the two main internet exchange points in
Switzerland.
1983: The discovery of W and Z bosons in the UA1
and UA2 experiments;[10]
1989: The determination of the number of light Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly
neutrino families at the Large ElectronPositron ColMain article: Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly
lider (LEP) operating on the Z boson peak;
1995: The rst creation of antihydrogen atoms in the On 22 September 2011, the OPERA Collaboration rePS210 experiment;[11]
ported the detection of 17 GeV and 28 GeV muon neu 1999: The discovery of direct CP violation in the trinos, sent 730 kilometers (450 miles) from CERN near
Geneva, Switzerland to the Gran Sasso National LaboraNA48 experiment;[12]
tory in Italy, traveling apparently faster than light by a fac 2010: The isolation of 38 atoms of antihydrogen;[13]
tor of 2.48105 (approximately 1 in 40,000), a statistic
with 6.0-sigma signicance.[19] However, in March 2012 it
2011:
Maintaining antihydrogen for over 15
was reported by a new team of scientists for CERN, Icarus,
minutes;[14]
that the previous experiment was most likely awed and
2012: A boson with mass around 125 GeV/c2 consis- will be retested by scientists of both the Opera and Icarus
teams;[20] on 16 March, CERN stated in a press release
tent with long-sought Higgs boson.[15]
that the results were awed due to an incorrectly connected
[21]
The 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Carlo GPS-synchronization cable.
Rubbia and Simon van der Meer for the developments that
resulted in the discoveries of the W and Z bosons. The
1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to CERN sta 1.1.2 Particle accelerators
researcher Georges Charpak for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire pro- Current complex
portional chamber.
CERN operates a network of six accelerators and a decelerator. Each machine in the chain increases the energy of
Computer science See also: History of the World Wide particle beams before delivering them to experiments or to
Web
the next more powerful accelerator. Currently active machines are:
The World Wide Web began as a CERN project named
ENQUIRE, initiated by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 and
Robert Cailliau in 1990.[16] Berners-Lee and Cailliau were
jointly honoured by the Association for Computing Machinery in 1995 for their contributions to the development
of the World Wide Web.
Two linear accelerators generate low energy particles. Linac2 accelerates protons to 50 MeV for injection into the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB), and
Linac3 provides heavy ions at 4.2 MeV/u for injection
into the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR).[22]
1.1. CERN
3
CMS
North Area
LHC-b
LHC
ALICE
TI8
SPS
TT10
TI2
ATLAS
West Area
AD
CNGS
Towards
Gran Sasso
TT60
TT2
LINAC 2
n-TOF
BOOSTER
East Area
ISOLDE
PS
CTF3
LINAC 3
protons
ions
neutrons
antiprotons
electrons
neutrinos
PS
SPS
LHC
Proton Synchrotron
Super Proton Synchrotron
Antiproton Decelerator
AD
n-TOF Neutron Time Of Flight
CNGS CERN Neutrinos Gran Sasso
CTF3 CLIC TestFacility 3
Map of the CERN accelerator complex
tunnel, which started operation in 1976. It was designed to deliver an energy of 300 GeV and was gradually upgraded to 450 GeV. As well as having its
own beamlines for xed-target experiments (currently
COMPASS and NA62), it has been operated as a
protonantiproton collider (the SppS collider), and for
accelerating high energy electrons and positrons which
were injected into the Large ElectronPositron Collider (LEP). Since 2008, it has been used to inject
protons and heavy ions into the Large Hadron Collider
(LHC).
The On-Line Isotope Mass Separator (ISOLDE),
which is used to study unstable nuclei. The radioactive ions are produced by the impact of protons at an
energy of 1.01.4 GeV from the Proton Synchrotron
Booster. It was rst commissioned in 1967 and was
rebuilt with major upgrades in 1974 and 1992.
The Antiproton Decelerator (AD), which reduces the
velocity of antiprotons to about 10% of the speed of
light for research of antimatter.
The Compact Linear Collider Test Facility, which
studies feasibility for the future normal conducting linear collider project.
Collider
Map of the Large Hadron Collider together with the Super Proton
Synchrotron at CERN
Main article: Large Hadron
Many activities at CERN currently involve operating the

Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and the experiments for it.
The LHC represents a large-scale, worldwide scientic cooperation project.
The LHC tunnel is located 100 metres underground, in the

region between the Geneva International Airport and the
nearby Jura mountains. It uses the 27 km circumference
The Proton Synchrotron Booster increases the energy circular tunnel previously occupied by the Large Electronof particles generated by the proton linear accelerator Positron Collider (LEP) which was shut down in Novembefore they are transferred to the other accelerators.
ber 2000. CERNs existing PS/SPS accelerator complexes
will be used to pre-accelerate protons which will then be
The Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) accelerates the ions injected into the LHC.
from the ion linear accelerator, before transferring
[23]
them to the Proton Synchrotron (PS). This accelerator Seven experiments (CMS, ATLAS, LHCb, MoEDAL,
was commissioned in 2005, after having been recon- TOTEM, LHC-forward and ALICE) will be performed on
gured from the previous Low Energy Antiproton the collider; each of them will study particle collisions from
a dierent aspect, and with dierent technologies. ConRing (LEAR).
struction for these experiments required an extraordinary
The 28 GeV Proton Synchrotron (PS), built during engineering eort. For example, a special crane was rented
19541959 and still operating as a feeder to the more from Belgium to lower pieces of the CMS detector into its
underground cavern, since each piece weighed nearly 2,000
powerful SPS.
tons. The rst of the approximately 5,000 magnets necesThe Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS), a circular ac- sary for construction was lowered down a special shaft at
celerator with a diameter of 2 kilometres built in a 13:00 GMT on 7 March 2005.
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
TeV acceleration in both directions) during March 2012,
and soon began particle collisions at that rate. In early 2013
the LHC was deactivated for a two-year maintenance period, to strengthen the huge magnets inside the accelerator.
Eventually it will attempt to create 14 TeV events. In July
2012, CERN scientists announced the discovery of a new
sub-atomic particle that was possibly the much sought after Higgs boson believed to be essential for formation of
the Universe.[26] In March 2013, CERN announced that
the measurements performed on the newly found particle
allowed it to conclude that this is a Higgs boson.[27]
On 5 April 2015 and after two years of maintenance and
consolidation, the LHC restarted for a second run. Proton beams successfully circulated in the 27-kilometer ring
in both directions. The rst ramp to the record-breaking
energy of 6.5 TeV was performed on 10 April 2015.[28][29]
Decommissioned accelerators
The original linear accelerator (LINAC 1).
The 600 MeV Synchrocyclotron (SC) which started
operation in 1957 and was shut down in 1991.
Construction of the CMS detector for LHC at CERN
The LHC has begun to generate vast quantities of data,

which CERN streams to laboratories around the world for
distributed processing (making use of a specialized grid
infrastructure, the LHC Computing Grid). During April
2005, a trial successfully streamed 600 MB/s to seven different sites across the world.
The Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR), an early collider

built from 1966 to 1971 and operated until 1984.
The Large ElectronPositron Collider (LEP), which
operated from 1989 to 2000 and was the largest machine of its kind, housed in a 27 km-long circular tunnel which now houses the Large Hadron Collider.
The Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR), commissioned in 1982, which assembled the rst pieces of
true antimatter, in 1995, consisting of nine atoms of
antihydrogen. It was closed in 1996, and superseded
by the Antiproton Decelerator.
The initial particle beams were injected into the LHC August 2008.[24] The rst attempt to circulate a beam through
the entire LHC was at 8:28 GMT on 10 September 2008,[25]
but the system failed because of a faulty magnet connection,
and it was stopped for repairs on 19 September 2008.
Possible future accelerators
The LHC resumed operation on 20 November 2009 by successfully circulating two beams, each with an energy of 3.5
teraelectronvolts. The challenge for the engineers was then
to try to line up the two beams so that they smashed into
each other. This is like ring two needles across the Atlantic and getting them to hit each other according to the
LHCs main engineer Steve Myers, director for accelerators
and technology at the Swiss laboratory.
At 1200 BST on 30 March 2010 the LHC successfully
smashed two proton particle beams travelling with 3.5 TeV
(teraelectronvolts) of energy, resulting in a 7 TeV event.
However, this was just the start what was needed for the
expected discovery of the Higgs boson. When the 7 TeV
experimental period ended, the LHC revved to 8 TeV (4
CERN, in collaboration with groups worldwide, is investigating two main concepts for future accelerators: A linear
electron-positron collider with a new acceleration concept
to increase the energy (CLIC) and a larger version of the
LHC, a project currently named Future Circular Collider.
1.1.3
Sites
The smaller accelerators are on the main Meyrin site (also

known as the West Area), which was originally built in
Switzerland alongside the French border, but has been extended to span the border since 1965. The French side is under Swiss jurisdiction and there is no obvious border within
1.1. CERN
CERNs main site, from Switzerland looking towards France
The SPS and LEP/LHC tunnels are almost entirely outside

the main site, and are mostly buried under French farmland
and invisible from the surface. However, they have surface
sites at various points around them, either as the location
of buildings associated with experiments or other facilities
needed to operate the colliders such as cryogenic plants and
access shafts. The experiments are located at the same underground level as the tunnels at these sites.
Interior of oce building 40 at the Meyrin site. Building 40 hosts

many oces for scientists from the CMS and ATLAS collaborations.
Three of these experimental sites are in France, with ATLAS in Switzerland, although some of the ancillary cryogenic and access sites are in Switzerland. The largest of the
experimental sites is the Prvessin site, also known as the
North Area, which is the target station for non-collider experiments on the SPS accelerator. Other sites are the ones
which were used for the UA1, UA2 and the LEP experiments (the latter which will be used for LHC experiments).
the site, apart from a line of marker stones. There are six Outside of the LEP and LHC experiments, most are oentrances to the Meyrin site:
cially named and numbered after the site where they were
located. For example, NA32 was an experiment looking
A, in Switzerland, for all CERN personnel at specic at the production of so-called "charmed" particles and lotimes.
cated at the Prvessin (North Area) site while WA22 used
the Big European Bubble Chamber (BEBC) at the Meyrin
B, in Switzerland, for all CERN personnel at all times. (West Area) site to examine neutrino interactions. The UA1
Often referred to as the main entrance.
and UA2 experiments were considered to be in the Under C, in Switzerland, for all CERN personnel at specic ground Area, i.e. situated underground at sites on the SPS
accelerator.
times.
Most of the roads on the CERN Meyrin and Prvessin sites
D, in Switzerland, for goods reception at specic are named after famous physicists, such as Richard Feyntimes.
man, Niels Bohr, and Albert Einstein.
E, in France, for French-resident CERN personnel at
specic times. Named Porte Charles de Gaulle in
1.1.4
recognition of his role in the creation of CERN.[30]
Inter-site tunnel, in France, for equipment transfer to
and from CERN sites in France by personnel with a
specic permit. This is the only permitted route for
such transfers. By the CERN treaty, no taxes are
payable when such transfers are made. Controlled by
customs personnel.[27][31]
Participation and funding
Member states and budget

Since its foundation by 12 members in 1954, CERN regularly accepted new members. All new members have remained in the organization continuously since their accession, except Spain and Yugoslavia. Spain rst joined CERN
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
Pakistan signed an agreement to Associate Membership on 19 December 2014[51] became an associate

member on 31 July 2015.[52][53]
Cyprus signed an agreement to Associate Member State of CERN in the pre-stage to Membership
on 5 October 2012. On 1 April 2016, following the
ocial ratication by the Republic of Cyprus Cyprus
became an Associate Member.[44]
International relations
Member states of CERN and current enlargement agenda

CERN full members
Accession in progress
Associate members and Candidate for Accession
in 1961, withdrew in 1969, and rejoined in 1983. Yugoslavia was a founding member of CERN but quit in 1961.
Of the 22 members, Israel joined CERN as a full member on 6 January 2014,[32] becoming the rst (and currently
only) non-European full member.[33]
[1] Based on the population in 2014.[34]
[2] 12 founding members drafted the Convention for the Establishment of a European Organization for Nuclear Research
which entered into force on 29 September 1954.[35][36]
[3] Acceded members become CERN member states by ratifying the CERN convention.[39]
[4] Additional contribution from Candidates for Accession and
Associate Member States.[39]
Enlargement
CERN member states: 21 c.

Accession in progress: 2 c.
Associate Members, Candidates:
Associate members and Candidates: 4 c.
Observers: 4 c. + EU + UNESCO + JINR
Serbia became a candidate for accession to Cooperation agreement: 35 c. + Slovenia, Cyprus, Turkey
CERN on 19 December 2011, signed an association Scientic contacts: 19 c.
agreement on 10 January 2012[48][49] and became an
ocial Associate Member in the pre-stage to MemFour countries have observer status:[54]
bership on 15 March 2012.[43]
Turkey signed an agreement to Associate Membership on 12 May 2014[50] became an associate member on 6 May 2015.
India since 2002
Japan since 1995
1.1. CERN
Russia since 1993
Lithuania 9 November 2004
United States since 1997
Macedonia 27 April 2009[57]
Malta 10 January 2008[58][59]
Mexico 20 February 1998
Montenegro 12 October 1990
Morocco 14 April 1997
New Zealand 4 December 2003
Peru 23 February 1993
Saudi Arabia 21 January 2006
Also observers are the following international organizations:
UNESCO since 1954
European Commission since 1985
JINR - since 2014

Non-Member States (with dates of Co-operation Agreements) currently involved in CERN programmes are:
Algeria
Slovenia 7 January 1991
Argentina 11 March 1992
South Africa 4 July 1992
Armenia 25 March 1994
South Korea 25 October 2006.
Australia 1 November 1991
Ukraine 2 April 1993
Azerbaijan 3 December 1997
United Arab Emirates 18 January 2006
Belarus 28 June 1994
Vietnam
Bolivia
Brazil 19 February 1990 & October 2006
Canada 11 October 1996
Chile 10 October 1991
China 12 July 1991, 14 August 1997 & 17

February 2004
CERN also has scientic contacts with the following

countries:[60]
Cuba
Ghana
Ireland
Colombia 15 May 1993
Latvia
Croatia 18 July 1991
Lebanon
Cyprus 14 February 2006
Madagascar
Malaysia
Ecuador
Egypt 16 January 2006
Mozambique
Palestinian Authority
Estonia 23 April 1996
Philippines
Georgia 11 October 1996
Qatar
Iceland 11 September 1996
Rwanda
Iran 5 July 2001
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Taiwan
[55]
Jordan - 12 June 2003. MoU with Jordan and

SESAME, in preparation of a cooperation agreement
signed in 2004.[56]
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
Thailand
Tunisia
Uzbekistan
Venezuela
The Globe of Science and Innovation, which opened

in late 2005 and is used four times a week for special
exhibits.
The Microcosm museum on particle physics and
CERN history.
CERN also provides daily tours to certain facilities such

International research institutions, such as CERN, can aid as the Synchro-cyclotron (CERNs rst particle accelerator)
in science diplomacy.[61]
and the superconducting magnet workshop.
Associated institutions
1.1.6
ESO and CERN have a cooperation agreement.[62]
Line 18 goes to CERN
European Southern Observatory

Swiss National Supercomputing Centre
1.1.5
Public exhibits
In popular culture
CERNs Large Hadron Collider is the subject of a

(scientically accurate) rap video starring Katherine
McAlpine with some of the facilitys sta.[63][64]
Particle Fever, a 2013 documentary, explores CERN
throughout the inside and depicts the events surrounding the 2013 discovery of the Higgs Boson
CERN is depicted in an episode of South Park (Season 13, Episode 6) called Pinewood Derby. Randy
Marsh, the father of one of the main characters, breaks
into the Hadron Particle Super Collider in Switzerland and steals a superconducting bending magnet
created for use in tests with particle acceleration to
use in his son Stans Pinewood Derby racer. Randy
breaks into CERN dressed in disguise as Princess Leia
from the Star Wars saga. The break-in is captured
on surveillance tape which is then broadcast on the
news.[65]
John Titor, a self-proclaimed time traveler, alleged
that CERN would invent time travel in 2001.
The Globe of Science and Innovation at CERN
Facilities at CERN open to the public include:
CERN is depicted in the visual novel/anime series

Steins;Gate as SERN, a shadowy organization that has
been researching time travel in order to restructure and
control the world.
1.1. CERN
9
The Compact Muon Solenoid at CERN was used as
the basis for the Megadeth's Super Collider album
cover.
In Denpa Kyoushi, the main character is scouted by
CERM
In Super Lovers, Haruko (Rens mother) worked at
CERN, and Ren was taught by CERN professors
CERN forms part of the back story of the massively
multiplayer augmented reality game Ingress.[68]
1.1.7
See also
CERN Openlab
Fermilab
Large Hadron Collider Wikipedia book
Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek

Science and Technology Facilities council
Science and technology in Switzerland
Scientic Linux
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
The statue of Shiva engaging in the Nataraja dance presented by
the Department of Atomic Energy of India.
In Dan Brown's mystery-thriller novel Angels &

Demons and lm of the same name, a canister of antimatter is stolen from CERN.[66]
In the popular childrens series The 39 Clues, CERN
is said to be an Ekaterina stronghold hiding the clue
hydrogen.
In Robert J. Sawyer's science ction novel
Flashforward, at CERN, the Large Hadron Collider accelerator is performing a run to search for
the Higgs boson when the entire human race sees
themselves twenty-one years and six months in the
future.
In season 3 episode 15 of the popular TV sitcom The
Big Bang Theory titled The Large Hadron Collision,
Leonard and Raj travel to CERN to attend a conference and see the LHC.
The 2012 student lm Decay, which centers on the
idea of the Large Hadron Collider transforming people into zombies, was lmed on location in CERNs
maintenance tunnels.[67]
World Wide Web
1.1.8
References
[1] CERN.ch. Public.web.cern.ch. Retrieved 20 November

2010.
[2] Professor Sijbrand de Jong elected as next President of
CERN Council. CERN press oce. CERN. Retrieved 18
January 2016.
[3] Member States. International relations. CERN. Retrieved
25 November 2015.
[4] CERN to admit Israel as rst new member state since 1999
[5] CERN Annual Report 2013 CERN in Figures. CERN.
Retrieved 4 September 2014.
[6] A global endeavour. CERN. 15 July 2015.
[7] The Name CERN. CERN. 30 September 2011. Retrieved
16 August 2012.
[8] People and things : Felix Bloch. CERN Courier. CERN.
2010.
10
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
[10] CERN.ch La. Public.web.cern.ch. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
[30] Red Carpet for CERNs 50th. CERN bulletin. November

2004.

2010.
[31] CERN Host relations service page. CERN. Retrieved 4

September 2014.
[12] Fanti, V.; et al. (1998). A new measurement of direct

CP violation in two pion decays of the neutral kaon.
Physics Letters B. 465: 335. arXiv:hep-ex/9909022 .
Bibcode:1999PhLB..465..335F.
doi:10.1016/S03702693(99)01030-8.
[32] CERN International Relations Israel. Retrieved 5 July

2014.
[13] Thair Shaikh (18 November 2010). Scientists capture antimatter atoms in particle breakthrough. CNN.
[14] Jonathan Amos (6 June 2011). Antimatter atoms are corralled even longer. BBC.
[15] CERN experiments observe particle consistent with longsought Higgs boson | CERN press oce. Press.web.cern.ch
(2012-07-04). Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
2010.
[17] W3.org. W3.org. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
[18] CERN.ch. CERN.ch. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
[19] Adrian Cho, Neutrinos Travel Faster Than Light, According
to One Experiment, Science NOW, 22 September 2011.
[20] The Associated Press, Einstein Proved Right in Retest of
Neutrinos Speed, The Associated Press, 17 March 2012.
[21] CERN Press Release. Press.web.cern.ch. Retrieved 4 July
2012.
[22] CERN Website LINAC. Linac2.home.cern.ch. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
[23] CERN Courier, MoEDAL becomes the LHCs magnicent
seventh, 5 May 2010
[24] Overbye, Dennis (29 July 2008). "Let the Proton Smashing Begin. (The Rap Is Already Written.)". The New York
Times.
[25] CERN press release, 7 August 2008. Press.web.cern.ch.
7 August 2008. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
[26] "'God particle': New particle found, could be the Higgs boson, CERN scientists say. The Times Of India. 4 July 2012.
[27] New results indicate that particle discovered at CERN is a
Higgs boson. CERN press release. Retrieved 4 September
2014.
[28] O'Luanaigh, Cian. First successful beam at record energy
of 6.5 TeV. CERN: Accelerating science. CERN. Retrieved
24 April 2015.
[29] O'Luanaigh, Cian. Proton beams are back in the LHC.
CERN: Accelerating science. CERN. Retrieved 24 April
2015.
[33] Rahman, Fazlur. (2013-11-11) Israel may become rst

non-European member of nuclear research group CERN
Diplomacy and Defense Israel News. Haaretz. Retrieved on
2014-04-28.
[34] List of countries by population
[35] ESA Convention (PDF) (6th ed.). European Space Agency.
September 2005. ISBN 92-9092-397-0.
[36] CONVENTION FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A
EUROPEAN ORGANIZATION FOR NUCLEAR RESEARCH. CERN Council website. CERN. Retrieved 16
July 2012.
[37] Member States. International relations. CERN. Retrieved
25 November 2015.
[38] Member States. CERN timelines. CERN. Retrieved 25
November 2015.
[39] CERN Member States. CERN Council website. CERN.
Retrieved 16 July 2012.
[40] Member States: Spain. International Relations. CERN.
Retrieved 25 November 2015.
[41] Member States. CERN timelines. CERN. Retrieved 25
November 2015.
[42] http://press.cern/press-releases/2016/07/
cern-welcomes-romania-its-twenty-second-member-state
[43] CERN Associate Members. CERN. 16 March 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
[44] Cyprus. international-relations.web.cern.ch. Retrieved
2016-04-04.
[45] Turkey. cern.ch. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
[46] international-relations.web.cern.ch
//international-relations.web.cern.ch/
International-Relations/nms/pakistan.html.
or empty |title= (help)
http:
Missing
[47] Member States Contributions 2014. CERN website.

CERN. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
[48] Vesti Srbija zvanino postala lan CERN-a. B92. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
[49] Serbia expected to become CERN Associate Member.
CMS Experiment web site. CERN. 18 January 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
1.2. LARGE HADRON COLLIDER
[50] Turkey to become Associate Member State of CERN.

CERN press release. CERN. 12 May 2014. Retrieved 5 July
2014.
[51] Pakistan Becomes the First Associate CERN Member from
Asia. Government of Pakistan press releases. Ministry of
Foreign Aairs, Government of Pakistan. 20 June 2014.
[52] Pakistan becomes Associate Member State of CERN |
CERN. home.web.cern.ch. Retrieved 2015-08-01.
[53] Pakistan ocially becomes an associate member of CERN
- The Express Tribune. Retrieved 2015-08-01.
[54] Observers. International Relations. CERN. Retrieved 15
December 2015.
11
1.1.9
External links
Ocial website of CERN: CERN Accelerating science

CERN at 50
CERN Courier International journal of high-energy
physics
Israel may become rst non-European member of nuclear research group CERN
Big Bang Day: The Making of CERN, September
2008, A BBC Radio program
1.2
[55] CERN International Relations Jordan. Internationalrelations.web.cern.ch. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
LHC redirects here. For other uses, see LHC (disambiguation).

[56] CERN International Relations SESAME. International- The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the worlds largest
relations.web.cern.ch. 17 October 2011. Retrieved 4 July
2012.
[57] "''Macedonia joins CERN (SUP)''". Mia.com.mk. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
[58] Prime Minister of Malta visits CERN. CERN Bulletin. 10
January 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
[59] Malta signs agreement with CERN. Times of Malta. 11
January 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
[60] Member states. CERN. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
[61] Quevedo, Fernando (July 2013). The Importance of International Research Institutions for Science Diplomacy. Science & Diplomacy. 2 (3).
A section of the LHC
[62] ESO and CERN Sign Cooperation Agreement. Retrieved
21 December 2015.
[63] Large Hadron Rap. YouTube. Retrieved 20 November
2010.
[64] Large Hadron Collider Rap Video Is a Hit, National Geographic News. 10 September 2008. Retrieved 13 August
2010.
[65] Southparkstudios.com. South Park Studios. Retrieved 25
May 2011.
[66] Angels and Demons. CERN. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
[67] Boyle, Rebecca (31 October 2012). Large Hadron Collider
Unleashes Rampaging Zombies. Retrieved 22 November
2012.
[68] A year of Google Ingress January 2014
and most powerful particle collider, the largest, most complex experimental facility ever built, and the largest single machine in the world.[1] It was built by the European
Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) between 1998
and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and
engineers from over 100 countries, as well as hundreds
of universities and laboratories.[2] It lies in a tunnel 27
kilometres (17 mi) in circumference, as deep as 175 metres (574 ft) beneath the FranceSwitzerland border near
Geneva, Switzerland. Its rst research run took place from
30 March 2010 to 13 February 2013 at an initial energy
of 3.5 teraelectronvolts (TeV) per beam (7 TeV total), almost 4 times more than the previous world record for a
collider,[3] rising to 4 TeV per beam (8 TeV total) from
2012.[4][5] On 13 February 2013 the LHCs rst run ocially ended, and it was shut down for planned upgrades.
'Test' collisions restarted in the upgraded collider on 5 April
12
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
2015,[6][7] reaching 6.5 TeV per beam on 20 May 2015 (13 elementary objects, the deep structure of space and time,
TeV total, the current world record). Its second research and in particular the interrelation between quantum merun commenced on schedule, on 3 June 2015.[8]
chanics and general relativity, where current theories and
The LHCs aim is to allow physicists to test the predic- knowledge are unclear or break down altogether. Data
tions of dierent theories of particle physics, high-energy is also needed from high-energy particle experiments to
physics and in particular, to further test the properties of suggest which versions of current scientic models are
the Higgs boson[9] and the large family of new particles pre- more likely to be correct in particular to choose between
dicted by supersymmetric theories,[10] and other unsolved the Standard Model and Higgsless models and to validate
their predictions and allow further theoretical development.
questions of physics, advancing human understanding of
physical laws. It contains seven detectors, each designed Many theorists expect new physics beyond the Standard
Model to emerge at the TeV energy level, as the Standard
for certain kinds of research. The proton-proton collision
Issues possibly to be
is the primary operation method, but the LHC has also col- Model appears to be unsatisfactory.[16][17]
explored by LHC collisions include:
lided protons with lead nuclei for two months in 2013 and
used leadlead collisions for about one month each in 2010,
Are the masses of elementary particles actually gen2011, 2013 and 2015 for other investigations.
erated by the Higgs mechanism via electroweak
The LHCs computing grid is a world record holder. Data
symmetry breaking?[18] It was expected that the colfrom collisions was produced at an unprecedented rate for
lider experiments will either demonstrate or rule out
the time of rst collisions, tens of petabytes per year, a
the existence of the elusive Higgs boson, thereby almajor challenge at the time, to be analysed by a gridlowing physicists to consider whether the Standard
based computer network infrastructure connecting 140
Model or its Higgsless alternatives are more likely to
computing centres in 35 countries[11][12] by 2012 the
be correct.[19][20][21] The experiments found a particle
Worldwide LHC Computing Grid was also the worlds
that appears to be the Higgs boson, strong evidence
largest distributed computing grid, comprising over 170
that the Standard Model has the correct mechanism of
computing facilities in a worldwide network across 36
giving mass to the elementary particles.
countries.[13][14][15]
Is supersymmetry, an extension of the Standard Model
and Poincar symmetry, realized in nature, implying
that all known particles have supersymmetric part1.2.1 Background
ners?[22][23][24]
The term hadron refers to composite particles composed
Are there extra dimensions,[25] as predicted by variof quarks held together by the strong force (as atoms
ous models based on string theory, and can we detect
and molecules are held together by the electromagnetic
them?[26]
force). The best-known hadrons are the baryons, protons
and neutrons; hadrons also include mesons such as the pion
What is the nature of the dark matter that appears to
and kaon, which were discovered during cosmic ray experaccount for 27% of the mass-energy of the universe?
iments in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
A collider is a type of a particle accelerator with two di- Other open questions that may be explored using highrected beams of particles. In particle physics, colliders are energy particle collisions:
used as a research tool: they accelerate particles to very
high kinetic energies and let them impact other particles.
Analysis of the byproducts of these collisions gives scientists good evidence of the structure of the subatomic world
and the laws of nature governing it. Many of these byproducts are produced only by high-energy collisions, and they
decay after very short periods of time. Thus many of them
are hard or nearly impossible to study in other ways.
It is already known that electromagnetism and the

weak nuclear force are dierent manifestations of a
single force called the electroweak force. The LHC
may clarify whether the electroweak force and the
strong nuclear force are similarly just dierent manifestations of one universal unied force, as predicted
by various Grand Unication Theories.
1.2.2
Why is the fourth fundamental force (gravity) so

many orders of magnitude weaker than the other three
fundamental forces? See also Hierarchy problem.
Purpose
Physicists hope that the LHC will help answer some of the
fundamental open questions in physics, concerning the basic laws governing the interactions and forces among the
Are there additional sources of quark avour mixing, beyond those already present within the Standard
Model?
13
Why are there apparent violations of the symmetry between matter and antimatter? See also CP violation.
What are the nature and properties of quarkgluon
plasma, thought to have existed in the early universe
and in certain compact and strange astronomical objects today? This will be investigated by heavy ion
collisions, mainly in ALICE, but also in CMS, ATLAS
and LHCb. First observed in 2010, ndings published
in 2012 conrmed the phenomenon of jet quenching
in heavy-ion collisions.[27][28][29]
1.2.3
Design
The 2-in-1 structure of the LHC dipole magnets
W, Z
H
q
W, Z
The LHC is the worlds largest and highest-energy particle

accelerator.[30][31] The collider is contained in a circular
tunnel, with a circumference of 27 kilometres (17 mi), at
a depth ranging from 50 to 175 metres (164 to 574 ft) underground.
The 3.8-metre (12 ft) wide concrete-lined tunnel, constructed between 1983 and 1988, was formerly used to
house the Large ElectronPositron Collider.[32] It crosses
the border between Switzerland and France at four points,
A Feynman diagram of one way the Higgs boson may be produced with most of it in France. Surface buildings hold ancilat the LHC. Here, two quarks each emit a W or Z boson, which lary equipment such as compressors, ventilation equipment,
control electronics and refrigeration plants.
combine to make a neutral Higgs.
The collider tunnel contains two adjacent parallel beamlines
(or beam pipes) that intersect at four points, each containing a beam, which travel in opposite directions around
the ring. Some 1,232 dipole magnets keep the beams on
their circular path (see image[33] ), while an additional 392
quadrupole magnets are used to keep the beams focused,
in order to maximize the chances of interaction between
the particles in the four intersection points, where the two
beams cross. In total, over 1,600 superconducting magnets
are installed, with most weighing over 27 tonnes.[34] Approximately 96 tonnes of superuid helium-4 is needed to
keep the magnets, made of copper-clad niobium-titanium,
at their operating temperature of 1.9 K (271.25 C), making the LHC the largest cryogenic facility in the world at
liquid helium temperature.
Map of the Large Hadron Collider at CERN
When running at the current energy record of 6.5 TeV

per proton,[35] once or twice a day, as the protons are accelerated from 450 GeV to 6.5 TeV, the eld of the superconducting dipole magnets will be increased from 0.54
to 7.7 teslas (T). The protons each have an energy of 6.5
TeV, giving a total collision energy of 13 TeV. At this energy the protons have a Lorentz factor of about 6,930 and
14
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
Superconducting quadrupole electromagnets are used to direct the

beams to four intersection points, where interactions between accelerated protons will take place.
move at about 0.999999990 c, or about 3.1 m/s (11 km/h)

slower than the speed of light (c). It takes less than 90
microseconds (s) for a proton to travel once around the
main ring a speed of about 11,000 revolutions per second. Rather than having continuous beams, the protons
are bunched together, into up to 2,808 bunches, with 115
billion protons in each bunch so that interactions between
the two beams take place at discrete intervals, mainly 25
nanoseconds (ns) apart, providing a bunch collision rate
of 40 MHz. It was operated with fewer bunches in the
rst years. The design luminosity of the LHC is 1034
cm2 s1 ,[36] which was rst reached in June 2016.[37]
Prior to being injected into the main accelerator, the particles are prepared by a series of systems that successively
increase their energy. The rst system is the linear particle
accelerator LINAC 2 generating 50-MeV protons, which
feeds the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB). There the protons are accelerated to 1.4 GeV and injected into the Proton
Synchrotron (PS), where they are accelerated to 26 GeV.
Finally the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is used to further increase their energy to 450 GeV before they are at last
injected (over a period of several minutes) into the main
ring. Here the proton bunches are accumulated, accelerated (over a period of 20 minutes) to their peak energy, and
nally circulated for 5 to 24 hours while collisions occur at
the four intersection points.[38]
CMS detector for LHC
cooler unit. The ions are then further accelerated by the PS

and SPS before being injected into LHC ring, where they
reached an energy of 2.3 TeV per nucleon (or 522 TeV per
ion),[40] higher than the energies reached by the Relativistic
Heavy Ion Collider. The aim of the heavy-ion programme
is to investigate quarkgluon plasma, which existed in the
early universe.
The LHC physics programme is mainly based on proton

proton collisions. However, shorter running periods, typically one month per year, with heavy-ion collisions are included in the programme. While lighter ions are considered as well, the baseline scheme deals with lead ions[39]
(see A Large Ion Collider Experiment). The lead ions are
The LHC protons originate from the small red hydrogen tank.
rst accelerated by the linear accelerator LINAC 3, and the
Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) is used as an ion storage and

Detectors
See also: List of Large Hadron Collider experiments
Seven detectors have been constructed at the LHC, located
underground in large caverns excavated at the LHCs intersection points. Two of them, the ATLAS experiment and
the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS), are large, general purpose particle detectors.[31] ALICE and LHCb have more
specic roles and the last three, TOTEM, MoEDAL and
LHCf, are very much smaller and are for very specialized
research. The BBCs summary of the main detectors is:[41]
Computing and analysis facilities

Main article: Worldwide LHC Computing Grid
Data produced by LHC, as well as LHC-related simulation,
was estimated at approximately 15 petabytes per year (max
throughput while running not stated)[42] - a major challenge
in its own right at the time.
The LHC Computing Grid[43] was constructed as part of
the LHC design, to handle the massive amounts of data
expected for its collisions. It is an international collaborative project that consists of a grid-based computer network infrastructure initially connecting 140 computing centres in 35 countries (over 170 in 36 countries as of 2012).
It was designed by CERN to handle the signicant volume
of data produced by LHC experiments,[11][12] incorporating
both private bre optic cable links and existing high-speed
portions of the public Internet to enable data transfer from
CERN to academic institutions around the world.[44] The
Open Science Grid is used as the primary infrastructure in
the United States, and also as part of an interoperable federation with the LHC Computing Grid.
15
worlds largest computing grid (as of 2012), comprising
over 170 computing facilities in a worldwide network across
36 countries.[13][14][15]
1.2.4
Operational history
The LHC rst went live on 10 September 2008, but initial testing was delayed for 14 months from 19 September 2008 to 20 November 2009, following a magnet
quench incident that caused extensive damage to over 50
superconducting magnets, their mountings, and the vacuum
pipe.[47][48][49][50][51][52]
During its rst run (20102013) the LHC collided two
opposing particle beams of either protons at up to 4
teraelectronvolts (4 TeV or 0.64 microjoules), or lead nuclei
(574 TeV per nucleus, or 2.76 TeV per nucleon).[30][53]
Its rst run discoveries included a particle thought to be
the long sought Higgs boson, several composite particles
(hadrons) like the (3P) bottomonium state, the rst creation of a quarkgluon plasma, and the rst observations of
the very rare decay of the B meson into two muons (B 0
+ ), which challenged the validity of existing models of
supersymmetry.[54]
Construction
Operational challenges The size of the LHC constitutes
an exceptional engineering challenge with unique operational issues on account of the amount of energy stored in
the magnets and the beams.[38][55] While operating, the total
energy stored in the magnets is 10 GJ (2,400 kilograms of
TNT) and the total energy carried by the two beams reaches
724 MJ (173 kilograms of TNT).[56]
Loss of only one ten-millionth part (107 ) of the beam is
sucient to quench a superconducting magnet, while each
of the two beam dumps must absorb 362 MJ (87 kilograms
of TNT). These energies are carried by very little matter: under nominal operating conditions (2,808 bunches per
beam, 1.151011 protons per bunch), the beam pipes contain 1.0109 gram of hydrogen, which, in standard conditions for temperature and pressure, would ll the volume of
one grain of ne sand.
The distributed computing project LHC@home was started

to support the construction and calibration of the LHC. The
project uses the BOINC platform, enabling anybody with
an Internet connection and a computer running Mac OS X,
Windows or Linux, to use their computers idle time to simulate how particles will travel in the beam pipes. With this
information, the scientists are able to determine how the
magnets should be calibrated to gain the most stable orbit
of the beams in the ring.[45] In August 2011, a second appli- Cost See also: List of megaprojects
cation went live (Test4Theory) which performs simulations
against which to compare actual test data, to determine con- With a budget of 7.5 billion (approx. $9bn or 6.19bn
dence levels of the results.
as of June 2010), the LHC is one of the most expensive
By 2012 data from over 6 quadrillion (6 x 1015 ) LHC scientic instruments[57] ever built.[58] The total cost of
proton-proton collisions had been analysed,[46] LHC colli- the project is expected to be of the order of 4.6bn Swiss
sion data was being produced at approximately 25 petabytes francs (SFr) (approx. $4.4bn, 3.1bn, or 2.8bn as of
per year, and the LHC Computing Grid had become the Jan 2010) for the accelerator and 1.16bn (SFr) (approx.
16
$1.1bn, 0.8bn, or 0.7bn as of Jan 2010) for the CERN
contribution to the experiments.[59]
The construction of LHC was approved in 1995 with a budget of SFr 2.6bn, with another SFr 210M towards the experiments. However, cost overruns, estimated in a major
review in 2001 at around SFr 480M for the accelerator,
and SFr 50M for the experiments, along with a reduction
in CERNs budget, pushed the completion date from 2005
to April 2007.[60] The superconducting magnets were responsible for SFr 180M of the cost increase. There were
also further costs and delays due to engineering diculties encountered while building the underground cavern for
the Compact Muon Solenoid,[61] and also due to magnet
supports which were insuciently strongly designed and
failed their initial testing (2007) and damage from a magnet
quench and liquid helium escape (inaugural testing, 2008)
(see: Construction accidents and delays).[62] Due to lower
electricity costs during the summer, the LHC normally does
not operate over the winter months,[63] although exceptions
over the 2009/10 and 2012/2013 winters were made to
make up for the 2008 start-up delays and to improve precision of measurements of the new particle discovered in
2012, respectively.
Construction accidents and delays
On 25 October 2005, Jos Pereira Lages, a technician,
was killed in the LHC when a switchgear that was being transported fell on him.[64]
On 27 March 2007 a cryogenic magnet support designed and provided by Fermilab and KEK broke during an initial pressure test involving one of the LHCs
inner triplet (focusing quadrupole) magnet assemblies.
No one was injured. Fermilab director Pier Oddone stated In this case we are dumbfounded that we
missed some very simple balance of forces. This fault
had been present in the original design, and remained
during four engineering reviews over the following
years.[65] Analysis revealed that its design, made as
thin as possible for better insulation, was not strong
enough to withstand the forces generated during pressure testing. Details are available in a statement from
Fermilab, with which CERN is in agreement.[66][67]
Repairing the broken magnet and reinforcing the eight
identical assemblies used by LHC delayed the startup
date, then planned for November 2007.
On 19 September 2008, during initial testing, a faulty
electrical connection led to a magnet quench (the
sudden loss of a superconducting magnet's superconducting ability due to warming or electric eld effects). Six tonnes of supercooled liquid heliumused
to cool the magnetsescaped, with sucient force to
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
break 10-ton magnets nearby from their mountings,
and caused considerable damage and contamination
of the vacuum tube (see 2008 quench incident); repairs and safety checks caused a delay of around 14
months.[68][69][70]
Two vacuum leaks were identied in July 2009, and
the start of operations was further postponed to midNovember 2009.[71]
Initial lower magnet currents

Main
Superconducting magnet Magnet training
article:
In both of its runs (2010 to 2012 and 2015), the LHC was
initially run at energies below its planned operating energy,
and ramped up to just 2 x 4 TeV energy on its rst run and
2 x 6.5 TeV on its second run, below the design energy of 2
x 7 TeV. This is because massive superconducting magnets
require considerable magnet training to handle the high currents involved without losing their superconducting ability,
and the high currents are necessary to allow a high proton
energy. The training process involves repeatedly running
the magnets with lower currents to provoke any quenches or
minute movements that may result. It also takes time to cool
down magnets to their operating temperature of around 1.9
K (close to absolute zero). Over time the magnet beds in
and ceases to quench at these lesser currents and can handle the full design current without quenching; CERN media describe the magnets as shaking out the unavoidable
tiny manufacturing imperfections in their crystals and positions that had initially impaired their ability to handle their
planned currents. The magnets over time and with training,
gradually become able to handle their full planned currents
without quenching.[72][73]
Inaugural tests (2008)

The rst beam was circulated through the collider on the
morning of 10 September 2008.[41] CERN successfully
red the protons around the tunnel in stages, three kilometres at a time. The particles were red in a clockwise direction into the accelerator and successfully steered around
it at 10:28 local time.[74] The LHC successfully completed
its major test: after a series of trial runs, two white dots
ashed on a computer screen showing the protons travelled
the full length of the collider. It took less than one hour to
guide the stream of particles around its inaugural circuit.[75]
CERN next successfully sent a beam of protons in an anticlockwise direction, taking slightly longer at one and a half
hours due to a problem with the cryogenics, with the full
circuit being completed at 14:59.
17
Quench incident On 19 September 2008, a magnet First operational run (20092013)

quench occurred in about 100 bending magnets in sectors 3 and 4, where an electrical fault led to a loss of
approximately six tonnes of liquid helium (the magnets
cryogenic coolant), which was vented into the tunnel. The
escaping vapour expanded with explosive force, damaging
over 50 superconducting magnets and their mountings, and
contaminating the vacuum pipe, which also lost vacuum
conditions.[48][49][76]
Shortly after the incident CERN reported that the most
likely cause of the problem was a faulty electrical connection between two magnets, and that due to the time
needed to warm up the aected sectors and then cool them
back down to operating temperature it would take at least
two months to x.[77] CERN released an interim technical report[76] and preliminary analysis of the incident on
15 and 16 October 2008 respectively,[78] and a more detailed report on 5 December 2008.[69] The analysis of the
incident by CERN conrmed that an electrical fault had indeed been the cause. The faulty electrical connection had
led (correctly) to a failsafe power abort of the electrical systems powering the superconducting magnets, but had also
caused an electric arc (or discharge) which damaged the integrity of the supercooled heliums enclosure and vacuum
insulation, causing the coolants temperature and pressure
to rapidly rise beyond the ability of the safety systems to
contain it,[76] and leading to a temperature rise of about 100
degrees Celsius in some of the aected magnets. Energy
stored in the superconducting magnets and electrical noise
induced in other quench detectors also played a role in the
rapid heating. Around two tonnes of liquid helium escaped
explosively before detectors triggered an emergency stop,
and a further four tonnes leaked at lower pressure in the
aftermath.[76] A total of 53 magnets were damaged in the
incident and were repaired or replaced during the winter
shutdown.[79] This accident was thoroughly discussed in a
22 February 2010 Superconductor Science and Technology
article by CERN physicist Lucio Rossi.[80]
In the original timeline of the LHC commissioning, the rst
modest high-energy collisions at a centre-of-mass energy
of 900 GeV were expected to take place before the end of
September 2008, and the LHC was expected to be operating at 10 TeV by the end of 2008.[81] However, due to the
delay caused by the above-mentioned incident, the collider
was not operational until November 2009.[82] Despite the
delay, LHC was ocially inaugurated on 21 October 2008,
in the presence of political leaders, science ministers from
CERNs 20 Member States, CERN ocials, and members
of the worldwide scientic community.[83]
Seminar on the physics of LHC by John Iliopoulos (2009).[84]
On 20 November 2009, low-energy beams circulated in

the tunnel for the rst time since the incident, and shortly
after, on 30 November, the LHC achieved 1.18 TeV per
beam to become the worlds highest-energy particle accelerator, beating the Tevatron's previous record of 0.98 TeV
per beam held for eight years.[85]
The early part of 2010 saw the continued ramp-up of beam
in energies and early physics experiments towards 3.5 TeV
per beam and on 30 March 2010, LHC set a new record for
high-energy collisions by colliding proton beams at a combined energy level of 7 TeV. The attempt was the third that
day, after two unsuccessful attempts in which the protons
had to be dumped from the collider and new beams had
to be injected.[86] This also marked the start of the main
research programme.
The rst proton run ended on 4 November 2010. A run with
lead ions started on 8 November 2010, and ended on 6 December 2010,[87] allowing the ALICE experiment to study
matter under extreme conditions similar to those shortly after the Big Bang.[88]
CERN originally planned that the LHC would run through
to the end of 2012, with a short break at the end of 2011 to
allow for an increase in beam energy from 3.5 to 4 TeV per
beam.[4] At the end of 2012 the LHC was planned to get
shut down until around 2015 to allow upgrade to a planned
beam energy of 7 TeV per beam.[89] In late 2012, in light of
the July 2012 discovery of the Higgs boson, the shutdown
was postponed for some weeks into early 2013, to allow
additional data to be obtained prior to shutdown.
Most of 2009 was spent on repairs and reviews from the Upgrade (20132015)
damage caused by the quench incident, along with two further vacuum leaks identied in July 2009 which pushed the The LHC was shut down on 13 February 2013 for its 2-year
start of operations to November of that year.[71]
upgrade, which would touch on many aspects of the LHC:
18
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
enabling collisions at 14 TeV, enhancing its detectors and

pre-accelerators (the Proton Synchrotron and Super Proton Synchrotron), as well as replacing its ventilation system
and 100 km of cabling impaired by high-energy collisions
from its rst run.[90] The upgraded collider began its long
start-up and testing process in June 2014, with the Proton
Synchrotron Booster starting on 2 June 2014, the nal interconnection between magnets completing and the Proton
Synchrotron circulating particles on 18 June 2014, and the
rst section of the main LHC supermagnet system reaching
operating temperature of 1.9 K (271.25 C), a few days
later.[91] Due to the slow progress with training the superconducting magnets, it was decided to start the second run
with a lower energy of 6.5 TeV per beam, corresponding
to a current of 11,000 amperes. The rst of the main LHC
magnets were reported to have been successfully trained by
9 December 2014, while training the other magnet sectors
was nished in March 2015.[92]
Second operational run (2015 onward)
First run (data taken 20092013)

The rst physics results from the LHC, involving 284 collisions which took place in the ALICE detector, were reported on 15 December 2009.[97] The results of the rst
protonproton collisions at energies higher than Fermilabs
Tevatron protonantiproton collisions were published by
the CMS collaboration in early February 2010, yielding
greater-than-predicted charged-hadron production.[112]
After the rst year of data collection, the LHC experimental collaborations started to release their preliminary results concerning searches for new physics beyond the Standard Model in proton-proton collisions.[113][114][115][116] No
evidence of new particles was detected in the 2010 data.
As a result, bounds were set on the allowed parameter
space of various extensions of the Standard Model, such
as models with large extra dimensions, constrained versions of the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, and
others.[117][118][119]
On 24 May 2011, it was reported that quarkgluon plasma

to exist besides black holes) had
On 5 April 2015 the LHC restarted after a two-year break (the densest matter thought
[101]
been
created
in
the
LHC.
during which it was extensively upgraded to run at its
full specied operating energies of 7 TeV per beam (14 Between July and August 2011, results of searches for the
TeV), although it ran at 6.5 TeV per beam (13 TeV to- Higgs boson and for exotic particles, based on the data coltal) in 2015.[6] The rst ramp on 10 April 2015 reached lected during the rst half of the 2011 run, were presented
6.5 TeV.[93] The upgrades culminated in colliding pro- in conferences in Grenoble[120] and Mumbai.[121] In the lattons together with a combined energy of 13 TeV.[94] On ter conference it was reported that, despite hints of a Higgs
3 June 2015 the LHC started delivering physics data after signal in earlier data, ATLAS and CMS exclude with 95%
almost two years oine.[95] In the following months it was condence level (using the CLs method) the existence of
used for proton-proton collisions, in November the machine a Higgs boson with the properties predicted by the Stanswitched to collisions of lead ions, in December the usual dard Model over most of the mass region between 145 and
winter shutdown started.
466 GeV.[122] The searches for new particles did not yield
signals either, allowing to further constrain the parameter
space of various extensions of the Standard Model, includ1.2.5 Timeline of operations
ing its supersymmetric extensions.[123][124]
On 13 December 2011, CERN reported that the Standard
Model Higgs boson, if it exists, is most likely to have a
mass constrained to the range 115130 GeV. Both the CMS
An initial focus of research was to investigate the possible and ATLAS detectors have also shown intensity peaks in
existence of the Higgs boson, a key part of the Standard the 124125 GeV range, consistent with either background
Model of physics which is predicted by theory but had not noise or the observation of the Higgs boson.[125]
yet been observed before due to its high mass and elusive
nature. CERN scientists estimated that, if the Standard On 22 December 2011, it was reported that a new composhad been observed, the (3P) bottomonium
Model were correct, the LHC would produce several Higgs ite particle
[104]
state.
bosons every minute, allowing physicists to nally conrm
or disprove the Higgs bosons existence. In addition, the On 4 July 2012, both the CMS and ATLAS teams anLHC allowed the search for supersymmetric particles and nounced the discovery of a boson in the mass region around
other hypothetical particles as possible unknown areas of 125126 GeV, with a statistical signicance at the level of
physics.[30] Some extensions of the Standard Model pre- 5 sigma each. This meets the formal level required to andict additional particles, such as the heavy W' and Z' gauge nounce a new particle. The observed properties were conbosons, which are also estimated to be within reach of the sistent with the Higgs boson, but scientists were cautious
LHC to discover.[111]
as to whether it is formally identied as actually being the
1.2.6
Findings and discoveries
19
Higgs boson, pending further analysis.[126]
ments did not conrm the existence of the hypothetical par[142][143][144]

On 8 November 2012, the LHCb team reported on an ticle in an August 2016 report.
experiment seen as a golden test of supersymmetry
theories in physics,[107] by measuring the very rare decay of the B meson into two muons (B 0 + ). 1.2.7 Planned high-luminosity upgrade
The results, which match those predicted by the nonsupersymmetrical Standard Model rather than the predic- Main article: High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider
tions of many branches of supersymmetry, show the decays are less common than some forms of supersymmetry After some years of running, any particle physics experipredict, though could still match the predictions of other ment typically begins to suer from diminishing returns:
versions of supersymmetry theory. The results as initially as the key results reachable by the device begin to be comdrafted are stated to be short of proof but at a relatively high pleted, later years of operation discover proportionately less
3.5 sigma level of signicance.[127] The result was later con- than earlier years. A common outcome is to upgrade the dermed by the CMS collaboration.[128]
vices involved, typically in energy, in luminosity, or in terms
In August 2013 the LHCb team revealed an anomaly in the
angular distribution of B meson decay products which could
not be predicted by the Standard Model; this anomaly had
a statistical certainty of 4.5 sigma, just short of the 5 sigma
needed to be ocially recognized as a discovery. It is unknown what the cause of this anomaly would be, although
the Z' boson has been suggested as a possible candidate.[129]
On 19 November 2014, the LHCb experiment announced
the discovery of two new heavy subatomic particles,
b and
b. Both of them are baryons that are composed of one bottom, one down, and one strange quark. They are excited
states of the bottom Xi baryon.[130][131]
The LHCb collaboration has observed multiple exotic
hadrons, possibly pentaquarks or tetraquarks, in the Run
1 data. On 4 April 2014, the collaboration conrmed the
existence of the tetraquark candidate Z(4430) with a signicance of over 13.9 .[132][133] On 13 July 2015, results
consistent with pentaquark states in the decay of bottom
Lambda baryons (0
b) were reported.[134][135][136] On 28 June 2016, the collaboration announced four tetraquark-like particles decaying into a J/ and a meson, only one of which was well
established before (X(4274), X(4500) and X(4700) and
X(4140)).[137][138]
of improved detectors. As well as the planned increase to

its intended 14 TeV collision energy in 2017 or 2018, a luminosity upgrade of the LHC, called the High Luminosity
LHC, has also been proposed,[145] to be made after 2022.
The optimal path for the LHC luminosity upgrade includes an increase in the beam current (i.e. the number
of particles in the beams) and the modication of the two
high-luminosity interaction regions, ATLAS and CMS. To
achieve these increases, the energy of the beams at the
point that they are injected into the LHC should also be
increased to 1 TeV. This will require an upgrade of the full
pre-injector system, the needed changes in the Super Proton Synchrotron being the most expensive. Currently the
collaborative research eort of LHC Accelerator Research
Program, LARP, is conducting research into how to achieve
these goals.[146]
1.2.8
Safety of particle collisions
Main article:
experiments
Safety of high-energy particle collision
The experiments at the Large Hadron Collider sparked fears

that the particle collisions might produce doomsday phenomena, involving the production of stable microscopic
black holes or the creation of hypothetical particles called
Second run (2015 onward)
strangelets.[147] Two CERN-commissioned safety reviews
examined these concerns and concluded that the experiAt the conference EPS-HEP 2015 in July, the collabora- ments at the LHC present no danger and that there is no
tions presented rst cross-section measurements of several reason for concern,[148][149][150] a conclusion expressly endorsed by the American Physical Society.[151]
particles at the higher collision energy.
On 15 December 2015, the ATLAS and CMS experiments both reported a number of preliminary results for
Higgs physics, supersymmetry (SUSY) searches and exotics
searches using 13 TeV proton collision data. Both experiments saw a moderate excess around 750 GeV in the twophoton invariant mass spectrum,[139][140][141] but the experi-
The reports also noted that the physical conditions and collision events that exist in the LHC and similar experiments
occur naturally and routinely in the universe without hazardous consequences,[149] including ultra-high-energy cosmic rays observed to impact Earth with energies far higher
than those in any man-made collider.
20
1.2.9
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
Popular culture
Particle Fever
Very Large Hadron Collider

The Large Hadron Collider gained a considerable amount
of attention from outside the scientic community and its
progress is followed by most popular science media. The
LHC has also inspired works of ction including novels, TV 1.2.11 References
series, video games and lms.
CERN employee Katherine McAlpine's Large Hadron
Rap[152] surpassed 7 million YouTube views.[153][154] The
band Les Horribles Cernettes was founded by women from
CERN. The name was chosen so to have the same initials
as the LHC.[155][156]
National Geographic Channel's Worlds Toughest Fixes,
Season 2 (2010), Episode 6 Atom Smasher features the
replacement of the last superconducting magnet section in
the repair of the supercollider after the 2008 quench incident. The episode includes actual footage from the repair
facility to the inside of the supercollider, and explanations
of the function, engineering, and purpose of the LHC.[157]
The Large Hadron Collider was the focus of the 2012 student lm Decay, with the movie being lmed on location in
CERNs maintenance tunnels.[158]
The feature documentary Particle Fever follows the experimental physicists at CERN who run the experiments, as
well as the theoretical physicists who attempt to provide a
conceptual framework for the LHCs results. It won the
Sheeld International Doc/Fest in 2013.
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1.2.10
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International Linear Collider
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24
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1.2.12
External links
Ocial website
Overview of the LHC at CERNs public webpage
CERN Courier magazine
LHC Portal Web portal
Lyndon Evans and Philip Bryant (eds) (2008). LHC
Machine. Journal of Instrumentation. 3 (8): S08001.
Bibcode:2008JInst...3S8001E.
doi:10.1088/17480221/3/08/S08001. Full documentation for design
and construction of the LHC and its six detectors
(2008).
Video
CERN, how LHC works on YouTube
Petabytes at the LHC. Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran
for the University of Nottingham.
Animation of LHC in collision production mode (June
2015)
News
Eight Things To Know As The Large Hadron Collider
Breaks Energy Records
Coordinates: 4614N 0603E / 46.233N 6.050E
25
Chapter 2
Experiments
2.1 List of LHC experiments
2.1.3
Notes
[1] Previously Fabiola Gianotti
This is a list of current and proposed experiments that take

place, or would take place, at the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC). The LHC is the most energetic particle collider 2.1.4 References
in the world, and will be used to test the accuracy of the
Standard Model (and particularly to search for the Higgs [1] James Pinfold (2010). The MoEDAL TDR. Retrieved
boson), and look for physics beyond the Standard Model
2010-04-11.
such as supersymmetry, extra dimensions, and others.
[2] James Pinfold (2010). CERN Research Board Approves
the MoEDAL Experiment. The MoEDAL Milestone Blog.
The list is rst compiled from the SPIRES database, then

missing information is retrieved from the online version
CERNs Grey Book. The most specic information of the
two is kept, e.g. if the SPIRES database lists December
2008, while the Grey Book lists 22 December 2008, the
Grey Book entry is shown. When there is a conict between the SPIRES database and the Grey Book, the SPIRES
database information is listed, unless otherwise noted.
2.1.1
SPIRES team. SPIRES database. Stanford Linear

Accelerator Center. Retrieved 2009-09-15.
GS-AIF-FPF. Grey Book. CERN. Retrieved 200909-15.
Large Hadron Collider experiments
See also: Large Hadron Collider
2.1.2
[3] CERN Courier, MoEDAL becomes the LHCs magnicent

seventh, 5 May 2010
2.1.5
External links
CERN website
See also
LHC website
Experiments
CERN Grey Book
List of Super Proton Synchrotron experiments
SPIRES database
Facilities
CERN: European Organization for Nuclear Research
PS: Proton Synchrotron

SPS: Super Proton Synchrotron
ISOLDE: On-Line Isotope Mass Separator
ISR: Intersecting Storage Rings
LEP: Large ElectronPositron Collider
LHC: Large Hadron Collider
2.2
ALICE
Coordinates: 461504.8N 60112.5E / 46.251333N

6.020139E
ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment) is one of
seven detector experiments at the Large Hadron Collider at
CERN. The other six are: ATLAS, CMS, TOTEM, LHCb,
LHCf and MoEDAL.
26
2.2. ALICE
2.2.1
Introduction
Computer generated cut-away view of ALICE showing the 18 detectors of the experiment.
ALICE is optimized to study heavy-ion (Pb-Pb nuclei) collisions at a centre of mass energy of 2.76 TeV per nucleon
pair. The resulting temperature and energy density are expected to be high enough to produce quarkgluon plasma,
a state of matter wherein quarks and gluons are freed. Similar conditions are believed to have existed a fraction of the
second after the Big Bang before quarks and gluons bound
together to form hadrons and heavier particles.[1]
ALICE is focusing on the physics of strongly interacting
matter at extreme energy densities. The existence of the
quarkgluon plasma and its properties are key issues in
Quantum Chromodynamics for understanding Color connement and Chiral symmetry restoration. Recreating this
primordial form of matter and understanding how it evolves
is expected to shed light on questions about how matter is
organized, the mechanism that connes quarks and gluons
and the nature of strong interactions and how they result in
generating the bulk of the mass of ordinary matter.
Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) predicts that at suciently high energy densities there will be a phase transition from conventional hadronic matter, where quarks are
locked inside nuclear particles, to a plasma of deconned
quarks and gluons. The reverse of this transition is believed
to have taken place when the universe was just 106 s old,
and may still play a role today in the hearts of collapsing
neutron stars or other astrophysical objects.[2][3]
2.2.2
History
The idea of building a dedicated heavy-ion detector for

the LHC was rst aired at the historic Evian meeting Towards the LHC experimental Programme in March 1992.
From the ideas presented there, the ALICE collaboration
was formed and in 1993, a LoI was submitted.[4]
27
ALICE was rst proposed as a central detector in 1993 and
later complemented by an additional forward muon spectrometer designed in 1995. In 1997, ALICE received the
green light from the LHC Committee to proceed towards
nal design and construction.[5]
The rst ten years were spent on design and an extensive
R&D eort. Like for all other LHC experiments, it became clear from the outset that also the challenges of heavy
ion physics at LHC could not be really met (nor paid for)
with existing technology. Signicant advances, and in some
cases a technological break-through, would be required to
build on the ground what physicists had dreamed up on paper for their experiments. The initially very broad and later
more focused, well organised and well supported R&D effort, which was sustained over most of the 1990s, has led
to many evolutionary and some revolutionary advances in
detectors, electronics and computing.
Designing a dedicated heavy-ion experiment in the early
'90s for use at the LHC some 15 years later posed some
daunting challenges. The detector had to be general purpose - able to measure most signals of potential interest,
even if their relevance may only become apparent later - and
exible, allowing additions and modications along the way
as new avenues of investigation would open up. In both respects ALICE did quite well, as it included a number of observables in its initial menu whose importance only became
clear later. Various major detection system were added,
from the muon spectrometer in 1995, the transition radiation detectors in 1999 to a large jet calorimeter added in
2007.
ALICE recorded data from the rst lead-lead collisions at
the LHC in 2010. Data sets taken during heavy-ion periods
in 2010 and 2011 as well as proton-lead data from 2013
have provided an excellent basis for an in-depth look at the
physics of quarkgluon plasma.
As of 2014 After more than three years of successful operation, the ALICE detector is about to undergo a major
programme of consolidation and upgrade during the long
shutdown [LS1] of CERNs accelerator complex. A new
subdetector called the dijet calorimeter (DCAL) will be installed, and all 18 of the existing ALICE subdetectors will
be upgraded. There will also be major renovation work on
the ALICE infrastructure, including the electrical and cooling systems. The wealth of published scientic results and
the very intense upgrade programme of ALICE have attracted numerous institutes and scientists from all over the
world. Today the ALICE Collaboration has more than 1300
members coming from 110 institutes in 36 countries.
28
2.2.3
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTS
Heavy-Ion Collisions at the LHC
Searches for Quark Gluon plasma and a deeper understanding of the QCD started at CERN and Brookhaven with
lighter ions in the 1980s.[6][7] Todays programme at these
laboratories has moved on to ultrarelativistic collisions of
heavy ions, and is just reaching the energy threshold at
which the phase transition is expected to occur. The LHC,
with a centre-of-mass energy around 5.5 TeV/nucleon, will
push the energy reach even further.
During head-on collisions of lead ions at the LHC, hundreds
of protons and neutrons smash into one another at energies
of upwards of a few TeVs. Lead ions are accelerated to
more than 99.9999% of the speed of light and collisions at One of the LHCs rst lead-ion collisions, as recorded by the ALICE
the LHC are 100 times more energetic than those of protons detector.
- heating up matter in the interaction point to a temperature
almost 100,000 times higher than the temperature in the
Proton-lead collisions at the LHC
core of the sun.
When the two lead nuclei slam into each other, matter undergoes a transition to form for a brief instant a droplet of
primordial matter, the so-called quarkgluon plasma which
is believed to have lled the universe a few microseconds
after the Big Bang.
The quarkgluon plasma is formed as protons and neutrons melt into their elementary constituents, quarks and
gluons become asymptotically free. The droplet of QGP
instantly cools, and the individual quarks and gluons (collectively called partons) recombine into a blizzard of ordinary matter that speeds away in all directions.[8] The debris contains particles such as pions and kaons, which are
made of a quark and an antiquark; protons and neutrons,
made of three quarks; and even copious antiprotons and
antineutrons, which may combine to form the nuclei of
antiatoms as heavy as helium. Much can be learned by
studying the distribution and energy of this debris.
Proton-Lead ion collision recorded by the ALICE Experiment on 13
September 2012 at a center of mass energy per colliding nucleonnucleon pair of 5.02 TeV.
First Lead-Lead Collisions

In 2013, the LHC collided protons with lead ions for the
The Large Hadron Collider smashed its rst lead ions in LHCs rst physics beams of 2013.[11] The experiment was
2010, on 7 November at around 12:30 a.m. CET.[9][10]
conducted by counter-rotating beams of protons and lead
ions,
and begun with centred orbits with dierent revolution
The rst collisions in the center of the ALICE, ATLAS and
frequencies,
and then separately ramped to the accelerators
CMS collisions took place less than 72 hours after the LHC
maximum
collision
energy.[12]
ended its rst run of protons and switched to accelerating
The rst lead-proton run at the LHC lasted for one month
and data help ALICE physicists to decouple the eects of
the plasma from eects that stem from cold nuclear matter
eects and shed more light on the study of the Quark-Gluon
Up to 3,000 charged particles were emitted from each colli- plasma.
sion, shown here as lines radiating from the collision point. In the case of lead-lead collisions, the congurations of
The colors of the lines indicate how much energy each par- the quarks and gluons that make up the protons and neutrons of the incoming lead nucleus can be somewhat difticle carried away from the collision.
lead-ion beams. Each lead nucleus contains 82 protons, and
the LHC accelerates each proton to an energy of 3.5 TeV,
thus resulting in an energy of 287 TeV per beam, or a total
collision energy of 574 TeV.
2.2. ALICE
29
ferent of those in the incoming protons. In order to study of the system of the QGP ALICE is using a set of 18
if part of the eects we see when comparing lead-lead and detectors[14] that give information about the mass, the veproton-proton collisions is due to this conguration dier- locity and the electrical sign of the particles.
ence rather than the formation of the plasma. Proton-lead
collisions are an ideal tool for this study.
Tracking Particles
2.2.4
The ALICE detectors
Overall view of the ALICE detector
An ensemble of cylindrical detectors that surround the interaction point is used to track all the particles that y out of
the hot medium. The Inner Tracking System (consisting of
three layers of detectors: ITS Pixels, ITS Drift, ITS Strips),
the Time Projection Chamber and the Transition Radiation
Detector measure at many points the passage of each particle carrying an electric charge and give precise information
about the particles trajectory. The ALICE tracking detectors are embedded in a magnetic eld of 0.5 Tesla produced
by a huge magnetic solenoid, bending the trajectories of the
particles: from the curvature of the tracks one can nd their
momentum. The ITS is so precise that particles which are
generated by the decay of other particles with a very short
life time can be identied by seeing that they do not originate from the point where the interaction has taken place
(the "vertex" of the event) but rather from a point at a distance of as small as a tenth of a millimeter.
A key design consideration of ALICE is the ability to study

QCD and quark (de)connement under these extreme conditions. This is done by using particles, created inside the
hot volume as it expands and cools down, that live long
enough to reach the sensitive detector layers situated around
the interaction region. ALICEs physics programme relies
on being able to identify all of them, i.e. to determine if
they are electrons, photons, pions, etc. and to determine
their charge. This involves making the most of the (sometimes slightly) dierent ways that particles interact with
matter.[13]
In a traditional experiment, particles are identied or at
least assigned to families (charged or neutral hadrons), by
the characteristic signatures they leave in the detector. The
experiment is divided into a few main components and
each component tests a specic set of particle properties.
These components are stacked in layers and the particles
go through the layers sequentially from the collision point
outwards: rst a tracking system, then an electromagnetic
(EM) and a hadronic calorimeter and nally a muon system. The detectors are embedded in a magnetic eld in order to bend the tracks of charged particles for momentum
and charge determination. This method for particle identication works well only for certain particles, and is used
for example by the large LHC experiments ATLAS and
CMS. However, this technique is not suitable for hadron
identication as it doesn't allow distinguishing the dierent
charged hadrons that are produced in Pb-Pb collisions.
Installation of the ALICE Inner Tracking System
Inner Tracking System The short-living heavy particles

cover a very small distance before decaying. This system
aims at identifying these phenomena of disintegration by
measuring the location where they occur with a precision
of a tenth of millimetre.[15]
The Inner Tracking System (ITS) consists of six cylindrical

layers of silicon detectors. The layers surround the collision
point and measure the properties of the particles emerging
from the collisions, pin-pointing their position of passage
to a fraction of a millimetre.[16] With the help of the ITS
particles containing heavy quarks (charm and beauty) can
be identied by reconstructing the coordinates at which they
In order to identify all the particles that are coming out decay.
30
ITS layers (counting from the interaction point):

2 layers of SPD (Silicon Pixel Detector),
2 layers of SDD (Silicon Drift Detector),
2 layers of SSD (Silicon Strip Detector).
The ITS was inserted at the heart of the ALICE experiment
in March 2007 following a large phase of R&D. Using the
smallest amounts of the lightest material, the ITS has been
made as lightweight and delicate as possible. With almost
5 m2 of double-sided silicon strip detectors and more than
1 m2 of silicon drift detectors, it is the largest system using The ALICE Time Projection Chamber used for particle tracking and
identication.
both types of silicon detector.
ALICE has recently presented plans for an upgraded Inner Tracking System, mainly based on building a new silicon tracker with greatly improved features in terms of
determination of the impact parameter (d0) to the primary vertex, tracking eciency at low pT and readout rate
capabilities.[17] The upgraded ITS will open new channels
in the study of the Quark Gluon Plasma formed at LHC
which are necessary in order to understand the dynamics of
this condensed phase of the QCD.
It will allow the study of the process of thermalization of
heavy quarks in the medium by measuring heavy avour
charmed and beauty baryons and extending these measurements down to very low pT for the rst time. It will also give
a better understanding of the quark mass dependence of inmedium energy loss and oer a unique capability of measuring the beauty quarks while also improving the beauty
decay vertex reconstruction. Finally, the upgraded ITS will
give us the chance to characterize the thermal radiation
coming from the QGP and the in-medium modication of
hadronic spectral functions as related to chiral symmetry
restoration.
ization strength is connected to the well-known BetheBloch formula , which describes the average energy loss of
charged particles through inelastic Coulomb collisions with
the atomic electrons of the medium.
Multiwire proportional counters or solid-state counters are
often used as detection medium, because they provide
signals with pulse heights proportional to the ionization
strength. An avalanche eect in the vicinity of the anode wires strung in the readout chambers, gives the necessary signal amplication. The positive ions created in the
avalanche induce a positive current signal on the pad plane.
The readout is performed by the 557 568 pads that form
the cathode plane of the multi-wire proportional chambers
(MWPC) located at the end plates. This gives the radial
distance to the beam and the azimuth. The last coordinate, z along the beam direction, is given by the drift time.
Since energy-loss uctuations can be considerable, in general many pulse-height measurements are performed along
the particle track in order to optimize the resolution of the
ionization measurement.
The upgrade project requires an extensive R&D eort by

our researchers and collaborators all over the world on
cutting-edge technologies: silicon sensors, low-power electronics, interconnection and packaging technologies, ultralight mechanical structures and cooling units.
Almost all of the TPCs volume is sensitive to the traversing

charged particles, but it features a minimum material budget. The straightforward pattern recognition (continuous
tracks) make TPCs the perfect choice for high-multiplicity
environments, such as in heavy-ion collisions, where thousands of particles have to be tracked simultaneously. InTime Projection Chamber The ALICE Time Projec- side the ALICE TPC, the ionization strength of all tracks
tion Chamber (TPC) is a large volume lled with a gas as is sampled up to 159 times, resulting in a resolution of the
detection medium and is the main particle tracking device ionization measurement as good as 5%.
in ALICE.[18][19]
Charged particles crossing the gas of the TPC ionize the
gas atoms along their path, liberating electrons that drift
towards the end plates of the detector. The characteristics of the ionization process caused by fast charged particles passing through a medium can be used for particle identication. The velocity dependence of the ion-
Transition Radiation Detector Electrons and positrons

can be discriminated from other charged particles using the
emission of transition radiation, X-rays emitted when the
particles cross many layers of thin materials.
The identication of electrons and positrons is achieved
2.2. ALICE
31
Particle Identication with ALICE
ALICE also wants to know the identity of each particle,
whether it is an electron, or a proton, a kaon or a pion.
The completed ALICE detector showing the eighteen TRD modules

(trapezoidal prisms in a radial arrangement).
using a transition radiation detector (TRD).[20] In a similar manner to the muon spectrometer, this system enables detailed studies of the production of vector-meson
resonances, but with extended coverage down to the light
vector-meson and in a dierent rapidity region. Below
1 GeV/c, electrons can be identied via a combination of
particle identication detector (PID) measurements in the
TPC and time of ight (TOF). In the momentum range 1
10 GeV/c, the fact that electrons may create TR when travelling through a dedicated radiator can be exploited. Inside such a radiator, fast charged particles cross the boundaries between materials with dierent dielectric constants,
which can lead to the emission of TR photons with energies
in the X-ray range. The eect is tiny and the radiator has to
provide many hundreds of material boundaries to achieve a
high enough probability to produce at least one photon. In
the ALICE TRD, the TR photons are detected just behind
the radiator using MWPCs lled with a xenon-based gas
mixture, where they deposit their energy on top of the ionization signals from the particles track.
The ALICE TRD was designed to derive a fast trigger
for charged particles with high momentum and can signicantly enhance the recorded yields of vector mesons.
For this purpose, 250,000 CPUs are installed right on the
detector to identify candidates for high-momentum tracks
and analyse the energy deposition associated with them as
quickly as possible (while the signals are still being created
in the detector). This information is sent to a global tracking unit, which combines all of the information to search
for electronpositron track pairs within only 6 s.
Charged hadrons (in fact, all stable charged particles) are

unambiguously identied if their mass and charge are determined. The mass can be deduced from measurements of
the momentum and of the velocity. Momentum and the sign
of the charge are obtained by measuring the curvature of the
particles track in a magnetic eld. To obtain the particle velocity there exist four methods based on measurements of
time-of-ight and ionization, and on detection of transition
radiation and Cherenkov radiation. Each of these methods
works well in dierent momentum ranges or for specic
types of particle. In ALICE all of these methods may be
combined in order to measure, for instance, particle spectra.
In addition to the information given by ITS and TPC, more
specialized detectors are needed: the TOF measures, with
a precision better than a tenth of a billionth of a second,
the time that each particle takes to travel from the vertex to
reach it, so that one can measure its speed. The high momentum particle identication detector (HMPID) measures
the faint light patterns generated by fast particles and the
TRD measures the special radiation very fast particles emit
when crossing dierent materials, thus allowing to identify
electrons. Muons are measured by exploiting the fact that
they penetrate matter more easily than most other particles:
in the forward region a very thick and complex absorber
stops all other particles and muons are measured by a dedicated set of detectors: the muon spectrometer.
Time of Flight Charged particles are identied in ALICE by Time-Of-Flight (TOF). TOF measurements yield
the velocity of a charged particle by measuring the ight
time over a given distance along the track trajectory.[21][22]
Using the tracking information from other detectors every
track ring a sensor is identied. Provided the momentum
is also known, the mass of the particle can then be derived
from these measurements. The ALICE TOF detector is a
large-area detector based on multigap resistive plate chambers (MRPCs) that cover a cylindrical surface of 141 m2 ,
with an inner radius of 3.7 m. There are approximately 160
000 MRPC pads with time resolution of about 100 ps distributed over the large surface of 150 m2 .
The MRPCs are parallel-plate detectors built of thin sheets

of standard window glass to create narrow gas gaps with
high electric elds. These plates are separated using shing
lines to provide the desired spacing; 10 gas gaps per MRPC
To develop such a Transition Radiation Detector (TRD) are needed to arrive at a detection eciency close to 100%.
for ALICE many detector prototypes were tested in mixed The simplicity of the construction allows a large system to
beams of pions and electrons.
be built with an overall TOF resolution of 80 ps at a rela-
32
tively low cost (CERN Courier November 2011 p8). This
performance allows the separation of kaons, pions and protons up to momenta of a few GeV/c. Combining such a
measurement with the PID information from the ALICE
TPC has proved useful in improving the separation between
the dierent particle types, as gure 3 shows for a particular
momentum range.
ALICE HMPIDs momentum range is up to 3 GeV for
pion/kaon discrimination and up to 5 GeV for kaon/proton
discrimination. It is the worlds largest caesium iodide
RICH detector, with an active area of 11 m. A prototype was successfully tested at CERN in 1997 and currently takes data at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at
the Brookhaven National Laboratory in the US.
Calorimeters
Calorimeters measure the energy of particles, and determine whether they have electromagnetic or hadronic interactions. Particle Identication in a calorimeter is a destructive measurement. All particles except muons and neutrinos
deposit all their energy in the calorimeter system by production of electromagnetic or hadronic showers. Photons,
electrons and positrons deposit all their energy in an electromagnetic calorimeter. Their showers are indistinguishable, but a photon can be identied by the non-existence
of a track in the tracking system that is associated to the
shower.
The photons (particles of light), like the light emitted from

a hot object, tell us about the temperature of the system. To
The HMPID detector before nal installation inside the ALICE measure them, special detectors are necessary: the crystals
of the PHOS, which are as dense as lead and as transparmagnet.
ent as glass, will measure them with fantastic precision in a
limited region, while the PMD and in particular the EMCal
High Momentum Particle Identication Detector
The High Momentum Particle Identication Detector will measure them over a very wide area. The EMCal will
(HMPID) is a RICH detector to determine the speed of also measure groups of close particles (called jets) which
particles beyond the momentum range available through en- have a memory of the early phases of the event.
ergy loss (in ITS and TPC, p = 600 MeV) and through timeof-ight measurements (in TOF, p = 1.21.4 GeV).
Photon Spectrometer PHOS is a high-resolution elecCherenkov radiation is a shock wave resulting from charged tromagnetic calorimeter installed in ALICE[23] to provide
particles moving through a material faster than the velocity data to test the thermal and dynamical properties of the iniof light in that material. The radiation propagates with a tial phase of the collision. This is done by measuring phocharacteristic angle with respect to the particle track, which tons emerging directly from the collision. PHOS covers a
depends on the particle velocity. Cherenkov detectors make limited acceptance domain at central rapidity. It is made of
use of this eect and in general consist of two main el- lead tungstate crystals,[24] similar to the ones used by CMS,
ements: a radiator in which Cherenkov radiation is pro- read out using Avalanche Photodiodes (APD).
duced and a photon detector. Ring imaging Cherenkov
When high energy photons strike lead tungstate, they make
(RICH) detectors resolve the ring-shaped image of the foit glow, or scintillate, and this glow can be measured. Lead
cused Cherenkov radiation, enabling a measurement of the
tungstate is extremely dense (denser than iron), stopping
Cherenkov angle and thus the particle velocity. This in turn
most photons that reach it. The crystals are kept at a temis sucient to determine the mass of the charged particle.
perature of 248 K, which helps to minimize the deterioraIf a dense medium (large refractive index) is used, only a tion of the energy resolution due to noise and to optimize
thin radiator layer of the order of a few centimetres is re- the response for low energies.
quired to emit a sucient number of Cherenkov photons.
The photon detector is then located at some distance (usually about 10 cm) behind the radiator, allowing the cone Electro-Magnetic Calorimeter The EMCal is a leadof light to expand and form the characteristic ring-shaped scintillator sampling calorimeter comprising almost 13,000
image. Such a proximity-focusing RICH is installed in the individual towers that are grouped into ten super-modules.
ALICE experiment.
The towers are read out by wavelength-shifting optical
2.2. ALICE
33
detector to reject charged particles. Photons on the other
hand pass through a converter, initiating an electromagnetic
shower in a second detector layer where they produce large
signals on several cells of its sensitive volume. Hadrons on
the other hand normally aect only one cell and produce a
signal representing minimum-ionizing particles.
ALICE Forward Multiplicity Detector

A technology for mass production of PWO crystals has been developed in close cooperation between CERN, the Apatity plant and
RRC Kurchatov Institute.
Forward Multiplicity Detector The Forward Multiplicity Detector (FMD) extends the coverage for multiplicity
of charge particles into the forward regions - giving ALICE
the widest coverage of the 4 LHC experiments for these
bers in a shashlik geometry coupled to an avalanche pho- measurements.[27]
todiode. The complete EMCal will contain 100,000 individual scintillator tiles and 185 kilometers of optical ber, The FMD consist of 5 large silicon discs with each 10 240
individual detector channels to measure the charged parweighing in total about 100 tons.
ticles emitted at small angles relative to the beam. FMD
The EMCal covers almost the full length of the ALICE provides an independent measurement of the orientation of
Time Projection Chamber and central detector, and a third the collisions in the vertical plane, which can be used with
of its azimuth placed back-to-back with the ALICE Pho- measurements from the barrel detector to investigate ow,
ton Spectrometer - a smaller, highly granular lead-tungstate jets, etc.
calorimeter.
The super-modules are inserted into an independent support frame situated within the ALICE magnet, between the
time-of-ight counters and the magnet coil. The support
frame itself is a complex structure: it weighs 20 tons and
must support ve times its own weight, with a maximum
deection between being empty and being fully loaded of
only a couple of centimeters. Installation of the eight-ton
super-modules requires a system of rails with a sophisticated insertion device to bridge across to the support structure.
Muon Spectrometer The ALICE forward muon spectrometer studies the complete spectrum of heavy quarkonia
(J/, , , , ) via their decay in the + channel.
Heavy quarkonium states, provide an essential tool to study
the early and hot stage of heavy-ion collisions.[28] In particular they are expected to be sensitive to Quark-Gluon Plasma
formation. In the presence of a deconned medium (i.e.
QGP) with high enough energy density, quarkonium states
are dissociated because of colour screening. This leads to
a suppression of their production rates. At the high LHC
The Electro-Magnetic Calorimeter (EM-Cal) will add collision energy, both the charmonium states (J/ and )
greatly to the high momentum particle measurement capa- as well as the bottomonium states (, and ) can be
bilities of ALICE.[25] It will extend ALICEs reach to study studied. The Dimuon spectrometer is optimized for the dejets and other hard processes.
tection of these heavy quark resonances.
Photon Multiplicity Detector The Photon Multiplicity
Detector (PMD) is a Particle shower detector which measures the multiplicity and spatial distribution of photons
produced in the collisions.[26] It utilizes as a rst layer a veto
Muons may be identied using the just described technique

by using the fact that they are the only charged particles
able to pass almost undisturbed through any material. This
behaviour is connected to the fact that muons with momenta below a few hundred GeV/c do not suer from ra-
34
The main components of the ALICE muon spectrometer: an absorber to lter the background, a set of tracking chambers before,
inside and after the magnet and a set of trigger chambers.
diative energy losses and so do not produce electromagnetic

showers. Also, because they are leptons, they are not subject to strong interactions with the nuclei of the material
they traverse. This behaviour is exploited in muon spectrometers in high-energy physics experiments by installing
muon detectors behind the calorimeter systems or behind
thick absorber materials. All charged particles other than
muons are completely stopped, producing electromagnetic
(and hadronic) showers.
Front face of the ZN calorimeter: One of the two ZN calorimeters

during assembly. The quartz bers are hosted in the 1936 grooves
of the W-alloy slabs.
meters away from the interaction point on both sides, exactly along the beam line. The ZN is placed at zero degree
with respect to the LHC beam axis, between the two beam
pipes. That is why we call them Zero Degree Calorimeters (ZDC).The ZP is positioned externally to the outgoing
The muon spectrometer in the forward region of ALICE beam pipe. The spectator protons are separated from the
features a very thick and complex front absorber and an ad- ion beams by means of the dipole magnet D1.
ditional muon lter consisting of an iron wall 1.2 m thick. The ZDCs are spaghetti calorimeters, made by a stack
Muon candidates selected from tracks penetrating these ab- of heavy metal plates grooved to allocate a matrix of quartz
sorbers are measured precisely in a dedicated set of tracking bres. Their principle of operation is based on the detection
detectors. Pairs of muons are used to collect the spectrum of Cherenkov light produced by the charged particles of the
of heavy-quark vector-meson resonances (J/Psi). Their shower in the bers.
production rates can be analysed as a function of transverse
momentum and collision centrality in order to investigate
dissociation due to colour screening. The acceptance of the V0 Detector V0 is made of two arrays of scintillator
ALICE Muon Spectrometer covers the pseudorapidity in- counters set on both sides of the ALICE interaction point,
terval 2.5 4 and the resonances can be detected down and called V0-A and V0-C. The V0-C counter is be located
upstream of the dimuon arm absorber and cover the specto zero transverse momentum.
trometer acceptance while the V0-A counter will be located
at around 3.5 m away from the collision vertex, on the other
Characterization of the Collision
side.
Finally, we need to know how powerful the collision was:
this is done by measuring the remnants of the colliding
nuclei in detectors made of high density materials located
about 110 meters on both sides of ALICE (the ZDCs) and
by measuring with the FMD, V0 and T0 the number of particles produced in the collision and their spatial distribution. T0 also measures with high precision the time when
the event takes place.
Zero Degree Calorimeter The ZDCs are calorimeters
which detect the energy of the spectator nucleons in order
to determine the overlap region of the two colliding nuclei.
It is composed of four calorimeters, two to detect protons
(ZP) and two to detect neutrons (ZN). They are located 115
It is used to estimate the centrality of the collision by summing up the energy deposited in the two disks of V0. This
observable scales directly with the number of primary particles generated in the collision and therefore to the centrality.
V0 is also used as reference in Van Der Meer scans that
give the size and shape of colliding beams and therefore the
luminosity delivered to the experiment.
T0 Detector ALICE T0 serves as a start, trigger and luminosity detector for ALICE. The accurate interaction time
(START) serves as the reference signal for the Time-ofFlight detector that is used for particle identication. T0
supplies ve dierent trigger signals to the Central Trigger
2.2. ALICE
35
2.2.5
Data Acquisition
ALICE had to design a data acquisition system that operates

eciently in two widely dierent running modes: the very
frequent but small events, with few produced particles encountered during proton-proton collisions and the relatively
rare, but extremely large events, with tens of thousands of
new particles produced in lead-lead collisions at the LHC (L
= 1027 cm2 s1 in Pb-Pb with 100 ns bunch crossings and L
= 1030 1031 cm2 s1 in pp with 25 ns bunch crossings).[29]
An array of Cherenkov counters used in the ALICE T0 detector.
Processor. The most important of these is the T0 vertex

providing prompt and accurate conrmation of the location
of the primary interaction point along the beam axis within
the set boundaries. The detector is also used for online luminosity monitoring providing fast feedback to the accelerator team.
The T0 detector consists of two arrays of Cherenkov counters (T0-C and T0-A) positioned at the opposite sides of the
interaction point (IP). Each array has 12 cylindrical counters equipped with a quartz radiator and a photomultiplier
tube.
ALICE Cosmic Rays Detector (ACORDE)

The ALICE underground cavern provides an ideal place for
the detection of high energy atmospheric muons coming
from cosmic ray showers. ACORDE detects cosmic ray
showers by triggering the arrival of muons to the top of the
ALICE magnet.
The ALICE cosmic ray trigger is made of 60 scintillator
modules distributed on the 3 upper faces of the ALICE
magnet yoke. The array can be congured to trigger on
single or multi-muon events, from 2-fold coincidences up
to the whole array if desired. ACORDEs high luminosity
allows the recording of cosmic events with very high multiplicity of parallel muon tracks, the so-called muon bundles.
The ALICE data acquisition system needs to balance its capacity to record the steady stream of very large events resulting from central collisions, with an ability to select and
record rare cross-section processes. These requirements result in an aggregate event building bandwidth of up to 2.5
GByte/s and a storage capability of up to 1.25 GByte/s, giving a total of more than 1 PByte of data every year. As
shown in the gure, ALICE needs a data storage capacity
that by far exceeds that of the current generation of experiments. This data rate is equivalent to six times the contents
of the Encyclopdia Britannica every second.
The hardware of the ALICE DAQ system[30] is largely
based on commodity components: PCs running Linux
and standard Ethernet switches for the eventbuilding network. The required performances are achieved by the interconnection of hundreds of these PCs into a large DAQ
fabric. The software framework of the ALICE DAQ is
called DATE (ALICE Data Acquisition and Test Environment). DATE is already in use today, during the construction and testing phase of the experiment, while evolving
gradually towards the nal production system. Moreover,
AFFAIR (A Flexible Fabric and Application Information
Recorder) is the performance monitoring software developed by the ALICE Data Acquisition project. AFFAIR is
largely based on open source code and is composed of the
following components: data gathering, inter-node communication employing DIM, fast and temporary round robin
database storage, and permanent storage and plot generation using ROOT.
Finally. the ALICE experiment Mass Storage System

(MSS) combines a very high bandwidth (1.25 GByte/s) and
every year stores huge amounts of data, more than 1 Pbytes.
The mass storage system is made of: a) Global Data Storage
(GDS) performing the temporary storage of data at the exWith ACORDE, the ALICE Experiment has been able to perimental pit; b) Permanent Data Storage (PDS) for longdetect muon bundles with the highest multiplicity ever reg- term archive of data in the CERN Computing Center and
istered as well as to indirectly measure very high energy pri- nally from The Mass Storage System software managing
mary cosmic rays .
the creation, the access and the archive of data.
36
in heavy-ion collisions at RHIC. Multiplicity measurements
by the ALICE experiment show that the system initially has
much higher energy density and is at least 30% hotter than
at RHIC, resulting in about double the particle multiplicity
for each colliding nucleon pair (Aamodt et al. 2010a). Further analyses, in particular including the full dependence of
these observables on centrality, will provide more insights
into the properties of the system such as initial velocities,
the equation of state and the uid viscosity and strongly
constrain the theoretical modelling of heavy-ion collisions.
A perfect liquid at the LHC
Events recorded by the ALICE experiment from the rst lead ion
collisions, at a centre-of-mass energy of 2.76 TeV per nucleon pair.
2.2.6
Results
The physics programme of ALICE includes the following

main topics: i) the study of the thermalization of partons in
the QGP with focus on the massive charming beauty quarks
and understanding the behaviour of these heavy quarks in
relation to the stroungly-coupled medium of QGP, ii) the
study of the mechanisms of energy loss that occur in the
medium and the dependencies of energy loss on the parton
species, iii) the dissociation of quarkonium states which can
be a probe of deconnement and of the temperature of the
medium and nally the production of thermal photons and
low-mass dileptons emitted by the QGP which is about assessing the initial temperature and degrees of freedom of
the systems as well as the chiral nature of the phase transition.
The ALICE collaboration presented its rst results from
LHC proton collisions at a centre-of-mass energy of 7 TeV
in March 2010.[31] The results conrmed that the chargedparticle multiplicity is rising with energy faster than expected while the shape of the multiplicity distribution is not
reproduced well by standard simulations. The results were
based on the analysis of a sample of 300,000 protonproton
collisions the ALICE experiment collected during the rst
runs of the LHC with stable beams at a centre-of-mass energy, s, of 7 TeV,
In 2011, the ALICE Collaboration measured the size of the
system created in Pb-Pb collisions at a centre-of-mass energy of 2.76 TeV per nucleon pair.[32] ALICE conrmed
that the QCD matter created in Pb-Pb collisions behaves
like a uid, with strong collective motions that are well described by hydrodynamic equations. The reball formed
in nuclear collisions at the LHC is hotter, lives longer and
expands to a larger size than the medium that was formed
O-centre nuclear collisions, with a nite impact parameter, create a strongly asymmetric almond-shaped reball.
However, experiments cannot measure the spatial dimensions of the interaction (except in special cases, for example in the production of pions, see[33] ). Instead, they measure the momentum distributions of the emitted particles.
A correlation between the measured azimuthal momentum
distribution of particles emitted from the decaying reball
and the initial spatial asymmetry can arise only from multiple interactions between the constituents of the created matter; in other words it tells us about how the matter ows,
which is related to its equation of state and its thermodynamic transport properties.[34]
The measured azimuthal distribution of particles in momentum space can be decomposed into Fourier coecients.
The second Fourier coecient (v2), called elliptic ow, is
particularly sensitive to the internal friction or viscosity of
the uid, or more precisely, /s, the ratio of the shear viscosity () to entropy (s) of the system. For a good uid
such as water, the /s ratio is small. A thick liquid, such
as honey, has large values of /s.
In heavy-ion collisions at the LHC, the ALICE collaboration found that the hot matter created in the collision behaves like a uid with little friction, with /s close to its
lower limit (almost zero viscosity). With these measurements, ALICE has just begun to explore the temperature
dependence of /s and we anticipate many more in-depth
ow-related measurements at the LHC that will constrain
the hydrodynamic features of the QGP even further.
Measuring the highest temperature on Earth
In August 2012 ALICE scientists announced that their experiments produced quarkgluon plasma with temperature
at around 5.5 trillion kelvins, the highest temperature mass
achieved in any physical experiments thus far.[35] This temperature is about 38% higher than the previous record of
about 4 trillion kelvins, achieved in the 2010 experiments
at the Brookhaven National Laboratory.[36]
2.2. ALICE
The ALICE results were announced at the August 13 Quark
Matter 2012 conference in Washington, D.C.. The quark
gluon plasma produced by these experiments approximates
the conditions in the universe that existed microseconds after the Big Bang, before the matter coalesced into atoms.[37]
Energy Loss
A basic process in QCD is the energy loss of a fast parton in a medium composed of colour charges. This phenomenon, jet quenching, is especially useful in the study
of the QGP, using the naturally occurring products (jets) of
the hard scattering of quarks and gluons from the incoming
nuclei. A highly energetic parton (a colour charge) probes
the coloured medium rather like an X-ray probes ordinary
matter. The production of these partonic probes in hadronic
collisions is well understood within perturbative QCD. The
theory also shows that a parton traversing the medium will
lose a fraction of its energy in emitting many soft (low energy) gluons. The amount of the radiated energy is proportional to the density of the medium and to the square of the
path length travelled by the parton in the medium. Theory
also predicts that the energy loss depends on the avour of
the parton.
37
a charm quark and an anti-charm, and bottomonia made of
a bottom and an anti-bottom quark.Charm and anticharm
quarks in the presence of the Quark Gluon Plasma, in which
there are many free colour charges, are not able to see each
other any more and therefore they cannot form bound states.
The melting of quarkonia into the QGP manifests itself in
the suppression of the quarkonium yields compared to the
production without the presence of the QGP. The search
for quarkonia suppression as a QGP signature started 25
years ago. The rst ALICE results for charm hadrons in
PbPb collisions at a centre-of-mass energy sNN = 2.76
TeV indicate strong in-medium energy loss for charm and
strange quarks that is an indication of the formation of the
hot medium of QGP.[39]
As the temperature increases so does the colour screening

resulting in greater suppression of the quarkonium states as
it is more dicult for charm anticharm or bottom antibottom to form new bound states. At very high temperatures no quarkonium states are expected to survive; they
melt in the QGP. Quarkonium sequential suppression is
therefore considered as a QGP thermometer, as states with
dierent masses have dierent sizes and are expected to be
screened and dissociated at dierent temperatures. However - as the collision energy increases - so does the number
of charm-anticharm quarks that can form bound states, and
Jet quenching was rst observed at RHIC by measuring a balancing mechanism of recombination of quarkonia may
the yields of hadrons with high transverse momentum. appear as we move to higher energies.
These particles are produced via fragmentation of enerThe results from the rst ALICE run are rather striking,
getic partons. The yields of these high-pT particles in cenwhen compared with the observations from lower energies.
tral nucleusnucleus collisions were found to be a factor of
While a similar suppression is observed at LHC energies
ve lower than expected from the measurements in proton
for peripheral collisions, when moving towards more headproton reactions. ALICE has recently published the meaon collisions as quantied by the increasing number of
surement of charged particles in central heavy-ion collisions
nucleons in the lead nuclei participating in the interaction
at the LHC. As at RHIC, the production of high-pT hadrons
the suppression no longer increases. Therefore, despite
at the LHC is strongly suppressed. However, the observathe higher temperatures attained in the nuclear collisions
tions at the LHC show qualitatively new features. The obat the LHC, more J/ mesons are detected by the ALICE
servation from ALICE is consistent with reports from the
experiment in PbPb with respect to pp. Such an eect
ATLAS and CMS collaborations on direct evidence for paris likely to be related to a regeneration process occurring at
ton energy loss within heavy-ion collisions using fully rethe temperature boundary between the QGP and a hot gas
constructed back-to-back jets of particles associated with
of hadrons
hard parton scatterings.[38] The latter two experiments have
shown a strong energy imbalance between the jet and its The suppression of charmonium states was also observed in
recoiling partner (G Aad et al. 2010 and CMS collabora- proton-lead collisions at the LHC, in which Quark Gluon
tion 2011). This imbalance is thought to arise because one Plasma is not formed. This suggests that the observed supof the jets traversed the hot and dense matter, transferring pression in proton-nucleus collisions (pA) is due to cold
a substantial fraction of its energy to the medium in a way nuclear matter eects. Grasping the wealth of experimental results requires understanding the medium modication
that is not recovered by the reconstruction of the jets.
of quarkonia and disentangling hot and cold-matter eects.
Today there is a large amount of data available from RHIC
and LHC on charmonium and bottomonium suppression
Studying quarkonium hadroproduction
and ALICE tries to distinguish between eects due to the
Quarkonia are bound states of heavy avour quarks (charm formation of the QGP and those from cold nuclear matter
or bottom) and their antiquarks. Two types of quarkonia eects.
have been extensively studied: charmonia, which consist of
38
Double-ridge structure in p-Pb collisions
September 2013), has been measured in high-multiplicity
pPb collisions.
The nal surprise, so far, comes from the charmonium
states. Whereas J/ production does not reveal any unexpected behaviour, the production of the heavier and lessbound (2S) state indicates a strong suppression (0.50.7)
with respect to J/, when compared with pp collisions. Is
this a hint of eects of the medium? Indeed, in heavyion collisions, such a suppression has been interpreted as a
sequential melting of quarkonia states, depending on their
binding energy and the temperature of the QGP created in
these collisions.
ALICE records rst proton-lead collisions at the LHC
The analysis of the data from the p-Pb collisions at the

LHC revealed a completely unexpected double-ridge structure with so far unknown origin. The protonlead (pPb)
collisions in 2013, two years after its heavy-ion collisions
opened a new chapter in exploration of the properties of
the deconned, chirally symmetrical state of the QGP. A
surprising near-side, long-range (elongated in pseudorapidity) correlation, forming a ridge-like structure observed
in high-multiplicity pp collisions, was also found in highmultiplicity pPb collisions, but with a much larger amplitude ([40] ). However, the biggest surprise came from
the observation that this near-side ridge is accompanied by
an essentially symmetrical away-side ridge, opposite in azimuth (CERN Courier March 2013 p6). This double ridge
was revealed after the short-range correlations arising from
jet fragmentation and resonance decays were suppressed
by subtracting the correlation distribution measured for
low-multiplicity events from the one for high-multiplicity
events.
Similar long-range structures in heavy-ion collisions have
been attributed to the collective ow of particles emitted from a thermalized system undergoing a collective hydrodynamic expansion. This anisotropy can be characterized by means of the vn (n = 2, 3, ...) coecients of
a Fourier decomposition of the single-particle azimuthal
distribution. To test the possible presence of collective
phenomena further, the ALICE collaboration has extended
the two-particle correlation analysis to identied particles,
checking for a potential mass ordering of the v2 harmonic
coecients. Such an ordering in mass was observed in
heavy-ion collisions, where it was interpreted to arise from
a common radial boost the so-called radial ow coupled to the anisotropy in momentum space. Continuing the
surprises, a clear particle-mass ordering, similar to the one
observed in mid-central PbPb collisions (CERN Courier,
The rst pPb measurement campaign, expected results

were widely accompanied by unanticipated observations.
Among the expected results is the conrmation that proton
nucleus collisions provide an appropriate tool to study the
partonic structure of cold nuclear matter in detail. The
surprises have come from the similarity of several observables between pPb and PbPb collisions, which hint at the
existence of collective phenomena in pPb collisions with
high particle multiplicity and, eventually, the formation of
QGP.[41]
2.2.7
Upgrades and Future plans
Long Shutdown 1
The main upgrade activity on ALICE during LHCs Long
Shutdown 1 was the installation of the dijet calorimeter
(DCAL), an extension of the existing EMCAL system that
adds 60 of azimuthal acceptance opposite the existing 120
of the EMCALs acceptance. This new subdetector will
be installed on the bottom of the solenoid magnet, which
currently houses three modules of the photon spectrometer
(PHOS). Moreover, an entirely new rail system and cradle
will be installed to support the three PHOS modules and
eight DCAL modules, which together weigh more than 100
tones. The installation of ve modules of the TRD will follow and so complete this complex detector system, which
consists of 18 units,
In addition to these mainstream detector activities, all of the
18 ALICE subdetectors underwent major improvements
during LS1 while the computers and discs of the online systems are replaced, followed by upgrades of the operating
systems and online software.
All of these eorts are to ensure that ALICE is in good
shape for the three-year LHC running period after LS1,
when the collaboration looks forward to heavy-ion collisions at the top LHC energy of 5.5 TeV/nucleon at luminosities in excess of 1027 Hz/cm2 .
2.2. ALICE
Long shutdown 2 (2018)
The ALICE collaboration has plans for a major upgrade
during the next long shutdown, LS2, currently scheduled
for 2018. Then the entire silicon tracker will be replaced
by a monolithic-pixel tracker system; the time-projection
chamber will be upgraded with gaseous electron-multiplier
(GEM) detectors for continuous read-out and the use of
new microelectronics; and all of the other subdetectors and
the online systems will prepare for a 100-fold increase in
the number of events written to tape.
2.2.8
References
[1] ALICE through the phase transition, CERN Courier, 30 October 2000
[2] Interview with Krishna Rajacopal, ALICE Matters, 15 April
2013
[3] Interview with Johan Rafelski, ALICE Matters, 18 December 2012
[4] ALICE New Kid on the block CERN Courier, 19 September
2008
39
[17] Upgrade of the ALICE ITS ALICE Matters, 05 December

2012
[18] ALICE Time Projection Chamber
[19] Time Projection Chamber
[20] Transition Radiation Detector
[21] Time ies for ALICE CERN Courier, 08 July 2008
[22] ALICE revolutionizes TOF systems CERN Courier, 25 October 2011
[23] PHOS commissioning during LS1 ALICE matters, 17 May
2013
[24] ALICE crystals arrive at CERN CERN Courier, 30 September 2002
[25] First jet measurements with ALICE CERN Courier, 22 May
2013
[26] Indian detector stars at Brookhaven CERN Courier, 05
September 2004
[27] ALICE Forward Detectors
[28] ALICE Dimuon Spectrometer
[29] Meeting the ALICE data challenge CERN Courier, 27 June
2000
[5] ALICE Experiment approved CERN timeline
[30] ALICE Data Acquisition
[6] Experiments Revisit the Quark-Gluon Plasma CERN

Courier, 26 February 2001
[31] ALICE presents rst results at 7 TeV CERN Courier, 07

June 2010
[7] RHIC starts producing data CERN Courier, 10 October

2000
[32] ALICE Collaboration measures the size of the reball in

heav-ion collisions CERN Courier, 03 May 2011
[8] Interview with CERNs theorist Urs Wiedemann ALICE

Matters, 13 July 2012
[33] ALICE enters new territory in heavy-ion collisions, CERN

Courier, 25 January 2012
[9] LHC begins physics with lead ions CERN Courier, 30

November 2010
[10] First ions for ALICE and rings for LHCb CERN Courier,
30 October 2009
[11] First lead-ion collisions in the LHC Symmetry Magazine, 08
November 2010
[12] Cian O'Luanaigh (22 January 2013). Protons smash lead
ions in rst LHC collisions of 2013.
[13] Particle identication in ALICE boosts QGP studies CERN
Courier, 23 August 2012
[14] ALICE forges ahead with detector installation CERN
Courier, 06 December 2006
[34] Hadron spectra probe nature of matter in Pb-Pb collisions,

CERN Courier, 25 January 2012
[35] CERN scientists create the highest temperature mass humanity has ever seen, Yahoo! News, 15 August 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012
[36] Hot stu: CERN physicists create record-breaking subatomic soup, Nature newsblog, 13 August 2012. Retrieved
15 August 2012
[37] LHC primordial matter is hottest stu ever made, New Scientist, 14 August 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012
[38] ALICE tracks charm energy loss CERN Courier, 31 May
2012
[39] Studying Quarkonium hadroproduction with ALICE ALICE
Matters, 20 August 2013
[15] The Inner Tracking System arrives at the heart of ALICE

CERN Courier, 04 June 2007
[40] ALICE and ATLAS nd intriguing double ridge in protonlead collisions CERN Courier, February 2013
[16] Pixels make for perfect particle tracking in ALICE CERN

Courier, 08 July 2008
[41] Is Cold nuclear matter really cold? CERN Courier, February

2014
40
2.2.9
External links
Ocial ALICE Public Webpage at CERN

Interactive Timeline for ALICE 20th anniversary
ALICE section on US/LHC Website
Photography panorama of ALICE detector center
K. Aamodt et al. (ALICE collaboration) (2008).
The ALICE experiment at the CERN LHC.
Journal of Instrumentation.
3 (8): S08002.
Bibcode:2008JInst...3S8002T.
doi:10.1088/17480221/3/08/S08002. (Full design documentation)
2.3 ATLAS
ATLAS redirects here. For the linear accelerator, see
Argonne Tandem Linear Accelerator System. For the
group theory book, see ATLAS of Finite Groups. For
other uses, see Atlas (disambiguation).
Coordinates:
46148N 6319E / 46.23556N
6.05528E ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS)[1] is
one of the seven particle detector experiments (ALICE,
ATLAS, CMS, TOTEM, LHCb, LHCf and MoEDAL)
constructed at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a particle
accelerator at CERN (the European Organization for
Nuclear Research) in Switzerland. The experiment is
designed to take advantage of the unprecedented energy ATLAS logo
available at the LHC and observe phenomena that involve
highly massive particles which were not observable using
earlier lower-energy accelerators. It is hoped that it will
shed light on new theories of particle physics beyond the
Standard Model.
ATLAS is 46 metres long, 25 metres in diameter, and
weighs about 7,000 tonnes; it contains some 3000 km
of cable.[2] The experiment is a collaboration involving
roughly 3,000 physicists from over 175 institutions in 38
countries.[3] The project was led for the rst 15 years by
Peter Jenni and between 2009 and 2013 was headed by
Fabiola Gianotti. Since 2013 it has been headed by David
Charlton. It was one of the two LHC experiments involved
in the discovery[4] of a particle consistent with the Higgs
boson in July 2012.
Fabiola Gianotti, project leader 2009-13
2.3.1
History
The ATLAS collaboration, the group of physicists who built and Energy Measurements) and ASCOT (Apparatus with
and now run the detector, was formed in 1992 when the pro- Super Conducting Toroids) collaborations merged their efposed EAGLE (Experiment for Accurate Gamma, Lepton forts to build a single, general-purpose particle detector for
2.3. ATLAS
the Large Hadron Collider.[5] The design was a combination of the two previous experiments, and also benetted
from the detector research and development that had been
done for the Superconducting Supercollider. The ATLAS
experiment was proposed in its current form in 1994, and
ocially funded by the CERN member countries in 1995.
Additional countries, universities, and laboratories joined
in subsequent years, and further institutions and physicists
continue to join the collaboration even today. Construction
work began at individual institutions, with detector components then being shipped to CERN and assembled in the
ATLAS experiment pit from 2003.
41
mass. As accelerators have grown, so too has the list of
known particles that they might be used to investigate. The
most comprehensive model of particle interactions available
today is known as the Standard Model of Particle Physics.
With the important exception of the Higgs boson (now
most likely detected by the ATLAS and the CMS
experiments),[10] all of the particles predicted by the model
have been observed by previous experiments. While the
Standard Model predicts that quarks, electrons, and neutrinos should exist, it does not explain why the masses of these
particles are so very dierent. Due to this violation of naturalness most particle physicists believe it is possible that
the Standard Model will break down at energies beyond the
current energy frontier of about one teraelectronvolt (TeV)
(set at the Tevatron). If such beyond-the-Standard-Model
physics is observed it is hoped that a new model, which is
identical to the Standard Model at energies thus far probed,
can be developed to describe particle physics at higher energies. Most of the currently proposed theories predict new
higher-mass particles, some of which are hoped to be light
enough to be observed by ATLAS.
Construction was completed in 2008 and the experiment

detected its rst single beam events on 10 September of that
year.[6] Data taking was then interrupted for over a year due
to an LHC magnet quench incident. On 23 November 2009,
the rst proton-proton collisions occurred at the LHC, at a
relatively low injection energy of 450 GeV per beam. These
collisions were successfully registered in ATLAS, which has
been logging data ever since. All the while LHC energy has
been increasing: 900 GeV per beam at the end of 2009,
3,500 GeV for the whole of 2010 and 2011, then 4,000 ATLAS is designed to be a general-purpose detector. When
GeV per beam in 2012. After a Long Shutdown in 2013 the proton beams produced by the Large Hadron Collider
and 2014, in 2015 ATLAS saw 6,500 GeV per beam.[7][8][9] interact in the center of the detector, a variety of dierent particles with a broad range of energies are produced.
Rather than focusing on a particular physical process, AT2.3.2 Background
LAS is designed to measure the broadest possible range
of signals. This is intended to ensure that whatever form
any new physical processes or particles might take, ATLAS
will be able to detect them and measure their properties.
Experiments at earlier colliders, such as the Tevatron and
Large Electron-Positron Collider, were designed based on
a similar philosophy. However, the unique challenges of the
Large Hadron Collider its unprecedented energy and extremely high rate of collisions require ATLAS to be larger
and more complex than any detector ever built.
ATLAS experiment under construction in October 2004 in the experiment pit. Construction was completed in 2008 and the experiment
has been successfully collecting data since November 2009, when
colliding beam operation at the LHC started. Note the people in the
background, for size comparison.
The rst cyclotron, an early type of particle accelerator, was

built by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1931, with a radius of just a
few centimetres and a particle energy of 1 megaelectronvolt
(MeV). Since then, accelerators have grown enormously in
the quest to produce new particles of greater and greater
At 27 kilometres in circumference, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) collides two beams of protons together, each
proton carrying presently about 4 TeV of energy enough
energy to produce particles with masses up to roughly ten
times greater than any particles currently known assuming of course that such particles exist. When upgraded in
2014, the LHC with an energy seven million times that of
the rst accelerator, will represent a new generation of
particle accelerators.
Particles that are produced in accelerators must also be observed, and this is the task of particle detectors. While interesting phenomena may occur when protons collide it is
not enough to just produce them. Particle detectors must be
built to detect particles, their masses, momentum, energies,
lifetime, charges, and nuclear spins. In order to identify all
particles produced at the interaction point where the par-
42
ticle beams collide, particle detectors are usually designed

in layers like an onion. The layers are made up of detectors of dierent types, each of which is designed to observe specic types of particles. The dierent traces that
particles leave in each layer of the detector allow for effective particle identication and accurate measurements of
energy and momentum. (The role of each layer in the detector is discussed below.) As the energy of the particles produced by the accelerator increases, the detectors attached to
it must grow to eectively measure and stop higher-energy
particles. ATLAS is the largest detector ever built at a particle collider.[11]
2.3.3
Physics program
Schematics, called Feynman diagrams show the main ways that the
Standard Model Higgs boson can be produced from colliding protons at the LHC.
ATLAS is intended to investigate many dierent types of

physics that might become detectable in the energetic collisions of the LHC. Some of these are conrmations or improved measurements of the Standard Model, while many
others are possible clues for new physical theories.
One of the most important goals of ATLAS was to investigate a missing piece of the Standard Model, the Higgs
boson.[12] The Higgs mechanism, which includes the Higgs
boson, is hypothesized to give mass to elementary particles,
giving rise to the dierences between the weak force and
electromagnetism by giving the W and Z bosons mass while
leaving the photon massless. On July 4, 2012, ATLAS (together with CMS its sister experiment at the LHC) reported evidence for the existence of a particle consistent
with the Higgs boson at the level of 5 sigma,[10] with a mass
around 125 GeV, or 133 times the proton mass. This new
Higgs-like particle was detected by its possible decay into
two photons and its decay to four leptons. In March 2013,
in the light of the updated ATLAS and CMS results, CERN
announced that the new particle was indeed a Higgs boson. Having analyzed two and a half times more data than
was available for the discovery announcement in July, the
condence of observation has risen to 10 sigma. The experiments were also able to show that the properties of the
particle as well as the ways it interacts with other particles

were well-matched with those of a Higgs boson, which is
expected to have spin 0 and parity +. In 2013 two of the theoretical physicists who predicted the existence of the Standard Model Higgs boson, Peter Higgs and Franois Englert
were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Physicists have
now to pursue their measurements to determine if this Higgs
particle corresponds indeed to the Standard Model Higgs
boson or if it is part of a new physics scenario.
The asymmetry between the behavior of matter and
antimatter, known as CP violation, is also being
investigated.[12] Current CP violation experiments,
such as BaBar and Belle, have not yet detected sucient
CP violation in the Standard Model to explain the lack of
detectable antimatter in the universe. It is possible that new
models of physics will introduce additional CP violation,
shedding light on this problem. Evidence supporting these
models might either be detected directly by the production
of new particles, or indirectly by measurements of the
properties of B-mesons. (LHCb, an LHC experiment
dedicated to B-mesons, is likely to be better suited to the
latter).[13]
The properties of the top quark, discovered at Fermilab in
1995, have so far only been measured approximately. With
much greater energy and greater collision rates, the LHC
produces a tremendous number of top quarks, allowing ATLAS to make much more precise measurements of its mass
and interactions with other particles.[14] These measurements will provide indirect information on the details of
the Standard Model, perhaps revealing inconsistencies that
point to new physics. Similar precision measurements will
be made of other known particles; for example, ATLAS
may eventually measure the mass of the W boson twice as
accurately as has previously been achieved.
Perhaps the most exciting lines of investigation are those
searching directly for new models of physics. One theory
that is the subject of much current research is broken supersymmetry. The theory is popular because it could potentially solve a number of problems in theoretical physics
and is present in almost all models of string theory. Models
of supersymmetry involve new, highly massive particles. In
many cases these decay into high-energy quarks and stable
heavy particles that are very unlikely to interact with ordinary matter. The stable particles would escape the detector,
leaving as a signal one or more high-energy quark jets and
a large amount of missing momentum. Other hypothetical massive particles, like those in the KaluzaKlein theory,
might leave a similar signature, but their discovery would
certainly indicate that there was some kind of physics beyond the Standard Model.
2.3. ATLAS
2.3.4
Micro black holes
2.3.5
Components
43
suring a momentum imbalance among detected particles.

For this to work, the detector must be "hermetic", meanSome hypotheses involving large extra dimensions predict ing it must detect all non-neutrinos produced, with no blind
that micro black holes could be formed by the LHC.[15] spots. Maintaining detector performance in the high radiThese would decay immediately by means of Hawking ra- ation areas immediately surrounding the proton beams is a
diation, producing all particles in the Standard Model in signicant engineering challenge.
equal numbers and leaving an unequivocal signature in the
ATLAS detector.[16] If this occurs, the primary studies of
Higgs bosons and top quarks would in fact be looking at Inner Detector
those produced by the black holes.
Computer generated cut-away view of the ATLAS detector showing

its various components
(1)Muon Detectors
Magnet system:
(2) Toroid Magnets
(3) Solenoid Magnet
Inner Detector:
(4) Transition Radiation Tracker
(5) Semi-Conductor Tracker
(6) Pixel Detector
Calorimeters:
(7) Liquid Argon Calorimeter
(8) Tile Calorimeter
The ATLAS detector consists of a series of ever-larger concentric cylinders around the interaction point where the proton beams from the LHC collide. It can be divided into four
major parts: the Inner Detector, the calorimeters, the Muon
Spectrometer and the magnet systems.[17] Each of these is
in turn made of multiple layers. The detectors are complementary: the Inner Detector tracks particles precisely,
the calorimeters measure the energy of easily stopped particles, and the muon system makes additional measurements
of highly penetrating muons. The two magnet systems bend
charged particles in the Inner Detector and the Muon Spectrometer, allowing their momenta to be measured.
The ATLAS TRT (Transition Radiation Tracker) central section,

the outermost part of the Inner Detector, assembled above ground
and taking data from cosmic rays[18] in September 2005
The Inner Detector[19] begins a few centimetres from the

proton beam axis, extends to a radius of 1.2 metres, and is
6.2 metres in length along the beam pipe. Its basic function
is to track charged particles by detecting their interaction
with material at discrete points, revealing detailed information about the types of particles and their momentum.[20]
The magnetic eld surrounding the entire inner detector
causes charged particles to curve; the direction of the curve
reveals a particles charge and the degree of curvature reveals its momentum. The starting points of the tracks yield
useful information for identifying particles; for example, if
a group of tracks seem to originate from a point other than
the original protonproton collision, this may be a sign that
the particles came from the decay of a hadron with a bottom
quark (see b-tagging). The Inner Detector has three parts,
which are explained below.
The Pixel Detector,[21] the innermost part of the detector,

contains three concentric layers and three disks on each
end-cap, with a total of 1,744 modules, each measuring 2
centimetres by 6 centimetres. The detecting material is 250
m thick silicon. Each module contains 16 readout chips
and other electronic components. The smallest unit that
can be read out is a pixel (50 by 400 micrometres); there
The only established stable particles that cannot be detected are roughly 47,000 pixels per module. The minute pixel
directly are neutrinos; their presence is inferred by mea- size is designed for extremely precise tracking very close to
44
the interaction point. In total, the Pixel Detector has over

80 million readout channels, which is about 50% of the total readout channels of the whole experiment. Having such
a large count created a considerable design and engineering
challenge. Another challenge was the radiation to which the
Pixel Detector is exposed because of its proximity to the interaction point, requiring that all components be radiation
hardened in order to continue operating after signicant exposures.
The Semi-Conductor Tracker (SCT) is the middle component of the inner detector. It is similar in concept and function to the Pixel Detector but with long, narrow strips rather
than small pixels, making coverage of a larger area practical. Each strip measures 80 micrometres by 12 centimetres. The SCT is the most critical part of the inner detector September 2005: The main barrel section of the ATLAS hadronic
for basic tracking in the plane perpendicular to the beam, calorimeter, waiting to be moved inside the toroid magnets.
since it measures particles over a much larger area than the
Pixel Detector, with more sampled points and roughly equal
(albeit one-dimensional) accuracy. It is composed of four
double layers of silicon strips, and has 6.3 million readout
channels and a total area of 61 square meters.
The Transition Radiation Tracker (TRT), the outermost
component of the inner detector, is a combination of a straw
tracker and a transition radiation detector. The detecting elements are drift tubes (straws), each four millimetres in diameter and up to 144 centimetres long. The uncertainty of
track position measurements (position resolution) is about
200 micrometres. This is not as precise as those for the
other two detectors, but it was necessary to reduce the cost
of covering a larger volume and to have transition radiation
One of the sections of the extensions of the hadronic calorimeter,
detection capability. Each straw is lled with gas that bewaiting to be inserted in late February 2006.
comes ionized when a charged particle passes through. The
straws are held at about 1,500 V, driving the negative ions
to a ne wire down the centre of each straw, producing a
current pulse (signal) in the wire. The wires with signals
create a pattern of 'hit' straws that allow the path of the particle to be determined. Between the straws, materials with
widely varying indices of refraction cause ultra-relativistic
charged particles to produce transition radiation and leave
much stronger signals in some straws. Xenon and argon gas
is used to increase the number of straws with strong signals. Since the amount of transition radiation is greatest for
highly relativistic particles (those with a speed very near the
speed of light), and because particles of a particular energy
have a higher speed the lighter they are, particle paths with
many very strong signals can be identied as belonging to
the lightest charged particles: electrons and their antiparticles, positrons. The TRT has about 298,000 straws in total. The extended barrel section of the hadronic calorimeter.
Calorimeters
The calorimeters are situated outside the solenoidal magnet
that surrounds the Inner Detector. Their purpose is to mea-
2.3. ATLAS
sure the energy from particles by absorbing it. There are
two basic calorimeter systems: an inner electromagnetic
calorimeter and an outer hadronic calorimeter.[22] Both are
sampling calorimeters; that is, they absorb energy in highdensity metal and periodically sample the shape of the resulting particle shower, inferring the energy of the original
particle from this measurement.
45
equipment because a number of interesting physical processes can only be observed if one or more muons are detected, and because the total energy of particles in an event
could not be measured if the muons were ignored. It functions similarly to the Inner Detector, with muons curving so
that their momentum can be measured, albeit with a dierent magnetic eld conguration, lower spatial precision, and
a much larger volume. It also serves the function of simply
identifying muons very few particles of other types are
expected to pass through the calorimeters and subsequently
leave signals in the Muon Spectrometer. It has roughly one
million readout channels, and its layers of detectors have a
total area of 12,000 square meters.
The electromagnetic (EM) calorimeter absorbs energy from

particles that interact electromagnetically, which include
charged particles and photons. It has high precision, both
in the amount of energy absorbed and in the precise location of the energy deposited. The angle between the particles trajectory and the detectors beam axis (or more precisely the pseudorapidity) and its angle within the perpendicular plane are both measured to within roughly 0.025 Magnet system
radians. The barrel EM calorimeter has accordion shaped
electrodes and the energy-absorbing materials are lead and
stainless steel, with liquid argon as the sampling material,
and a cryostat is required around the EM calorimeter to
keep it suciently cool.
The hadron calorimeter absorbs energy from particles that

pass through the EM calorimeter, but do interact via the
strong force; these particles are primarily hadrons. It is less
precise, both in energy magnitude and in the localization
(within about 0.1 radians only).[13] The energy-absorbing
material is steel, with scintillating tiles that sample the energy deposited. Many of the features of the calorimeter are
chosen for their cost-eectiveness; the instrument is large
and comprises a huge amount of construction material: the
main part of the calorimeter the tile calorimeter is 8
metres in diameter and covers 12 metres along the beam
axis. The far-forward sections of the hadronic calorimeter The ends of four of the eight ATLAS toroid magnets, looking down
are contained within the forward EM calorimeters cryostat, from about 90 metres above, in September 2005.
and use liquid argon as well, while copper and tungsten are
used as absorbers.
Muon Spectrometer
The Muon Spectrometer is an extremely large tracking system, consisting of three parts: (1) a magnetic eld provided
by three toroidal magnets, (2) a set of 1200 chambers measuring with high spatial precision the tracks of the outgoing
muons, (3) a set of triggering chambers with accurate timeresolution. The extent of this sub-detector starts at a radius
of 4.25 m close to the calorimeters out to the full radius of
the detector (11 m).[17] Its tremendous size is required to accurately measure the momentum of muons, which rst go
through all the other elements of the detector before reaching the muon spectrometer. It was designed to measure,
standalone, the momentum of 100 GeV muons with 3% accuracy and of 1 TeV muons with 10% accuracy. It was vital
to go to the lengths of putting together such a large piece of
The eight toroid magnets of the ATLAS detector.
The ATLAS detector uses two large superconducting magnet systems to bend charged particles so that their momenta can be measured. This bending is due to the Lorentz
force, which is proportional to velocity. Since all particles produced in the LHCs proton collisions are traveling
46
at very close to the speed of light, the force on particles

of dierent momenta is equal. (In the theory of relativity, momentum is not linear proportional to velocity at such
speeds.) Thus high-momentum particles curve very little, while low-momentum particles curve signicantly; the
amount of curvature can be quantied and the particle momentum can be determined from this value.
The inner solenoid produces a two tesla magnetic eld surrounding the Inner Detector.[23] This high magnetic eld allows even very energetic particles to curve enough for their
momentum to be determined, and its nearly uniform direction and strength allow measurements to be made very precisely. Particles with momenta below roughly 400 MeV will
be curved so strongly that they will loop repeatedly in the
eld and most likely not be measured; however, this energy is very small compared to the several TeV of energy
released in each proton collision.
The outer toroidal magnetic eld is produced by eight very
large air-core superconducting barrel loops and two endcaps air toroidal magnets, all situated outside the calorimeters and within the muon system.[23] This magnetic eld extends in an area 26 metres long and 20 metres in diameter,
and it stores 1.6 gigajoules of energy. Its magnetic eld is
not uniform, because a solenoid magnet of sucient size
would be prohibitively expensive to build. It varies between
2 and 8 Teslameters.
crossings per second in the center of the detector. This

produces a total of 1 petabyte of raw data per second.[25]
The trigger system[26] uses simple information to identify,
in real time, the most interesting events to retain for detailed
analysis. There are three trigger levels. The rst is based
in electronics on the detector while the other two run primarily on a large computer cluster near the detector. The
rst-level trigger selects about 100,000 events per second.
After the third-level trigger has been applied, a few hundred
events remain to be stored for further analysis. This amount
of data still requires over 100 megabytes of disk space per
second at least a petabyte each year.[27]
Earlier particle detector read-out and event detection systems were based on parallel shared buses such as VMEbus
or FASTBUS. Since such a bus architecture cannot keep
up with the data requirements of the LHC experiments,
all data acquisition system proposals rely on high-speed
point-to-point links and switching networks. People designing the LHC experiments evaluated several such networks,
including Asynchronous Transfer Mode, Scalable Coherent Interface, Fibre Channel, Ethernet, and IEEE 1355
(SpaceWire).[28]
Oine event reconstruction is performed on all permanently stored events, turning the pattern of signals from
the detector into physics objects, such as jets, photons, and
leptons. Grid computing is being extensively used for event
reconstruction, allowing the parallel use of university and
laboratory computer networks throughout the world for the
Detector performance
CPU-intensive task of reducing large quantities of raw data
into a form suitable for physics analysis. The software for
The installation of all the above detectors was nished in these tasks has been under development for many years, and
August 2008. The detectors collected millions of cosmic will continue to be rened even now that the experiment is
rays during the magnet repairs which took place between collecting data.
fall 2008 and fall 2009, prior to the rst proton collisions.
The detector operated with close to 100% eciency and Individuals and groups within the collaboration are writing
provided performance characteristics very close to its de- their own code to perform further analysis of these objects,
searching the patterns of detected particles for particular
sign values.[24]
physical models or hypothetical particles.
Forward detectors
2.3.7
See also
The ATLAS detector is complemented by a set of detectors

in the very forward region. These detectors are located in 2.3.8 References
the LHC tunnel far away from the interaction point. The basic idea is to measure elastic scattering at very small angles [1] Aad, G.; (ATLAS Collaboration); et al. (2008). The
ATLAS Experiment at the CERN Large Hadron Colin order to produce better measurements of the absolute lulider. Journal of Instrumentation. 3 (8): S08003.
minosity at the ATLAS interaction point.
Bibcode:2008JInst...3S8003A.
doi:10.1088/17480221/3/08/S08003.
2.3.6
Data systems and analysis
The detector generates unmanageably large amounts of raw

data: about 25 megabytes per event (raw; zero suppression
reduces this to 1.6 MB), multiplied by 40 million beam
[2] http://www.atlas.ch/fact-sheets-1-view.html
[3] What is ATLAS?". ATLAS. Retrieved 2013-10-27.
[4] CERN experiments observe particle consistent with longsought Higgs boson. CERN. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 2013-
2.3. ATLAS
47
10-27.
[20] Inner detector. ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN. 1994.
[5] ATLAS Collaboration records.

trieved 2007-02-25.
CERN Archive.
Re-
[6] First beam and rst events in ATLAS. Atlas.ch. 2008-0910. Retrieved 2016-08-16.
[7] Eight Things To Know As The Large Hadron Collider
Breaks Energy Records.
[8] ATLAS Completes First Year at 13 TeV.
[9] ATLAS Begins Recording Physics Data at 13 TeV.
[10] CERN experiments observe particle consistent with longsought Higgs boson. CERN. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 4 July
2012.
[11] Worlds largest superconducting magnet switches on (Press
release). CERN. 2006-11-20. Archived from the original on
28 February 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
[12] Introduction and Overview. ATLAS Technical Proposal.
CERN. 1994.
[13] N. V. Krasnikov; V. A. Matveev (September 1997).
Physics at LHC.
Physics of Particles and Nuclei.
28 (5): 441470.
arXiv:hep-ph/9703204 .
Bibcode:1997PPN....28..441K. doi:10.1134/1.953049.
[14] Top-Quark Physics. ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN.
1994.
[15] C.M. Harris; M.J. Palmer; M.A. Parker; P. Richardson; A. Sabetfakhri; B.R. Webber (2005). Exploring
higher dimensional black holes at the Large Hadron Collider. Journal of High Energy Physics. 5 (5): 053.
arXiv:hep-ph/0411022 . Bibcode:2005JHEP...05..053H.
doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2005/05/053.
[16] J. Tanaka; T. Yamamura; S. Asai; J. Kanzaki (2005).
Study of Black Holes with the ATLAS detector at the
LHC. European Physical Journal C. 41 (s2): 1933.
arXiv:hep-ph/0411095 . Bibcode:2005EPJC...41...19T.
doi:10.1140/epjcd/s2005-02-008-x.
[17] Overall detector concept.
CERN. 1994.
ATLAS Technical Proposal.
[18] F. Pastore (2010). Readiness of the ATLAS detector: Performance with the rst beam and cosmic data. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research. Section A, Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment. 617 (1/3): 48. Bibcode:2010NIMPA.617...48P.
doi:10.1016/j.nima.2009.08.068.
[19] Regina Moles-Valls (2010). Alignment of the ATLAS
inner detector tracking system. Nuclear Instruments
and Methods in Physics Research. Section A, Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment.
617 (1-3): 568570. Bibcode:2010NIMPA.617..568M.
doi:10.1016/j.nima.2009.09.101.
[21] Hugging, F. (2006).

The ATLAS pixel detector.
IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science. 53 (6): 1732.
arXiv:physics/0412138 . Bibcode:2006ITNS...53.1732H.
doi:10.1109/TNS.2006.871506.
[22] Calorimetry. ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN. 1994.
[23] Magnet system. ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN. 1994.
[24] Aad, G.; (ATLAS Collaboration); et al.
(2010).
Performance of the ATLAS Detector using
First Collision Data.
JHEP. 1009 (9):
056.
arXiv:1005.5254 .
Bibcode:2010JHEP...09..056A.
doi:10.1007/JHEP09(2010)056.
[25] Detector Description.
[26] D.A. Scannicchio (2010). ATLAS Trigger and Data Acquisition: Capabilities and commissioning. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research. Section A, Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment. 617 (1/3): 306. Bibcode:2010NIMPA.617..306S.
doi:10.1016/j.nima.2009.06.114.
[27] The sensitive giant. United States Department of Energy
Research News. March 2004.
[28] Stefan Haas. The IEEE 1355 Standard: Developments,
Performance and Application in High Energy Physics.
1998. p. 1.
2.3.9
Further reading
ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN: The Atlas Experiment. Retrieved on 2007-04-10

ATLAS Detector and Physics Performance Technical
Design Report. CERN: The Atlas Experiment. Retrieved on 2007-04-10
N. V. Krasnikov; V. A. Matveev (September
1997).
Physics at LHC.
Physics of Particles and Nuclei. 28 (5): 441470. arXiv:hepph/9703204 .
Bibcode:1997PPN....28..441K.
doi:10.1134/1.953049.
The Atlas Experiment Monica Lynn Dunford and Peter Jenni, Scholarpedia 9(10):32147. doi:10.4249/
scholarpedia.32147
2.3.10
External links
Ocial ATLAS Public Webpage at CERN (The

award winning ATLAS movie is a very good general
introduction!)
48
Ocial ATLAS Collaboration Webpage at CERN

(Lots of technical and logistical information)
ATLAS Cavern Webcams
to investigate a wide range of physics, including the search

for the Higgs boson, extra dimensions, and particles that
could make up dark matter.
CMS is 21.6 metres long, 15 m in diameter, and weighs

about 14,000 tonnes.[1] Approximately 3,800 people, representing 199 scientic institutes and 43 countries, form
ATLAS section from US/LHC Website
the CMS collaboration who built and now operate the
detector.[2] It is located in an underground cavern at Cessy
New York Times article on LHC and experiments
in France, just across the border from Geneva. In July 2012,
United States Department of Energy article on ATLAS along with ATLAS, CMS tentatively discovered the Higgs
boson.[3][4][5]
Large Hadron Collider Project Director Dr Lyn Evans
CBE on the engineering behind the ATLAS experiment, Ingenia magazine, June 2008
2.4.1 Background
Time lapse video of the assembly
The ATLAS Collaboration, G Aad; et al. (2008-0814). The ATLAS Experiment at the CERN Large
Hadron Collider. Journal of Instrumentation. 3
(S08003): S08003. Bibcode:2008JInst...3S8003T.
doi:10.1088/1748-0221/3/08/S08003.
Retrieved
2008-08-26. (Full design documentation)
Recent collider experiments such as the now-dismantled

Large Electron-Positron Collider and the newly renovated
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, as well as the
(as of October 2011) recently closed Tevatron at Fermilab
have provided remarkable insights into, and precision tests
of, the Standard Model of Particle Physics. A principle
LEGO model of ATLAS, by an ATLAS-scientist at achievement of these experiments (specically of the LHC)
is the discovery of a particle consistent with the Standard
the Niels Bohr Institute
Model Higgs boson, the particle resulting from the Higgs
Padilla, Antonio (Tony). ATLAS at the Large mechanism, which provides an explanation for the masses
Hadron Collider. Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the of elementary particles.[6]
University of Nottingham.
However, there are still many questions that future collider
experiments hope to answer. These include uncertainties in
the mathematical behaviour of the Standard Model at high
2.4 CMS
energies, tests of proposed theories of dark matter (including supersymmetry), and the reasons for the imbalance of
Coordinates:
461834N 6437E / 46.30944N matter and antimatter observed in the Universe.
6.07694E
2.4.2
Physics goals
The main goals of the experiment are:

to explore physics at the TeV scale
to study the properties of the recently found Higgs boson
to look for evidence of physics beyond the standard
model, such as supersymmetry, or extra dimensions
to study aspects of heavy ion collisions.
View of the CMS endcap through the barrel sections. The ladder to
the lower right gives an impression of scale.
The Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment is one

of two large general-purpose particle physics detectors
built on the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN in
Switzerland and France. The goal of CMS experiment is
The ATLAS experiment, at the other side of the LHC ring

is designed with similar goals in mind, and the two experiments are designed to complement each other both to extend reach and to provide corroboration of ndings. CMS
and ATLAS uses dierent technical solutions and design of
its detector magnet system to achieve the goals.
2.4. CMS
2.4.3
Detector summary
49
these quarks and gluons (determined by the parton distribution functions).
CMS is designed as a general-purpose detector, capable The rst test which ran in September 2008 was expected to
of studying many aspects of proton collisions at 8TeV, the operate at a lower collision energy of 10 TeV but this was
center-of-mass energy of the LHC particle accelerator.
prevented by the 19 September 2008 shutdown. When at
The CMS detector is built around a huge solenoid magnet. this target level, the LHC will have a signicantly reduced
This takes the form of a cylindrical coil of superconducting luminosity, due to both fewer proton bunches in each beam
cable that generates a magnetic eld of 4 teslas, about 100 and fewer protons per bunch. The reduced bunch frequency
000 times that of the Earth. The magnetic eld is conned does allow the crossing angle to be reduced to zero however,
by a steel 'yoke' that forms the bulk of the detectors weight as bunches are far enough spaced to prevent secondary colof 12 500 tonnes. An unusual feature of the CMS detector lisions in the experimental beampipe.
is that instead of being built in-situ underground, like the
other giant detectors of the LHC experiments, it was constructed on the surface, before being lowered underground Layer 1 The tracker
in 15 sections and reassembled.
Momentum of particles is crucial in helping us to build up
It contains subsystems which are designed to measure the
a picture of events at the heart of the collision. One method
energy and momentum of photons, electrons, muons, and
to calculate the momentum of a particle is to track its path
other products of the collisions. The innermost layer is
through a magnetic eld; the more curved the path, the less
a silicon-based tracker. Surrounding it is a scintillating
momentum the particle had. The CMS tracker records the
crystal electromagnetic calorimeter, which is itself surpaths taken by charged particles by nding their positions at
rounded with a sampling calorimeter for hadrons. The
a number of key points.
tracker and the calorimetry are compact enough to t inside the CMS Solenoid which generates a powerful mag- The tracker can reconstruct the paths of high-energy muons,
netic eld of 3.8 T. Outside the magnet are the large muon electrons and hadrons (particles made up of quarks) as well
detectors, which are inside the return yoke of the magnet. as see tracks coming from the decay of very short-lived particles such as beauty or b quarks that will be used to study
the dierences between matter and antimatter.
2.4.4
CMS by layers
The tracker needs to record particle paths accurately yet be

lightweight so as to disturb the particle as little as possible.
For full technical details about the CMS detector, please see It does this by taking position measurements so accurate
the Technical Design Report.
that tracks can be reliably reconstructed using just a few
measurement points. Each measurement is accurate to 10
m, a fraction of the width of a human hair. It is also the
The interaction point
inner most layer of the detector and so receives the highest
were thereThis is the point in the centre of the detector at which volume of particles: the construction materials
[7]
fore
carefully
chosen
to
resist
radiation.
proton-proton collisions occur between the two counterrotating beams of the LHC. At each end of the detector The CMS tracker is made entirely of silicon: the pixels, at
magnets focus the beams into the interaction point. At col- the very core of the detector and dealing with the highest
lision each beam has a radius of 17 m and the crossing intensity of particles, and the silicon microstrip detectors
angle between the beams is 285 rad.
that surround it. As particles travel through the tracker the
At full design luminosity each of the two LHC beams will pixels and microstrips produce tiny electric signals that are
contain 2,808 bunches of 1.151011 protons. The interval amplied and detected. The tracker employs sensors coverbetween crossings is 25 ns, although the number of colli- ing an area the size of a tennis court, with 75 million sepasions per second is only 31.6 million due to gaps in the beam rate electronic read-out channels: in the pixel detector there
are some 6000 connections per square centimetre.
as injector magnets are activated and deactivated.
At full luminosity each collision will produce an average
of 20 proton-proton interactions. The collisions occur at a
centre of mass energy of 8 TeV. But, it is worth noting that
for studies of physics at the electroweak scale, the scattering events are initiated by a single quark or gluon from each
proton, and so the actual energy involved in each collision
will be lower as the total centre of mass energy is shared by
The CMS silicon tracker consists of 13 layers in the central

region and 14 layers in the endcaps. The innermost three
layers (up to 11 cm radius) consist of 100150 m pixels,
66 million in total.
The next four layers (up to 55 cm radius) consist of 10 cm
180 m silicon strips, followed by the remaining six layers
of 25 cm 180 m strips, out to a radius of 1.1 m. There
50
are 9.6 million strip channels in total.
Layer 3 The Hadronic Calorimeter
During full luminosity collisions the occupancy of the pixel

layers per event is expected to be 0.1%, and 12% in the
strip layers. The expected SLHC upgrade will increase the
number of interactions to the point where over-occupancy
may signicantly reduce tracknding eectiveness.
This part of the detector is the worlds largest silicon detector. It has 205 m2 of silicon sensors (approximately the
area of a tennis court) comprising 76 million channels.[8]
Layer 2 The Electromagnetic Calorimeter

The Electromagnetic Calorimeter (ECAL) is designed to
measure with high accuracy the energies of electrons and
Half of the Hadron Calorimeter
photons.
The ECAL is constructed from crystals of lead tungstate,
PbWO4 . This is an extremely dense but optically clear
material, ideal for stopping high energy particles. Lead
tungstate crystal is made primarily of metal and is heavier than stainless steel, but with a touch of oxygen in
this crystalline form it is highly transparent and scintillates
when electrons and photons pass through it. This means
it produces light in proportion to the particles energy.
These high-density crystals produce light in fast, short, welldened photon bursts that allow for a precise, fast and fairly
compact detector. It has a radiation length of 0 = 0.89 cm,
and has a rapid light yield, with 80% of light yield within
one crossing time (25 ns). This is balanced however by a
relatively low light yield of 30 photons per MeV of incident
energy. The crystals used have a front size of 22 mm 22
mm and a depth of 230 mm. They are set in a matrix of
carbon bre to keep them optically isolated, and backed by
silicon avalanche photodiodes for readout.
The Hadron Calorimeter (HCAL) measures the energy of

hadrons, particles made of quarks and gluons (for example protons, neutrons, pions and kaons). Additionally it
provides indirect measurement of the presence of noninteracting, uncharged particles such as neutrinos.
The ECAL, made up of a barrel section and two endcaps, forms a layer between the tracker and the HCAL.
The cylindrical barrel consists of 61,200 crystals formed
into 36 supermodules, each weighing around three tonnes
and containing 1700 crystals. The at ECAL endcaps seal
o the barrel at either end and are made up of almost 15,000
further crystals.
About half of the brass used in the endcaps of the HCAL

used to be Russian artillery shells.[9]
For extra spatial precision, the ECAL also contains

preshower detectors that sit in front of the endcaps. These
allow CMS to distinguish between single high-energy photons (often signs of exciting physics) and the less interesting
close pairs of low-energy photons.
The HCAL consists of layers of dense material (brass or

steel) interleaved with tiles of plastic scintillators, read out
via wavelength-shifting bres by hybrid photodiodes. This
combination was determined to allow the maximum amount
of absorbing material inside of the magnet coil.
The high pseudorapidity region (3.0 < || < 5.0) is instrumented by the Hadronic Forward (HF) detector. Located
11 m either side of the interaction point, this uses a slightly
dierent technology of steel absorbers and quartz bres for
readout, designed to allow better separation of particles in
the congested forward region. The HF is also used to measure the relative online luminosity system in CMS.
Layer 4 The magnet

The CMS magnet is the central device around which the
experiment is built, with a 4 Tesla magnetic eld that is
100,000 times stronger than the Earths. CMS has a large
solenoid magnet. This allows the charge/mass ratio of particles to be determined from the curved track that they follow
in the magnetic eld. It is 13 m long and 6 m in diameter,
and its refrigerated superconducting niobium-titanium coils
were originally intended to produce a 4 T magnetic eld.
The operating eld was scaled down to 3.8 T instead of the
full design strength in order to maximize longevity.[10]
At the endcaps the ECAL inner surface is covered by the

preshower subdetector, consisting of two layers of lead interleaved with two layers of silicon strip detectors. Its purThe inductance of the magnet is 14 and the nominal curpose is to aid in pion-photon discrimination.
2.4. CMS
rent for 4 T is 19,500 A, giving a total stored energy of
2.66 GJ, equivalent to about half-a-tonne of TNT. There
are dump circuits to safely dissipate this energy should the
magnet quench. The circuit resistance (essentially just the
cables from the power converter to the cryostat) has a value
of 0.1 m which leads to a circuit time constant of nearly
39 hours. This is the longest time constant of any circuit at
CERN. The operating current for 3.8 T is 18,160 A, giving
a stored energy of 2.3 GJ.
51
The drift tube (DT) system measures muon positions in the
barrel part of the detector. Each 4-cm-wide tube contains
a stretched wire within a gas volume. When a muon or any
charged particle passes through the volume it knocks electrons o the atoms of the gas. These follow the electric
eld ending up at the positively charged wire. By registering where along the wire electrons hit (in the diagram, the
wires are going into the page) as well as by calculating the
muons original distance away from the wire (shown here as
horizontal distance and calculated by multiplying the speed
of an electron in the tube by the time taken) DTs give two
coordinates for the muons position. Each DT chamber, on
average 2m x 2.5m in size, consists of 12 aluminium layers, arranged in three groups of four, each with up to 60
tubes: the middle group measures the coordinate along the
direction parallel to the beam and the two outside groups
measure the perpendicular coordinate.
The job of the big magnet is to bend the paths of particles

emerging from high-energy collisions in the LHC. The more
momentum a particle has the less its path is curved by the
magnetic eld, so tracing its path gives a measure of momentum. CMS began with the aim of having the strongest
magnet possible because a higher strength eld bends paths
more and, combined with high-precision position measurements in the tracker and muon detectors, this allows accurate measurement of the momentum of even high-energy Cathode strip chambers (CSC) are used in the endcap disks
particles.
where the magnetic eld is uneven and particle rates are
The tracker and calorimeter detectors (ECAL and HCAL) high. CSCs consist of arrays of positively charged ant snugly inside the magnet coil whilst the muon detectors ode wires crossed with negatively charged copper cathare interleaved with a 12-sided iron structure that surrounds ode strips within a gas volume. When muons pass through,
the magnet coils and contains and guides the eld. Made they knock electrons o the gas atoms, which ock to the
up of three layers this return yoke reaches out 14 me- anode wires creating an avalanche of electrons. Positive
tres in diameter and also acts as a lter, allowing through ions move away from the wire and towards the copper cathonly muons and weakly interacting particles such as neutri- ode, also inducing a charge pulse in the strips, at right annos. The enormous magnet also provides most of the exper- gles to the wire direction. Because the strips and the wires
iments structural support, and must be very strong itself to are perpendicular, we get two position coordinates for each
passing particle. In addition to providing precise space
withstand the forces of its own magnetic eld.
and time information, the closely spaced wires make the
CSCs fast detectors suitable for triggering. Each CSC module contains six layers making it able to accurately identify
Layer 5 The muon detectors and return yoke
muons and match their tracks to those in the tracker.
As the name Compact Muon Solenoid suggests, detecting Resistive plate chambers (RPC) are fast gaseous detectors
muons is one of CMSs most important tasks. Muons are that provide a muon trigger system parallel with those of
charged particles that are just like electrons and positrons, the DTs and CSCs. RPCs consist of two parallel plates, a
but are 200 times more massive. We expect them to be pro- positively charged anode and a negatively charged cathode,
duced in the decay of a number of potential new particles; both made of a very high resistivity plastic material and sepfor instance, one of the clearest signatures of the Higgs arated by a gas volume. When a muon passes through the
Boson is its decay into four muons.
chamber, electrons are knocked out of gas atoms. These
electrons in turn hit other atoms causing an avalanche of
electrons. The electrodes are transparent to the signal (the
electrons), which are instead picked up by external metallic
strips after a small but precise time delay. The pattern of
hit strips gives a quick measure of the muon momentum,
which is then used by the trigger to make immediate deTo identify muons and measure their momenta, CMS uses
cisions about whether the data are worth keeping. RPCs
three types of detector: drift tubes (DT), cathode strip
combine a good spatial resolution with a time resolution of
chambers (CSC) and resistive plate chambers (RPC). The
just one nanosecond (one billionth of a second).
DTs are used for precise trajectory measurements in the
central barrel region, while the CSCs are used in the end
caps. The RPCs provide a fast signal when a muon passes
through the muon detector, and are installed in both the bar- 2.4.5 Collecting and collating the data
rel and the end caps.
Because muons can penetrate several metres of iron without
interacting, unlike most particles they are not stopped by
any of CMSs calorimeters. Therefore, chambers to detect
muons are placed at the very edge of the experiment where
they are the only particles likely to register a signal.
52
Pattern recognition
New particles discovered in CMS will be typically unstable
and rapidly transform into a cascade of lighter, more stable
and better understood particles. Particles travelling through
CMS leave behind characteristic patterns, or signatures, in
the dierent layers, allowing them to be identied. The
presence (or not) of any new particles can then be inferred.
Trigger system
To have a good chance of producing a rare particle, such as
a Higgs boson, a very large number of collisions is required.
Most collision events in the detector are soft and do not
produce interesting eects. The amount of raw data from
each crossing is approximately 1 megabytes, which at the
40 MHz crossing rate would result in 40 terabytes of data a
second, an amount that the experiment cannot hope to store,
let alone process properly. The full trigger system reduces
the rate of interesting events down to a manageable 1000
per second.
To accomplish this, a series of trigger stages are employed. All the data from each crossing is held in buers
within the detector while a small amount of key information is used to perform a fast, approximate calculation to
identify features of interest such as high energy jets, muons
or missing energy. This Level 1 calculation is completed
in around 1 s, and event rate is reduced by a factor of
about thousand down to 50 kHz. All these calculations are
done on fast, custom hardware using reprogrammable eldprogrammable gate arrays (FPGA).
Model particles, which allows both for furthering the
knowledge of these particles and also for the collaboration to calibrate the detector and measure the performance of various components.
Searching for events with large amounts of missing
transverse energy, which implies the presence of particles that have passed through the detector without leaving a signature. In the Standard Model only
neutrinos would traverse the detector without being
detected but a wide range of Beyond the Standard
Model theories contain new particles that would also
result in missing transverse energy.
Studying the kinematics of pairs of particles produced
by the decay of a parent, such as the Z boson decaying
to a pair of electrons or the Higgs boson decaying to
a pair of tau leptons or photons, to determine various
properties and mass of the parent.
Looking at jets of particles to study the way the partons (quarks and gluons) in the collided protons have
interacted, or to search for evidence of new physics
that manifests in hadronic nal states.
Searching for high particle multiplicity nal states
(predicted by many new physics theories) is an important strategy because common Standard Model particle decays very rarely contain a large number of particles, and those processes that do are well understood.
2.4.6
Milestones
If an event is passed by the Level 1 trigger all the data still

buered in the detector is sent over bre-optic links to the
Computer-generated event display of protons hitting a
High Level trigger, which is software (mainly written in
tungsten block just upstream of CMS on the rst beam
C++) running on ordinary computer servers. The lower
day, September 2008
event rate in the High Level trigger allows time for much
more detailed analysis of the event to be done than in the
Level 1 trigger. The High Level trigger reduces the event 2.4.7 Etymology
rate by a further factor of hundred down to 1000 events per
second. These are then stored on tape for future analysis.
The term Compact Muon Solenoid comes from the relatively compact size of the detector, the fact that it detects
muons, and the use of solenoids in the detector.[15] CMS
Data analysis
is also a reference to the center-of-mass system, an important concept in particle physics.
Data that has passed the triggering stages and been stored on
tape is duplicated using the Grid to additional sites around
the world for easier access and redundancy. Physicists are
2.4.8 See also
then able to use the Grid to access and run their analyses on
the data.
There are a huge range of analyses performed at CMS, including:
Performing precision measurements of Standard
2.4.9
Notes
[1] http://www.stfc.ac.uk/publications/PDF/CERN-CMS.pdf
[2] http://cms.web.cern.ch/content/cms-collaboration
2.5. VELO
[3] Biever, C. (6 July 2012). Its a boson! But we need to know

if its the Higgs. New Scientist. Retrieved 2013-01-09. 'As
a layman, I would say, I think we have it,' said Rolf-Dieter
Heuer, director general of CERN at Wednesdays seminar
announcing the results of the search for the Higgs boson.
But when pressed by journalists afterwards on what exactly
'it' was, things got more complicated. 'We have discovered
a boson now we have to nd out what boson it is
Q: 'If we don't know the new particle is a Higgs, what do
we know about it?' We know it is some kind of boson, says
Vivek Sharma of CMS [...]
Q: 'are the CERN scientists just being too cautious? What
would be enough evidence to call it a Higgs boson?' As there
could be many dierent kinds of Higgs bosons, theres no
straight answer.
[emphasis in original]
[4] Siegfried, T. (20 July 2012). Higgs Hysteria. Science
News. Retrieved 2012-12-09. In terms usually reserved for
athletic achievements, news reports described the nding as
a monumental milestone in the history of science.
[5] Del Rosso, A. (19 November 2012). Higgs: The beginning
of the exploration. CERN Bulletin. Retrieved 2013-01-09.
Even in the most specialized circles, the new particle discovered in July is not yet being called the Higgs boson. Physicists still hesitate to call it that before they have determined
that its properties t with those the Higgs theory predicts the
Higgs boson has.
[6] The Higgs Boson. CERN: Accelerating Science. CERN.
Retrieved 11 June 2015.
[7] http://cms.web.cern.ch/news/tracker-detector
[8] CMS installs the worlds largest silicon detector, CERN
Courier, Feb 15, 2008
[9] Using Russian navy shells - Lucas Taylor
[10] Precise mapping of the magnetic eld in the CMS barrel
yoke using cosmic rays
[13]
[14]
[15]
2.4.10
References
Della Negra, Michel; Petrilli, Achille; Herve, Alain;

Foa, Lorenzo (2006). CMS Physics Technical Design Report Volume I: Software and Detector Performance (PDF). CERN.
2.4.11
External links
CMS home page

CMS Outreach
CMS Times
CMS section from US/LHC Website
http://petermccready.com/portfolio/07041601.html
Panoramic view - click and drag to look around
the experiment under construction (with sound!)
(requires QuickTime)
The assembly of the CMS detector, step by step,
through a 3D animation
The CMS Collaboration, S Chatrchyan; et al.
(2008-08-14). The CMS experiment at the CERN
LHC. Journal of Instrumentation. 3 (8): S08004.
doi:10.1088/17480221/3/08/S08004. Retrieved 2008-08-26. (Full
design documentation)
Copeland, Ed. Inside the CMS Experiment. Sixty
Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
2.5
VELO
Coordinates: 461427.64N 6548.96E / 46.2410111N

6.0969333E
The LHCb (standing for "Large Hadron Collider

beauty") experiment is one of seven particle physics detector experiments collecting data at the Large Hadron ColNew world record - rst pp collisions at 8 TeV. CERN. lider accelerator at CERN. LHCb is a specialized b-physics
experiment, that is measuring the parameters of CP viola2012. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
tion in the interactions of b-hadrons (heavy particles conLHC report: Run 1 - the nal urry. CERN. 2013. Re- taining a bottom quark). Such studies can help to explain
the Matter-Antimatter asymmetry of the Universe. The detrieved 2014-03-14.
tector is also able to perform measurements of production
LHC experiments back in business at record energy. cross sections and electroweak physics in the forward region. Approximately 840 people from 60 scientic instiCERN. 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-06.
tutes, representing 16 countries, form the collaboration who
[1]
Aczel, Ammir D. Present at the Creation: Discovering the built and operate the detector. As of 2014, the spokesperHiggs Boson. Random House, 2012
son for the collaboration is Guy Wilkinson. The experiment
[11] First lead-ion collisions in the LHC. CERN. 2010. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
[12]
53
54
is located at point 8 on the LHC tunnel close to FerneyVoltaire, France just over the border from Geneva. The
(small) MoEDAL experiment shares the same cavern.
2.5.1
Physics goals
The experiment has wide physics program covering many

important aspects of Heavy Flavor (both beauty and
charm), Electroweak and QCD physics. Six key measurements have been identied involving B mesons. These are
described in a roadmap document [2] that form the core
physics programme for the rst high energy LHC running
in 20102012. They include:
Measuring the branching ratio of the rare B +
decay.
Measuring the forward-backward asymmetry of the
muon pair in the avour changing neutral current B
K* + decay. Such a avour changing neutral current cannot occur at tree-level in the Standard Model
of Particle Physics, and only occurs through box and
loop Feynman diagrams; properties of the decay can
be strongly modied by new Physics.
Measuring the CP violating phase in the decay B
J/ , caused by interference between the decays with
and without B oscillations. This phase is one of the
CP observables with the smallest theoretical uncertainty in the Standard Model, and can be signicantly
modied by new Physics.
Measuring properties of radiative B decays, i.e. B me- Subsystems
son decays with photons in the nal states. Specically, these are again avour changing neutral current The vertex detector (VELO) is built around the proton interaction region.[3][4] It is used to measure the particle tradecays.
jectories close to the interaction point in order to precisely
Tree-level determination of the unitarity triangle angle separate primary and secondary vertices.
.
The detector operates at 7 millimetres (0.28 in) from the
LHC beam. This implies an enormous ux of particles; The
Charmless charged two-body B decays.
VELO has been designed to withstand integrated uences
of more than 1014 p/cm2 per year for a period of about
three years. The detector operates in vacuum and is cooled
2.5.2 The LHCb detector
to approximately 25 C (13 F) using a biphase CO2 system. The data of the VELO detector are amplied and read
The fact that the two b-hadrons are predominantly produced out by the Beetle ASIC.
in the same forward cone is exploited in the layout of the
LHCb detector. The LHCb detector is a single arm forward The RICH-1 detector (Ring imaging Cherenkov detector)
spectrometer with a polar angular coverage from 10 to 300 is located directly after the vertex detector. It is used for
milliradians (mrad) in the horizontal and 250 mrad in the particle identication of low-momentum tracks.
vertical plane. The asymmetry between the horizontal and The main tracking system is placed before and after the
vertical plane is determined by a large dipole magnet with dipole magnet. It is used to reconstruct the trajectories
the main eld component in the vertical direction.
of charged particles and to measure their momenta. The
2.6. LHCF
tracker consists of three subdetectors:
The Tracker Turicensis, a silicon strip detector located
before the LHCb dipole magnet
The Outer Tracker. A straw-tube based detector located after the dipole magnet covering the outer part
of the detector acceptance
The Inner Tracker, silicon strip based detector located
after the dipole magnet covering the inner part of the
detector acceptance
55
2.5.5
References
[1] , Collaboration webpage

[2] B. Adeva et al (LHCb collaboration) (2009). Roadmap for
selected key measurements of LHCb. arXiv:0912.4179
[hep-ex].
[3] , The LHCb VELO (from the VELO group)
[4] , VELO Public Pages
[5] , 2011 LHC Luminosity Plots
Following the tracking system is RICH-2. It allows

the identication of the particle type of high-momentum
tracks.
The electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters provide
measurements of the energy of electrons, photons, and
hadrons. These measurements are used at trigger level
to identify the particles with large transverse momentum
(high-Pt particles).
The muon system is used to identify and trigger on muons
in the events.
2.5.3
Results

[7] R Aaij et al.
First
evidence
for
the
decay
B + ".
110 (02):
021801.
arXiv:1211.2674 .
Bibcode:2013PhRvL.110b1801A.
[8] ArXiv Search.
[9] LHCb experiment observes two new baryon particles never
seen before. 19 Nov 2014.
[10] Observation of particles composed of ve quarks,
pentaquark-charmonium states, seen in 0
bJ/pK decays.
CERN/LHCb.
14 July 2015.
During the 2011 proton-proton run LHCb recorded a luminosity of 1 fb1 [5] at energy 7 TeV. In 2012 about 2
fb1 was collected at 8 TeV.[6] These datasets allow them to
carry out the physics program of precision Standard Model [11] R. Aaij et al. (LHCb collaboration) (2015). Observation
tests with many additional measurements. The analysis led
bJ/K
to evidence for the avour changing neutral current decay
p decays.
115 (7).
[7]
B . This measurement impacts the parameter space
arXiv:1507.03414
.
of supersymmetry. A combination with CMS data from
the completed 8 TeV run allowed for a precise measurement of the strange b-meson to dimuon branching fraction.
[12] G. Amit (14 July 2015). Pentaquark discovery at LHC
CP violation was studied in various particle systems such
shows long-sought new form of matter. New Scientist. Re0 [8]
as B , Kaons, and D . New Xi baryons were observed in
trieved 2015-07-14.
2014.[9] Analysis of the decay of bottom lambda baryons
(0
b) in the LHCb experiment also revealed the apparent existence of pentaquarks,[10][11] in what was described as an 2.5.6 External links
accidental discovery.[12]
LHCb Public Webpage
2.5.4
See also

B-factory
LHCb section from US/LHC Website

A. Augusto Alves Jr. et al. (LHCb CollabThe LHCb Detector at the
oration) (2008).
56
The LHCf experiment at LHC
Technical Design Report of LHCf
O Adriani et al. (LHCf Collaboration) (2008).
The LHCf detector at the CERN Large Hadron
Collider. Journal of Instrumentation. 3 (8): S08006.
The LHCf experiment, the smallest of the seven experiments on the

LHC
2.6 LHCf
The LHCf ("Large Hadron Collider forward") is a
special-purpose Large Hadron Collider experiment for astroparticle (cosmic ray) physics, and one of seven detectors in the LHC accelerator at CERN. The other six are:
ATLAS, ALICE, CMS, MoEDAL, TOTEM, and LHCb.
LHCf is designed to study the particles generated in the
"forward" region of collisions, those almost directly in line
with the colliding proton beams. It therefore consists of
two detectors, 140 m on either side of the interaction
point. Because of this large distance, it can co-exist with
a more conventional detector surrounding the interaction
point, and shares the interaction point IP1 with the much
larger general-purpose ATLAS experiment.
O Adriani et al. (LHCf Collaboration) (2013). LHCf

detector performance during the 2009-2010 LHC
run. International Journal of Modern Physics A. 28
(25): 1330036-1. Bibcode:2013IJMPA..2830036A.
doi:10.1142/S0217751X13300366. (Full design documentation)
Coordinates:
6.05500E
2.7
461409N 60318E / 46.23583N
FP420
The FP420 R&D project or the FP420 experiment was

an international collaboration with members from 29 institutes from 10 countries.[1] The aim was to assess the feasibility of installing proton tagging detectors at 420 m from
the interaction points of the ATLAS and CMS experiments
at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). One notable member
of the team was Brian Cox, who has been involved with
BBC in the production of television science documentaries
including Horizon, Wonders of the Solar System in 2010 and
Wonders of the Universe in 2011.
By detecting protons that have lost less than 1% of their

longitudinal momentum, it is possible to obtain information
that could yield insight on various phenomena of high2.6.1 Purpose
energy physics. These measurements would be unique at
The LHCf is intended to measure the energy and numbers the LHC, and would be dicult to obtain at both existing
of neutral pions (0) produced by the collider. This will and future linear colliders.
hopefully help explain the origin of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. The results will complement other high-energy
2.7.1 See also
cosmic ray measurements from the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina, and the Telescope Array Project in Utah.
List of Large Hadron Collider experiments
2.6.2
See also
2.6.3
References
LHCf section on US/LHC Website

LHCf: a tiny new experiment joins the LHC, CERN
Courier, Nov 1, 2006, retrieved on 2009-03-25. (Describes the location of the experiment.)
2.7.2
References
[1] FP420 R&D Project. Retrieved 2010-03-31.
2.7.3
External links
FP420 R&D Project website

Papers and Reviews
2.8. TOTEM
57
2.8 TOTEM
For other uses, see Totem (disambiguation).
TOTal Elastic and diractive cross section Measurement (TOTEM) is one of the seven detector experiments
at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. The other six
are: ATLAS, ALICE, CMS, LHCb, LHCf, and MoEDAL.
It shares intersection point IP5 with the Compact Muon
Solenoid. The detector aims at measurement of total cross
section, elastic scattering, and diractive processes.
2.8.1
See also

2.8.2
Further reading
G. Anelli et al. (TOTEM Collaboration) (2008).

The TOTEM Experiment at the CERN Large
Hadron Collider.
Journal of Instrumentation.
3 (8): S08007.
doi:10.1088/1748-0221/3/08/S08007. (Full design
documentation)
2.8.3
External links
TOTEM Public Webpage

TOTEM section on US/LHC Website
Coordinates:
6.07639E
461835N 60435E / 46.30972N
Chapter 3
Technology
3.1 Beetle ASIC
binary readout mode operates at up to 80 MHz output rate

on two ports. Current drivers bring the serialised data o
chip.
The chip can accept trigger rates up to 1.1 MHz to perform a
dead-timeless readout within 900 ns per trigger. For testability and calibration purposes, a charge injector with adjustable pulse height is implemented. The bias settings and
various other parameters can be controlled via a standard
IC-interface. The chip is radiation hardened to an accumulated dose of more than 100 Mrad. Robustness against
single event upset is achieved by redundant logic.
3.1.2
External links
Beetle - a readout chip for LHCb

Beetle chip
The Large Hadron Collider beauty experiment
The Beetle ASIC is an analog readout chip. It is developed

for the LHCb experiment at CERN.
3.2
3.1.1
LHC Computing Grid
Overview
The chip integrates 128 channels with low-noise chargesensitive pre-ampliers and shapers. The pulse shape can
be chosen such that it complies with LHCb specications:
a peaking time of 25 ns with a remainder of the peak voltage after 25 ns of less than 30%. A comparator per channel
with congurable polarity provides a binary signal. Four adjacent comparator channels are being ORed and brought o
chip via LVDS drivers.
Either the shaper or comparator output is sampled with the
LHC bunch-crossing frequency of 40 MHz into an analog
pipeline. This ring buer has a programmable latency of a
maximum of 160 sampling intervals and an integrated derandomising buer of 16 stages. For analogue readout data
is multiplexed with up to 40 MHz onto one or four ports. A
The Worldwide LHC Computing Grid (WLCG), formerly (until 2006)[1] the LHC Computing Grid (LCG),
is an international collaborative project that consists of a
grid-based computer network infrastructure incorporating
over 170 computing centers in 36 countries, as of 2012.
It was designed by CERN to handle the prodigious volume of data produced by Large Hadron Collider (LHC)
experiments.[2][3]
By 2012, data from over 300 trillion (31014 ) LHC protonproton collisions had been analyzed,[4] and LHC collision
data was being produced at approximately 25 petabytes per
year. As of 2012, The LHC Computing Grid had become the worlds largest computing grid comprising over
170 computing facilities in a worldwide network across 36
countries.[4][5][6]
58
3.2. LHC COMPUTING GRID
3.2.1
Background
59
3.2.3
See also
The Large Hadron Collider at CERN was designed to prove

Openlab (CERN)
or disprove the existence of the Higgs boson, an important but elusive piece of knowledge that had been sought
by particle physicists for over 40 years. A very power- 3.2.4 References
ful particle accelerator was needed, because Higgs bosons
might not be seen in lower energy experiments, and because [1] Hayes, Jacqui (21 December 2011). Happy 10th Birthday,
vast numbers of collisions would need to be studied. Such
WLCG!". International Grid Science This Week. Retrieved
2012-12-20.
a collider would also produce unprecedented quantities of
collision data requiring analysis. Therefore, advanced com[2] What is the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid?, CERN, Janputing facilities were needed to process the data.
uary 2011, retrieved 2012-01-11
3.2.2
Description
A design report was published in 2005.[7] It was announced

to be ready for data on 3 October 2008.[8] A popular 2008
press article predicted the internet could soon be made obsolete by its technology.[9] CERN had to publish its own
articles trying to clear up the confusion.[10] It incorporates
both private ber optic cable links and existing high-speed
portions of the public Internet. At the end of 2010, the
Grid consisted of some 200,000 processing cores and 150
petabytes of disk space, distributed across 34 countries.[11]
The data stream from the detectors provides approximately
300 GByte/s of data, which after ltering for interesting
events, results in a data stream of about 300 MByte/s. The
CERN computer center, considered Tier 0 of the LHC
Computing Grid, has a dedicated 10 Gbit/s connection to
the counting room.
[3] Welcome, CERN, January 2011, retrieved 2012-01-11

[4] Hunt for Higgs boson hits key decision point
[5] Worldwide LHC Computing Grid main page 14 November
2012: "[A] global collaboration of more than 170 computing
~25 Petabytes (25 million Gigabytes) of data annually generated by the Large Hadron Collider
[6] What is the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid? (Public
[7] LHC Computing Grid: Technical Design Report (PDF). document LCG-TDR-001, CERN-LHCC-2005-024. The LCG
TDR Editorial Board. 20 June 2005. ISBN 92-9083-253-3.
Retrieved 2 October 2011.
The project was expected to generate 27 TB of raw data [8] LHC GridFest. CERN. 2008.
per day, plus 10 TB of event summary data, which represents the output of calculations done by the CPU farm at [9] Jonathan Leake (6 April 2008). Coming soon: superfast
internet. The Times. London. Archived from the original
the CERN data center. This data is sent out from CERN
on August 5, 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
to eleven Tier 1 academic institutions in Europe, Asia,
and North America, via dedicated 10 Gbit/s links. This
[10] The Grid: separating fact from ction. CERN. May 2008.
is called the LHC Optical Private Network.[12] More than
Retrieved 25 January 2013. Adapted from an article origi150 Tier 2 institutions are connected to the Tier 1 instinally published in Symmetry Breaking.
tutions by general-purpose national research and education
networks.[13] The data produced by the LHC on all of its [11] Geo Brumel (19 January 2011). High-energy physics:
distributed computing grid is expected to add up to 1015
Down the petabyte highway. Nature. 469: 282283.
doi:10.1038/469282a. Retrieved 2 October 2011.
PB of data each year.[14] In total, the four main detectors at
the LHC produced 13 petabytes of data in 2010.[11]
[12] Network transfer architecture. CERN. Retrieved 2 Octo-
The Tier 1 institutions receive specic subsets of the raw

ber 2011.
data, for which they serve as a backup repository for
CERN. They also perform reprocessing when recalibration [13] nal-draft-4-key Archived May 26, 2008, at the Wayback
Machine.
is necessary.[13] The primary conguration for the computers used in the grid is based on CentOS.[15] In 2015, CERN
[14] Brodkin, Jon (28 April 2008). Parallel Internet: Inside the
switched away from Scientic Linux to CentOS.[15]
Distributed computing resources for analysis by end-user
physicists are provided by the Open Science Grid, Enabling
Grids for E-sciencE,[13] and LHC@home projects.
Worldwide LHC computing grid. Techworld.com.
[15] CERN. Linux @ CERN: /linux/nextversion.shtml.

linux.web.cern.ch. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
60
3.2.5
CHAPTER 3. TECHNOLOGY
External links
Ocial website. CERN. Retrieved 2012-12-20.

GridCaf". Educational web site.
3.3 LHC@home
LHC@home is a distributed computing project for particle
physics based on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform.
In one workunit, 60 particles are simulated travelling

100,000 or 1,000,000 loops, which would take about
10 seconds in an actual run. This is sixtrack.
The orbit stability data is used to detect if a particle in
orbit goes o-course and runs into the tube wallif
this happened too often in actual running, this would
cause damage to the accelerator which would need repairs.
A new experimental version called SixTrackbnl started
to be sent to computers in early November.
Gareld is a newer application, although not many

LHC@home consists of two applications: LHC@home
workunits have been seen lately.
Classic, SixTrack, which went live in September 2004 and
is used to upgrade and maintain the particle accelerator
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) of the European Organiza- 3.3.2 See also
tion for Nuclear Research (CERN), and LHC@home 2.0,
Citizen Cyberscience Centre
Test4Theory (now is Virtual LHC@home), which went live
in August 2011 and is used to simulate high-energy particle
LHC Computing Grid
collisions to provide a reference to test the measurements
performed at the LHC.
List of distributed computing projects
The applications are run with the help of about fteen thousand active volunteered computers processing at a combined more than 15.5 teraFLOPS on average as of June 3.3.3 References
2014.[1][2] LHC@home uses idle computer processing resources from volunteers computers to perform calculations [1] Willy de Zutter. LHC@Home Classic - Credit overview.
boincstats.com. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
on individual workunits, which are sent to a central project
server upon completion. The project is cross-platform,
and runs on a variety of hardware congurations. Virtual [2] Willy de Zutter. LHC Test4Theory@Home - Credit
overview. boincstats.com. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
LHC@home uses VirtualBox, an x86 virtualization software package.
3.3.4
3.3.1
SixTrack
External links
LHC@home Project Page
The project was rst introduced as a beta on 1 September

LHC@home Classic Project Page
2004 and a record 1000 users signed up within 24 hours.
SixTrack homepage
The project went public, with a 5000 user limit, on September 29 to commemorate CERNs 50th anniversary. Cur Virtual LHC@home Project Page
rently there is no user limit and qualication. Data from
the project is utilized by engineers to improve the operation and eciency of the accelerator, and to predict possible
problems that could arise from adjustment or modication 3.4 Proton Synchrotron Booster
of the LHCs equipment. The project is administered by
volunteers, and receives no funding from CERN. There are The Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB), a synchrotron, is
currently no plans to use the project to do computation on the rst and smallest circular proton accelerator in the accelthe data that will be collected by the LHC.
erator chain at the CERN Large Hadron Collider injection
The project software involves a program called SixTrack, complex.[1] The accelerator was built in 1972, and contains
created by Frank Schmidt, downloaded via BOINC onto four superimposed rings with a radius of 25 meters. It takes
participant computers running Windows, Linux or Mac OS protons with an energy of 50 MeV from the linear accelerX. SixTrack simulates particles accelerating through the 27 ator Linac2 and accelerates them up to 1.4 GeV, ready to
km (17 mi)-long LHC to nd their orbit stability.
be injected into the Proton Synchrotron.
3.5. VELO
61
3.5.1
Physics goals
The experiment has wide physics program covering many

important aspects of Heavy Flavor (both beauty and
charm), Electroweak and QCD physics. Six key measurements have been identied involving B mesons. These are
described in a roadmap document [2] that form the core
physics programme for the rst high energy LHC running
in 20102012. They include:
Measuring the branching ratio of the rare B +
decay.
The surface above the PS Booster at CERN. The ring-shaped accelerator is visible as a circular building that rises from the ground.
3.4.1
See also
3.4.2
References
[1]
3.4.3
External links
Measuring the forward-backward asymmetry of the

muon pair in the avour changing neutral current B
K* + decay. Such a avour changing neutral current cannot occur at tree-level in the Standard Model
of Particle Physics, and only occurs through box and
loop Feynman diagrams; properties of the decay can
be strongly modied by new Physics.
Measuring the CP violating phase in the decay B
J/ , caused by interference between the decays with
and without B oscillations. This phase is one of the
CP observables with the smallest theoretical uncertainty in the Standard Model, and can be signicantly
modied by new Physics.
PS Booster Machine: layout and photographs
3.5 VELO
Coordinates: 461427.64N 6548.96E / 46.2410111N
6.0969333E
The LHCb (standing for "Large Hadron Collider
beauty") experiment is one of seven particle physics detector experiments collecting data at the Large Hadron Collider accelerator at CERN. LHCb is a specialized b-physics
experiment, that is measuring the parameters of CP violation in the interactions of b-hadrons (heavy particles containing a bottom quark). Such studies can help to explain
the Matter-Antimatter asymmetry of the Universe. The detector is also able to perform measurements of production
cross sections and electroweak physics in the forward region. Approximately 840 people from 60 scientic institutes, representing 16 countries, form the collaboration who
built and operate the detector.[1] As of 2014, the spokesperson for the collaboration is Guy Wilkinson. The experiment
is located at point 8 on the LHC tunnel close to FerneyVoltaire, France just over the border from Geneva. The
(small) MoEDAL experiment shares the same cavern.
Measuring properties of radiative B decays, i.e. B meson decays with photons in the nal states. Specically, these are again avour changing neutral current
decays.
Tree-level determination of the unitarity triangle angle
.
Charmless charged two-body B decays.
3.5.2
The LHCb detector
The fact that the two b-hadrons are predominantly produced

in the same forward cone is exploited in the layout of the
LHCb detector. The LHCb detector is a single arm forward
spectrometer with a polar angular coverage from 10 to 300
milliradians (mrad) in the horizontal and 250 mrad in the
vertical plane. The asymmetry between the horizontal and
vertical plane is determined by a large dipole magnet with
the main eld component in the vertical direction.
62
CHAPTER 3. TECHNOLOGY
tracker consists of three subdetectors:
The Tracker Turicensis, a silicon strip detector located
before the LHCb dipole magnet
The Outer Tracker. A straw-tube based detector located after the dipole magnet covering the outer part
of the detector acceptance
The Inner Tracker, silicon strip based detector located
after the dipole magnet covering the inner part of the
detector acceptance
Following the tracking system is RICH-2. It allows
the identication of the particle type of high-momentum
tracks.
The electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters provide
measurements of the energy of electrons, photons, and
hadrons. These measurements are used at trigger level
to identify the particles with large transverse momentum
(high-Pt particles).
The muon system is used to identify and trigger on muons
in the events.
3.5.3
Subsystems
The vertex detector (VELO) is built around the proton interaction region.[3][4] It is used to measure the particle trajectories close to the interaction point in order to precisely
separate primary and secondary vertices.
The detector operates at 7 millimetres (0.28 in) from the
LHC beam. This implies an enormous ux of particles; The
VELO has been designed to withstand integrated uences
of more than 1014 p/cm2 per year for a period of about
three years. The detector operates in vacuum and is cooled
to approximately 25 C (13 F) using a biphase CO2 system. The data of the VELO detector are amplied and read
out by the Beetle ASIC.
Results
During the 2011 proton-proton run LHCb recorded a luminosity of 1 fb1 [5] at energy 7 TeV. In 2012 about 2
fb1 was collected at 8 TeV.[6] These datasets allow them to
carry out the physics program of precision Standard Model
tests with many additional measurements. The analysis led
to evidence for the avour changing neutral current decay
B .[7] This measurement impacts the parameter space
of supersymmetry. A combination with CMS data from
the completed 8 TeV run allowed for a precise measurement of the strange b-meson to dimuon branching fraction.
CP violation was studied in various particle systems such
as B , Kaons, and D0 .[8] New Xi baryons were observed in
2014.[9] Analysis of the decay of bottom lambda baryons
(0
b) in the LHCb experiment also revealed the apparent existence of pentaquarks,[10][11] in what was described as an
accidental discovery.[12]
The RICH-1 detector (Ring imaging Cherenkov detector) 3.5.4 See also
is located directly after the vertex detector. It is used for
particle identication of low-momentum tracks.
The main tracking system is placed before and after the
dipole magnet. It is used to reconstruct the trajectories
of charged particles and to measure their momenta. The

B-factory
3.5. VELO
3.5.5
References
[1] , Collaboration webpage

[2] B. Adeva et al (LHCb collaboration) (2009). Roadmap for
selected key measurements of LHCb. arXiv:0912.4179
[hep-ex].
[3] , The LHCb VELO (from the VELO group)
[4] , VELO Public Pages
[7] R Aaij et al.
First
evidence
for
the
decay
B + ".
110 (02):
021801.
arXiv:1211.2674 .
Bibcode:2013PhRvL.110b1801A.
[8] ArXiv Search.
[9] LHCb experiment observes two new baryon particles never
seen before. 19 Nov 2014.
[10] Observation of particles composed of ve quarks,
pentaquark-charmonium states, seen in 0
bJ/pK decays.
CERN/LHCb.
14 July 2015.
[11] R. Aaij et al. (LHCb collaboration) (2015). Observation
bJ/K
p decays.
115 (7).
arXiv:1507.03414 .
[12] G. Amit (14 July 2015). Pentaquark discovery at LHC
shows long-sought new form of matter. New Scientist. Retrieved 2015-07-14.
3.5.6
External links
LHCb Public Webpage

LHCb section from US/LHC Website
A. Augusto Alves Jr. et al. (LHCb Collaboration) (2008).
The LHCb Detector at the
63
Chapter 4
Theory
4.1 Standard Model
ory of almost everything.
This article is about the Standard Model of particle physics.

For other uses, see Standard model (disambiguation).
This article is a non-mathematical general overview of the
Standard Model. For a mathematical description, see the
article Standard Model (mathematical formulation).
For the Standard Model of Big Bang cosmology, LambdaCDM model.
The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory con-
Although the Standard Model is believed to be theoretically self-consistent[2] and has demonstrated huge and continued successes in providing experimental predictions, it
does leave some phenomena unexplained and it falls short
of being a complete theory of fundamental interactions. It
does not incorporate the full theory of gravitation[3] as described by general relativity, or account for the accelerating
expansion of the universe (as possibly described by dark energy). The model does not contain any viable dark matter
particle that possesses all of the required properties deduced
from observational cosmology. It also does not incorporate
neutrino oscillations (and their non-zero masses).
The development of the Standard Model was driven by
theoretical and experimental particle physicists alike. For
theorists, the Standard Model is a paradigm of a quantum
eld theory, which exhibits a wide range of physics including spontaneous symmetry breaking, anomalies and nonperturbative behavior. It is used as a basis for building
more exotic models that incorporate hypothetical particles, extra dimensions, and elaborate symmetries (such as
supersymmetry) in an attempt to explain experimental results at variance with the Standard Model, such as the existence of dark matter and neutrino oscillations.
The Standard Model of elementary particles (more schematic depiction), with the three generations of matter, gauge bosons in the
fourth column, and the Higgs boson in the fth.
4.1.1
cerning the electromagnetic, weak, and strong nuclear interactions, as well as classifying all the subatomic particles
known. It was developed throughout the latter half of the
20th century, as a collaborative eort of scientists around
the world.[1] The current formulation was nalized in the
mid-1970s upon experimental conrmation of the existence
of quarks. Since then, discoveries of the top quark (1995),
the tau neutrino (2000), and the Higgs boson (2012) have
given further credence to the Standard Model. Because of
its success in explaining a wide variety of experimental results, the Standard Model is sometimes regarded as the the-
Historical background
The rst step towards the Standard Model was Sheldon

Glashow's discovery in 1961 of a way to combine the
electromagnetic and weak interactions.[4] In 1967 Steven
Weinberg[5] and Abdus Salam[6] incorporated the Higgs
mechanism[7][8][9] into Glashows electroweak interaction,
giving it its modern form.
The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the masses
of all the elementary particles in the Standard Model. This
includes the masses of the W and Z bosons, and the masses
of the fermions, i.e. the quarks and leptons.
After the neutral weak currents caused by Z boson ex-
64
4.1. STANDARD MODEL
65
change were discovered at CERN in 1973,[10][11][12][13] the

electroweak theory became widely accepted and Glashow,
Salam, and Weinberg shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in
Physics for discovering it. The W and Z0 bosons were
discovered experimentally in 1981; and the ratio of their
masses was found to be as the Standard Model predicted.
The theory of the strong interaction (ie QCD), to which
many contributed, acquired its modern form around 1973
74, when experiments conrmed that the hadrons were
composed of fractionally charged quarks.
4.1.2
Overview
At present, matter and energy are best understood in terms

of the kinematics and interactions of elementary particles.
To date, physics has reduced the laws governing the behavior and interaction of all known forms of matter and energy
to a small set of fundamental laws and theories. A major
goal of physics is to nd the common ground that would
unite all of these theories into one integrated theory of everything, of which all the other known laws would be special
cases, and from which the behavior of all matter and energy
could be derived (at least in principle).[14]
4.1.3
Summary of interactions between particles described by the Standard Model.
The familiar proton and the neutron are the two baryons
having the smallest mass. Quarks also carry electric charge
and weak isospin. Hence, they interact with other fermions
both electromagnetically and via the weak interaction.
Particle content
The remaining six fermions do not carry colour charge and

are called leptons. The three neutrinos do not carry electric
The Standard Model includes members of several classes charge either, so their motion is directly inuenced only by
of elementary particles (fermions, gauge bosons, and the the weak nuclear force, which makes them notoriously difHiggs boson), which in turn can be distinguished by other cult to detect. However, by virtue of carrying an electric
characteristics, such as color charge.
charge, the electron, muon, and tau all interact electromagnetically.
Fermions
The Standard Model includes 12 elementary particles of
Spin = known as fermions. According to the spinstatistics theorem, fermions respect the Pauli exclusion
principle. Each fermion has a corresponding antiparticle.
Each member of a generation has greater mass than the corresponding particles of lower generations. The rst generation charged particles do not decay; hence all ordinary
(baryonic) matter is made of such particles. Specically,
all atoms consist of electrons orbiting around atomic nuclei, ultimately constituted of up and down quarks. Second
and third generation charged particles, on the other hand,
decay with very short half lives, and are observed only in
very high-energy environments. Neutrinos of all generations also do not decay, and pervade the universe, but rarely
interact with baryonic matter.
The fermions of the Standard Model are classied according to how they interact (or equivalently, by what charges
they carry). There are six quarks (up, down, charm, strange,
top, bottom), and six leptons (electron, electron neutrino,
muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino). Pairs from each
classication are grouped together to form a generation,
with corresponding particles exhibiting similar physical beGauge bosons
havior (see table).
The dening property of the quarks is that they carry color
charge, and hence, interact via the strong interaction. A
phenomenon called color connement results in quarks being very strongly bound to one another, forming colorneutral composite particles (hadrons) containing either a
quark and an antiquark (mesons) or three quarks (baryons).
In the Standard Model, gauge bosons are dened as force

carriers that mediate the strong, weak, and electromagnetic
fundamental interactions.
Interactions in physics are the ways that particles inuence
other particles. At a macroscopic level, electromagnetism
66
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
electrically charged particles. The photon is massless
and is well-described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics.
The W+, W, and Z gauge bosons mediate the weak
interactions between particles of dierent avors (all
quarks and leptons). They are massive, with the Z being more massive than the W. The weak interactions
involving the W exclusively act on left-handed particles and right-handed antiparticles. Furthermore, the
W carries an electric charge of +1 and 1 and couples to the electromagnetic interaction. The electrically neutral Z boson interacts with both left-handed
particles and antiparticles. These three gauge bosons
along with the photons are grouped together, as collectively mediating the electroweak interaction.
The above interactions form the basis of the standard model. Feynman diagrams in the standard model are built from these vertices.
Modications involving Higgs boson interactions and neutrino oscillations are omitted. The charge of the W bosons is dictated by
the fermions they interact with; the conjugate of each listed vertex
(i.e. reversing the direction of arrows) is also allowed.
allows particles to interact with one another via electric and

magnetic elds, and gravitation allows particles with mass
to attract one another in accordance with Einsteins theory
of general relativity. The Standard Model explains such
forces as resulting from matter particles exchanging other
particles, generally referred to as force mediating particles.
When a force-mediating particle is exchanged, at a macroscopic level the eect is equivalent to a force inuencing
both of them, and the particle is therefore said to have mediated (i.e., been the agent of) that force. The Feynman diagram calculations, which are a graphical representation of
the perturbation theory approximation, invoke force mediating particles, and when applied to analyze high-energy
scattering experiments are in reasonable agreement with the
data. However, perturbation theory (and with it the concept of a force-mediating particle) fails in other situations. These include low-energy quantum chromodynamics, bound states, and solitons.
The gauge bosons of the Standard Model all have spin (as do
matter particles). The value of the spin is 1, making them
bosons. As a result, they do not follow the Pauli exclusion
principle that constrains fermions: thus bosons (e.g. photons) do not have a theoretical limit on their spatial density
(number per volume). The dierent types of gauge bosons
are described below.
Photons mediate the electromagnetic force between
The eight gluons mediate the strong interactions between color charged particles (the quarks). Gluons are
massless. The eightfold multiplicity of gluons is labeled by a combination of color and anticolor charge
(e.g. redantigreen).[nb 1] Because the gluons have an
eective color charge, they can also interact among
themselves. The gluons and their interactions are described by the theory of quantum chromodynamics.
The interactions between all the particles described by the
Standard Model are summarized by the diagrams on the
right of this section.
Higgs boson
Main article: Higgs boson
The Higgs particle is a massive scalar elementary particle
theorized by Peter Higgs in 1964 (see 1964 PRL symmetry
breaking papers) and is a key building block in the Standard
Model.[7][8][9][15] It has no intrinsic spin, and for that reason
is classied as a boson (like the gauge bosons, which have
integer spin).
The Higgs boson plays a unique role in the Standard Model,
by explaining why the other elementary particles, except
the photon and gluon, are massive. In particular, the Higgs
boson explains why the photon has no mass, while the W
and Z bosons are very heavy. Elementary particle masses,
and the dierences between electromagnetism (mediated
by the photon) and the weak force (mediated by the W
and Z bosons), are critical to many aspects of the structure of microscopic (and hence macroscopic) matter. In
electroweak theory, the Higgs boson generates the masses
of the leptons (electron, muon, and tau) and quarks. As the
Higgs boson is massive, it must interact with itself.
4.1. STANDARD MODEL

Because the Higgs boson is a very massive particle and also
decays almost immediately when created, only a very highenergy particle accelerator can observe and record it. Experiments to conrm and determine the nature of the Higgs
boson using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN
began in early 2010, and were performed at Fermilab's
Tevatron until its closure in late 2011. Mathematical consistency of the Standard Model requires that any mechanism
capable of generating the masses of elementary particles
becomes visible at energies above 1.4 TeV;[16] therefore,
the LHC (designed to collide two 7 to 8 TeV proton beams)
was built to answer the question of whether the Higgs boson
actually exists.[17]
67
fall into dierent representations of the various symmetry
groups of the Standard Model (see table). Upon writing
the most general Lagrangian, one nds that the dynamics
depend on 19 parameters, whose numerical values are established by experiment. The parameters are summarized
in the table above (note: the Higgs mass is at 125 GeV, the
Higgs self-coupling strength ~ 1/8).
Quantum chromodynamics
Quantum chromodynamics
sector Main
article:
The quantum chromodynamics (QCD) sector denes the

interactions between quarks and gluons, with SU(3) symmetry, generated by Ta . Since leptons do not interact with
gluons, they are not aected by this sector. The Dirac Lagrangian of the quarks coupled to the gluon elds is given
by
On 4 July 2012, the two main experiments at the LHC

(ATLAS and CMS) both reported independently that they
found a new particle with a mass of about 125 GeV/c2
(about 133 proton masses, on the order of 1025 kg), which
is consistent with the Higgs boson. Although it has several
properties similar to the predicted simplest Higgs,[18] they
acknowledged that further work would be needed to cona a
a a
clude that it is indeed the Higgs boson, and exactly which L
QCD = iU ( igs G T ) U +iD( igs G T ) D.
version of the Standard Model Higgs is best supported if
conrmed.[19][20][21][22][23]
Ga is the SU(3) gauge eld containing the gluons, are
On 14 March 2013 the Higgs Boson was tentatively con- the Dirac matrices, D and U are the Dirac spinors associated
with up- and down-type quarks, and g is the strong coupling
rmed to exist.[24]
constant.
4.1.4
Theoretical aspects
Main article: Standard Model (mathematical formulation)
Electroweak sector Main article: Electroweak interaction

The electroweak sector is a YangMills gauge theory with
the simple symmetry group U(1)SU(2)L,
Construction of the Standard Model Lagrangian

Technically, quantum eld theory provides the mathematical framework for the Standard Model, in which a
Lagrangian controls the dynamics and kinematics of the
theory. Each kind of particle is described in terms of a dynamical eld that pervades space-time. The construction of
the Standard Model proceeds following the modern method
of constructing most eld theories: by rst postulating a set
of symmetries of the system, and then by writing down the
most general renormalizable Lagrangian from its particle
(eld) content that observes these symmetries.
The global Poincar symmetry is postulated for all relativistic quantum eld theories. It consists of the familiar
translational symmetry, rotational symmetry and the inertial
reference frame invariance central to the theory of special
relativity. The local SU(3)SU(2)U(1) gauge symmetry
is an internal symmetry that essentially denes the Standard
Model. Roughly, the three factors of the gauge symmetry
give rise to the three fundamental interactions. The elds
LEW =
(
)
1
i g YW B g L W
2
2
where B is the U(1) gauge eld; YW is the weak hyper is the threechargethe generator of the U(1) group; W
component SU(2) gauge eld; L are the Pauli matrices
innitesimal generators of the SU(2) group. The subscript
L indicates that they only act on left fermions; g and g are
coupling constants.
Higgs sector Main article: Higgs mechanism
In the Standard Model, the Higgs eld is a complex scalar
of the group SU(2)L:
1
=
2
+
0
)
,
68
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
where the indices + and 0 indicate the electric charge (Q) change (/) in the proton-to-electron mass ratio to be
of the components. The weak isospin (YW) of both com- equal to "(0.0 1.0) 107 at redshift z = 0.89 and conponents is 1.
sistent with a null result".[30][31]
Before symmetry breaking, the Higgs Lagrangian is:
4.1.7
Challenges
(
)) (
))
)2
i(
i(
2 (
See
also:
Physics
the
LH =
g YW B + g W
+
g YW B + g W
beyond
Standard
v 2 Model
,
2
2
4
which can also be written as:
Self-consistency of the Standard Model (currently formulated as a non-abelian gauge theory quantized through pathintegrals) has not been mathematically proven. While reg(
(
)) 2 2 (

)2
ularized
versions useful for approximate computations (for
i
LH = +
v 2 .
g YW B + g W

lattice gauge theory) exist, it is not known whether
example
2
4
they converge (in the sense of S-matrix elements) in the
limit that the regulator is removed. A key question related
4.1.5 Fundamental forces
to the consistency is the YangMills existence and mass gap
problem.
Main article: Fundamental interaction
Experiments indicate that neutrinos have mass, which the
classic Standard Model did not allow.[32] To accommodate
The Standard Model classied all four fundamental forces this nding, the classic Standard Model can be modied to
in nature. In the Standard Model, a force is described as include neutrino mass.
an exchange of bosons between the objects aected, such
as a photon for the electromagnetic force and a gluon for If one insists on using only Standard Model particles, this
interaction
the strong interaction. Those particles are called force car- can be achieved by adding a non-renormalizable
[33]
of
leptons
with
the
Higgs
boson.
On
a
fundamental
level,
[25]
riers.
such an interaction emerges in the seesaw mechanism where
heavy right-handed neutrinos are added to the theory. This
is natural in the left-right symmetric extension of the Stan4.1.6 Tests and predictions
dard Model[34][35] and in certain grand unied theories.[36]
The Standard Model (SM) predicted the existence of the W As long as new physics appears below or around 1014 GeV,
and Z bosons, gluon, and the top and charm quarks before the neutrino masses can be of the right order of magnitude.
these particles were observed. Their predicted properties Theoretical and experimental research has attempted to
were experimentally conrmed with good precision.
extend the Standard Model into a Unied eld theory or
The SM also makes several predictions about the decay of a Theory of everything, a complete theory explaining all
Z0 bosons, which have been experimentally conrmed by physical phenomena including constants. Inadequacies of
the Standard Model that motivate such research include:
the Large Electron-Positron Collider at CERN.
In May 2012 BaBar Collaboration reported that their recently analyzed data may suggest possible aws in the Standard Model of particle physics.[27][28] These data show that
a particular type of particle decay called B to D-star-taunu happens more often than the Standard Model says it
should. In this type of decay, a particle called the B-bar meson decays into a D meson, an antineutrino and a tau-lepton.
While the level of certainty of the excess (3.4 sigma) is not
enough to claim a break from the Standard Model, the results are a potential sign of something amiss and are likely
to impact existing theories, including those attempting to
deduce the properties of Higgs bosons.[29]
The model does not explain gravitation, although physical conrmation of a theoretical particle known as
a graviton would account for it to a degree. Though
it addresses strong and electroweak interactions, the
Standard Model does not consistently explain the
canonical theory of gravitation, general relativity, in
terms of quantum eld theory. The reason for this
is, among other things, that quantum eld theories
of gravity generally break down before reaching the
Planck scale. As a consequence, we have no reliable
theory for the very early universe.
On December 13, 2012, physicists reported the constancy,

over space and time, of a basic physical constant of nature
that supports the standard model of physics. The scientists,
studying methanol molecules in a distant galaxy, found the
Some physicists consider it to be ad hoc and inelegant, requiring 19 numerical constants whose values
are unrelated and arbitrary.[37] Although the Standard
Model, as it now stands, can explain why neutrinos
4.1. STANDARD MODEL

have masses, the specics of neutrino mass are still
unclear. It is believed that explaining neutrino mass
will require an additional 7 or 8 constants, which are
also arbitrary parameters.
69
J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics
Lagrangian
Open questions: BTeV experiment, CP violation,
Neutrino masses, Quark matter, Quantum triviality
The Higgs mechanism gives rise to the hierarchy problem if some new physics (coupled to the Higgs) is
Penguin diagram
present at high energy scales. In these cases, in order for the weak scale to be much smaller than the
Quantum eld theory
Planck scale, severe ne tuning of the parameters is
required; there are, however, other scenarios that in Standard Model: Mathematical formulation of,
clude quantum gravity in which such ne tuning can be
Physics beyond the Standard Model
avoided.[38] There are also issues of Quantum triviality, which suggests that it may not be possible to create
a consistent quantum eld theory involving elementary 4.1.9 Notes and references
scalar particles.
[1] Technically, there are nine such coloranticolor combina-
The model is inconsistent with the emerging Standard

tions. However, there is one color-symmetric combination
that can be constructed out of a linear superposition of the
Model of cosmology. More common contentions innine combinations, reducing the count to eight.
clude the absence of an explanation in the Standard
Model for the observed amount of cold dark matter
(CDM) and its contributions to dark energy, which are
many orders of magnitude too large. It is also dicult 4.1.10 References
to accommodate the observed predominance of matter
over antimatter (matter/antimatter asymmetry). The [1] R. Oerter (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything: The
Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics
isotropy and homogeneity of the visible universe over
(Kindle ed.). Penguin Group. p. 2. ISBN 0-13-236678large distances seems to require a mechanism like cos9.
mic ination, which would also constitute an extension
of the Standard Model.
[2] In fact, there are mathematical issues regarding quantum
The existence of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays are
dicult to explain under the Standard Model.
Currently, no proposed Theory of Everything has been
widely accepted or veried.
4.1.8
See also
Fundamental interaction:
Quantum electrodynamics
Strong interaction: Color charge, Quantum
chromodynamics, Quark model
Weak interaction: Electroweak theory, Fermi
theory of beta decay, Weak hypercharge, Weak
isospin
Gauge theory: Nontechnical introduction to gauge theory
Generation
Higgs mechanism: Higgs boson, Higgsless model
J. C. Ward
eld theories still under debate (see e.g. Landau pole), but
the predictions extracted from the Standard Model by current methods applicable to current experiments are all selfconsistent. For a further discussion see e.g. Chapter 25 of
R. Mann (2010). An Introduction to Particle Physics and the
Standard Model. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-8298-2.
[3] Sean Carroll, Ph.D., Caltech, 2007, The Teaching Company, Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The Dark Side of the Universe, Guidebook Part 2 page 59, Accessed Oct. 7, 2013,
"...Standard Model of Particle Physics: The modern theory
of elementary particles and their interactions ... It does not,
strictly speaking, include gravity, although its often convenient to include gravitons among the known particles of nature...
[4] S.L. Glashow (1961).
Partial-symmetries of weak
Nuclear Physics.
22 (4): 579588.
interactions.
Bibcode:1961NucPh..22..579G.
doi:10.1016/00295582(61)90469-2.
[5] S. Weinberg (1967).
A Model of LepPhysical Review Letters.
19 (21):
tons.
12641266.
Bibcode:1967PhRvL..19.1264W.
[6] A. Salam (1968). N. Svartholm, ed. Elementary Particle
Physics: Relativistic Groups and Analyticity. Eighth Nobel
Symposium. Stockholm: Almquvist and Wiksell. p. 367.
70
[7] F. Englert; R. Brout (1964). Broken Symmetry and the

Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons. Physical Review Letters. 13 (9): 321323. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..321E.
[8] P.W. Higgs (1964).
Broken Symmetries and the
Masses of Gauge Bosons.
13 (16): 508509.
Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..508H.
[9] G.S. Guralnik;
C.R. Hagen;
T.W.B. Kibble
(1964).
Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles.
13
Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..585G.
(20):
585587.
[10] F.J. Hasert; et al. (1973). Search for elastic muonneutrino electron scattering. Physics Letters B. 46 (1):
121. Bibcode:1973PhLB...46..121H. doi:10.1016/03702693(73)90494-2.
[11] F.J. Hasert; et al. (1973). Observation of neutrino-like
interactions without muon or electron in the Gargamelle
neutrino experiment. Physics Letters B. 46 (1): 138.
Bibcode:1973PhLB...46..138H.
doi:10.1016/03702693(73)90499-1.
[12] F.J. Hasert; et al. (1974). Observation of neutrino-like
interactions without muon or electron in the Gargamelle
neutrino experiment. Nuclear Physics B. 73 (1): 1.
Bibcode:1974NuPhB..73....1H.
doi:10.1016/05503213(74)90038-8.
[13] D. Haidt (4 October 2004). The discovery of the weak neutral currents. CERN Courier. Retrieved 8 May 2008.
[14] Details can be worked out if the situation is simple enough
for us to make an approximation, which is almost never, but
often we can understand more or less what is happening.
from The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol 1. pp. 27
[15] G.S. Guralnik (2009). The History of the Guralnik, Hagen
and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous
Symmetry Breaking and Gauge Particles. International
Journal of Modern Physics A. 24 (14): 26012627.
arXiv:0907.3466 .
Bibcode:2009IJMPA..24.2601G.
doi:10.1142/S0217751X09045431.
[16] B.W. Lee; C. Quigg; H.B. Thacker (1977). Weak
interactions at very high energies:
The role of
Physical Review D. 16
the Higgs-boson mass.
(5):
15191531.
Bibcode:1977PhRvD..16.1519L.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.16.1519.
[17] Huge $10 billion collider resumes hunt for 'God particle'".
CNN. 11 November 2009. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
[18] M. Strassler (10 July 2012). Higgs Discovery: Is it a
Higgs?". Retrieved 2013-08-06.
[19] CERN experiments observe particle consistent with longsought Higgs boson. CERN. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 201207-04.
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
[20] Observation of a New Particle with a Mass of 125 GeV.

CERN. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-05.
[21] ATLAS Experiment. ATLAS. 1 January 2006. Retrieved
2012-07-05.
[22] Conrmed: CERN discovers new particle likely to be the
Higgs boson. YouTube. Russia Today. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
[23] D. Overbye (4 July 2012). A New Particle Could Be
Physics Holy Grail. New York Times. Retrieved 2012-0704.
[24] New results indicate that new particle is a Higgs boson.
CERN. 14 March 2013. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
[25] http://home.web.cern.ch/about/physics/standard-model
Ocial CERN website
[26] http://www.pha.jhu.edu/~{}dfehling/particle.gif
[27] BABAR Data in Tension with the Standard Model. SLAC.
31 May 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
[28] BaBar
Collaboration
(2012).
Evidence
for an excess of B D(*) decays.
109 (10):
101802.
arXiv:1205.5442 .
Bibcode:2012PhRvL.109j1802L.
[29] BaBar data hint at cracks in the Standard Model. e! Science News. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
[30] J. Bagdonaite; et al.
(2012).
A Stringent
Limit on a Drifting Proton-to-Electron Mass Ratio from Alcohol in the Early Universe.
Science.
339 (6115):
46.
Bibcode:2013Sci...339...46B.
doi:10.1126/science.1224898.
[31] C. Moskowitz (13 December 2012). Phew! Universes
Constant Has Stayed Constant. Space.com. Retrieved
2012-12-14.
[32] Particle chameleon caught in the act of changing. CERN.
31 May 2010. Retrieved 2012-07-05.
[33] S. Weinberg (1979).
Baryon and Lepton Nonconserving Processes.
43 (21):
1566.
[34] P. Minkowski (1977). " e at a Rate of One
Out of 109 Muon Decays?". Physics Letters B. 67 (4):
421. Bibcode:1977PhLB...67..421M. doi:10.1016/03702693(77)90435-X.
[35] R. N. Mohapatra; G. Senjanovic (1980).
Neutrino Mass and Spontaneous Parity Nonconservation.
44 (14):
Bibcode:1980PhRvL..44..912M.
912915.
4.1. STANDARD MODEL
71
[36] M. Gell-Mann, P. Ramond & R. Slansky (1979). F. van

Nieuwenhuizen & D. Z. Freedman, eds. Supergravity. North
Holland. pp. 315321. ISBN 0-444-85438-X.
L. O'Raifeartaigh (1988). Group structure of gauge

theories. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52134785-8.
[37] A. Blumhofer; M. Hutter (1997). Family Structure from

Periodic Solutions of an Improved Gap Equation. Nuclear
Physics. B484: 8096. Bibcode:1997NuPhB.484...80B.
doi:10.1016/S0550-3213(96)00644-X.
Nagashima Y. Elementary Particle Physics: Foundations of the Standard Model, Volume 2. (Wiley 2013)
920
[38] Salvio, Strumia (2014-03-17). Agravity. JHEP. 6:

080. arXiv:1403.4226 . Bibcode:2014JHEP...06..080S.
doi:10.1007/JHEP06(2014)080.
Schwartz, M.D. Quantum Field Theory and the Standard Model (ambridge University Press 2013) 952
pages
4.1.11
Langacker P. The standard model and beyond. (CRC

Press, 2010) 670 pages Highlights group-theoretical
aspects of the Standard Model.
Further reading
R. Oerter (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything:

The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern
Journal articles
Physics. Plume.
B.A. Schumm (2004). Deep Down Things: The
Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7971-X.
The Standard Model of Particle Physics Interactive
Graphic.
Introductory textbooks
I. Aitchison; A. Hey (2003). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics: A Practical Introduction. Institute of
Physics. ISBN 978-0-585-44550-2.
W. Greiner; B. Mller (2000). Gauge Theory of Weak
Interactions. Springer. ISBN 3-540-67672-4.
G.D. Coughlan; J.E. Dodd; B.M. Gripaios (2006).
The Ideas of Particle Physics: An Introduction for Scientists. Cambridge University Press.
D.J. Griths (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-60386-4.
G.L. Kane (1987). Modern Elementary Particle
Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN 0-201-11749-5.
Advanced textbooks
T.P. Cheng; L.F. Li (2006). Gauge theory of elementary particle physics. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-851961-3. Highlights the gauge theory aspects
of the Standard Model.
E.S. Abers; B.W. Lee (1973).

Gauge
theories.
Physics Reports.
9:
1141.
Bibcode:1973PhR.....9....1A.
doi:10.1016/03701573(73)90027-6.
M. Baak; et al. (2012). The Electroweak Fit of the
Standard Model after the Discovery of a New Boson at
the LHC. The European Physical Journal C. 72 (11).
arXiv:1209.2716 . Bibcode:2012EPJC...72.2205B.
doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-012-2205-9.
Y. Hayato; et al.
(1999).
Search for Proton Decay through p K + in a Large
Water Cherenkov Detector.
83 (8):
1529.
arXiv:hepBibcode:1999PhRvL..83.1529H.
ex/9904020 .
S.F. Novaes (2000). Standard Model: An Introduction. arXiv:hep-ph/0001283 [hep-ph].
D.P. Roy (1999). Basic Constituents of Matter and
their Interactions A Progress Report. arXiv:hepph/9912523 [hep-ph].
F. Wilczek (2004).
The Universe Is A
Strange Place.
Nuclear Physics B - ProarXiv:astroceedings Supplements.
134: 3.
ph/0401347 .
Bibcode:2004NuPhS.134....3W.
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2004.08.001.
J.F. Donoghue; E. Golowich; B.R. Holstein (1994).

Dynamics of the Standard Model. Cambridge Uni- 4.1.12 External links
versity Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47652-2. Highlights
"The Standard Model explained in Detail by CERNs
dynamical and phenomenological aspects of the Standard Model.
John Ellis" omega tau podcast.
72
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
"The Standard Model" The Standard Model on the

CERN web site explains how the basic building blocks
of matter interact, governed by four fundamental
forces.
protons, and neutrons (protons and neutrons are composite particles called baryons, made of quarks), produced
by radioactive and scattering processes, such as photons,
neutrinos, and muons, as well as a wide range of exotic particles. Dynamics of particles is also governed by quantum
Standard Model on YouTube
mechanics; they exhibit waveparticle duality, displaying
particle-like behaviour under certain experimental conditions and wave-like behaviour in others. In more technical terms, they are described by quantum state vectors in a
4.2 Particle physics
Hilbert space, which is also treated in quantum eld theory. Following the convention of particle physicists, the
For other uses of the word particle in physics and term elementary particles is applied to those particles that
elsewhere, see particle (disambiguation).
are, according to current understanding, presumed to be indivisible and not composed of other particles.[3]
Particle physics (also high energy physics) is the branch All particles and their interactions observed to date can be
of physics that studies the nature of the particles that con- described almost entirely by a quantum eld theory called
stitute matter (particles with mass) and radiation (massless the Standard Model.[4] The Standard Model, as currently
particles). Although the word "particle" can refer to vari- formulated, has 61 elementary particles.[3] Those elemenous types of very small objects (e.g. protons, gas particles, tary particles can combine to form composite particles, acor even household dust), particle physics usually investi- counting for the hundreds of other species of particles that
gates the irreducibly smallest detectable particles and the have been discovered since the 1960s. The Standard Model
irreducibly fundamental force elds necessary to explain has been found to agree with almost all the experimental
them. By our current understanding, these elementary par- tests conducted to date. However, most particle physicists
ticles are excitations of the quantum elds that also govern believe that it is an incomplete description of nature and that
their interactions. The currently dominant theory explain- a more fundamental theory awaits discovery (See Theory
ing these fundamental particles and elds, along with their of Everything). In recent years, measurements of neutrino
dynamics, is called the Standard Model. Thus, modern par- mass have provided the rst experimental deviations from
ticle physics generally investigates the Standard Model and the Standard Model.
its various possible extensions, e.g. to the newest known
particle, the Higgs boson, or even to the oldest known force
eld, gravity.[1][2]
4.2.2
4.2.1
Subatomic particles
History
Main article: History of subatomic physics
The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles

dates to at least the 6th century BC.[5] In the 19th century,
John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry, concluded
that each element of nature was composed of a single,
unique type of particle.[6] The word atom, after the Greek
word atomos meaning indivisible, denotes the smallest
particle of a chemical element since then, but physicists
soon discovered that atoms are not, in fact, the fundamental particles of nature, but conglomerates of even smaller
particles, such as the electron. The early 20th-century explorations of nuclear physics and quantum physics culminated in proofs of nuclear ssion in 1939 by Lise Meitner
(based on experiments by Otto Hahn), and nuclear fusion
by Hans Bethe in that same year; both discoveries also led
to the development of nuclear weapons. Throughout the
The particle content of the Standard Model of Physics
1950s and 1960s, a bewildering variety of particles were
found in scattering experiments. It was referred to as the
Modern particle physics research is focused on subatomic "particle zoo". That term was deprecated after the formuparticles, including atomic constituents such as electrons, lation of the Standard Model during the 1970s in which the
4.2. PARTICLE PHYSICS

large number of particles was explained as combinations of
a (relatively) small number of fundamental particles.
4.2.3
Standard Model
Main article: Standard Model

The current state of the classication of all elementary particles is explained by the Standard Model. It describes
the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions, using mediating gauge bosons. The species of
gauge bosons are the gluons, W, W+ and Z bosons,
and the photons.[4] The Standard Model also contains 24
fundamental particles, (12 particles and their associated
anti-particles), which are the constituents of all matter.[7]
Finally, the Standard Model also predicted the existence of
a type of boson known as the Higgs boson. Early in the
morning on 4 July 2012, physicists with the Large Hadron
Collider at CERN announced they had found a new particle that behaves similarly to what is expected from the Higgs
boson.[8]
4.2.4
Experimental laboratories
In particle physics, the major international laboratories are

located at the:
Brookhaven National Laboratory (Long Island, United
States). Its main facility is the Relativistic Heavy Ion
Collider (RHIC), which collides heavy ions such as
gold ions and polarized protons. It is the worlds rst
heavy ion collider, and the worlds only polarized proton collider.[9]
Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (Novosibirsk,
Russia). Its main projects are now the electronpositron colliders VEPP-2000,[10] operated since
2006, and VEPP-4,[11] started experiments in 1994.
Earlier facilities include the rst electron-electron
beam-beam collider VEP-1, which conducted experiments from 1964 to 1968; the electron-positron
colliders VEPP-2, operated from 1965 to 1974; and,
its successor VEPP-2M,[12] performed experiments
from 1974 to 2000.[13]
CERN, (Conseil Europen pour la Recherche Nuclaire) (Franco-Swiss border, near Geneva). Its main
project is now the Large Hadron Collider (LHC),
which had its rst beam circulation on 10 September
2008, and is now the worlds most energetic collider
of protons. It also became the most energetic collider
of heavy ions after it began colliding lead ions. Earlier
facilities include the Large ElectronPositron Collider
73
(LEP), which was stopped on 2 November 2000 and
then dismantled to give way for LHC; and the Super
Proton Synchrotron, which is being reused as a preaccelerator for the LHC.[14]
DESY
(Deutsches
Elektronen-Synchrotron)
(Hamburg, Germany).
Its main facility is the
Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage (HERA), which
collides electrons and positrons with protons.[15]
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab),
(Batavia, United States). Its main facility until 2011
was the Tevatron, which collided protons and antiprotons and was the highest-energy particle collider on
earth until the Large Hadron Collider surpassed it on
29 November 2009.[16]
Institute of High Energy Physics (IHEP), (Beijing,
China). IHEP manages a number of Chinas major
particle physics facilities, including the Beijing Electron Positron Collider (BEPC), the Beijing Spectrometer (BES), the Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility
(BSRF), the International Cosmic-Ray Observatory at
Yangbajing in Tibet, the Daya Bay Reactor Neutrino
Experiment, the China Spallation Neutron Source, the
Hard X-ray Modulation Telescope (HXMT), and the
Accelerator-driven Sub-critical System (ADS) as well
as the Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory
(JUNO). [17]
KEK, (Tsukuba, Japan). It is the home of a number of
experiments such as the K2K experiment, a neutrino
oscillation experiment and Belle, an experiment measuring the CP violation of B mesons.[18]
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, (Menlo Park,
United States). Its 2-mile-long linear particle accelerator began operating in 1962 and was the basis for
numerous electron and positron collision experiments
until 2008. Since then the linear accelerator is being used for the Linac Coherent Light Source X-ray
laser as well as advanced accelerator design research.
SLAC sta continue to participate in developing and
building many particle physics experiments around the
world.[19]
Many other particle accelerators do exist.
The techniques required to do modern, experimental, particle physics are quite varied and complex, constituting a
sub-specialty nearly completely distinct from the theoretical side of the eld.
74
4.2.5
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
Theory
imaging), or used directly for certain cancer treatments.

The development of Superconductors has been pushed forTheoretical particle physics attempts to develop the mod- ward by their use in particle physics. The World Wide
els, theoretical framework, and mathematical tools to un- Web and touchscreen technology were initially developed
derstand current experiments and make predictions for fu- at CERN.
ture experiments. See also theoretical physics. There are
Additional applications are found in medicine, national seseveral major interrelated eorts being made in theoreticurity, industry, computing, science, and workforce decal particle physics today. One important branch attempts
velopment, illustrating a long and growing list of beneto better understand the Standard Model and its tests. By
cial practical applications with contributions from particle
extracting the parameters of the Standard Model, from exphysics.[21]
periments with less uncertainty, this work probes the limits of the Standard Model and therefore expands our understanding of natures building blocks. Those eorts are 4.2.7 Future
made challenging by the diculty of calculating quantities in quantum chromodynamics. Some theorists working The primary goal, which is pursued in several distinct ways,
in this area refer to themselves as phenomenologists and is to nd and understand what physics may lie beyond the
they may use the tools of quantum eld theory and eective standard model. There are several powerful experimental
eld theory. Others make use of lattice eld theory and call reasons to expect new physics, including dark matter and
themselves lattice theorists.
neutrino mass. There are also theoretical hints that this new
Another major eort is in model building where model
builders develop ideas for what physics may lie beyond the
Standard Model (at higher energies or smaller distances).
This work is often motivated by the hierarchy problem and
is constrained by existing experimental data. It may involve work on supersymmetry, alternatives to the Higgs
mechanism, extra spatial dimensions (such as the RandallSundrum models), Preon theory, combinations of these, or
other ideas.
physics should be found at accessible energy scales.
Much of the eort to nd this new physics are focused

on new collider experiments. The Large Hadron Collider
(LHC) was completed in 2008 to help continue the search
for the Higgs boson, supersymmetric particles, and other
new physics. An intermediate goal is the construction of
the International Linear Collider (ILC), which will complement the LHC by allowing more precise measurements of
the properties of newly found particles. In August 2004, a
A third major eort in theoretical particle physics is string decision for the technology of the ILC was taken but the
theory. String theorists attempt to construct a unied de- site has still to be agreed upon.
scription of quantum mechanics and general relativity by In addition, there are important non-collider experiments
building a theory based on small strings, and branes rather that also attempt to nd and understand physics beyond the
than particles. If the theory is successful, it may be consid- Standard Model. One important non-collider eort is the
ered a "Theory of Everything", or TOE.
determination of the neutrino masses, since these masses
There are also other areas of work in theoretical particle may arise from neutrinos mixing with very heavy particles.
physics ranging from particle cosmology to loop quantum In addition, cosmological observations provide many useful
constraints on the dark matter, although it may be impossigravity.
ble to determine the exact nature of the dark matter without
This division of eorts in particle physics is reected in
the colliders. Finally, lower bounds on the very long lifetime
the names of categories on the arXiv, a preprint archive:[20]
of the proton put constraints on Grand Unied Theories at
hep-th (theory), hep-ph (phenomenology), hep-ex (experienergy scales much higher than collider experiments will be
ments), hep-lat (lattice gauge theory).
able to probe any time soon.
In May 2014, the Particle Physics Project Prioritization
Panel released its report on particle physics funding priorities for the United States over the next decade. This report
In principle, all physics (and practical applications devel- emphasized continued U.S. participation in the LHC and
oped there from) can be derived from the study of fun- ILC, and expansion of the Long Baseline Neutrino Experdamental particles. In practice, even if particle physics iment, among other recommendations.
is taken to mean only high-energy atom smashers, many
technologies have been developed during these pioneering investigations that later nd wide uses in society. 4.2.8 See also
Cyclotrons are used to produce medical isotopes for research and treatment (for example, isotopes used in PET
Atomic physics
4.2.6
Practical applications
4.2. PARTICLE PHYSICS

High pressure
International Conference on High Energy Physics
Introduction to quantum mechanics
List of accelerators in particle physics
List of particles
Magnetic monopole
75
[9] Brookhaven National Laboratory A Passion for Discovery. Bnl.gov. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
[10] index. Vepp2k.inp.nsk.su. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
[11] The
VEPP-4
accelerating-storage
V4.inp.nsk.su. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
complex.
[12] VEPP-2M collider complex (in Russian). Inp.nsk.su. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
Micro black hole
[13] The Budker Institute Of Nuclear Physics. English Russia.

21 January 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
Number theory
[14] Welcome to. Info.cern.ch. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
Resonance (particle physics)

Self-consistency principle in high energy Physics
[15] Germanys largest accelerator centre Deutsches

Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY. Desy.de. Retrieved 23
June 2012.
Non-extensive self-consistent thermodynamical the- [16] Fermilab | Home. Fnal.gov. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
ory
Standard Model (mathematical formulation)
Stanford Physics Information Retrieval System
Timeline of particle physics
Unparticle physics
Tetraquark
4.2.9
References
[17] IHEP | Home. ihep.ac.cn. Retrieved 29 November 2015.

[18] Kek | High Energy Accelerator Research Organization.
Legacy.kek.jp. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
[19] SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory Home Page. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
[20] arxiv.org
[21] Fermilab | Science at Fermilab | Benets to Society.
Fnal.gov. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
[1] http://home.web.cern.ch/topics/higgs-boson
4.2.10
Further reading
[2] http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/
2013/advanced-physicsprize2013.pdf
Introductory reading
[3] Braibant, S.; Giacomelli, G.; Spurio, M. (2009). Particles

and Fundamental Interactions: An Introduction to Particle
Physics. Springer. pp. 313314. ISBN 978-94-007-24631.
Close, Frank (2004). Particle Physics: A Very Short

Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19280434-0.
[4] Particle Physics and Astrophysics Research. The Henryk

Niewodniczanski Institute of Nuclear Physics. Retrieved 31
May 2012.
Close, Frank; Marten, Michael; Sutton, Christine

(2004). The Particle Odyssey: A Journey to the
Heart of the Matter. Oxford University Press. ISBN
9780198609438.
[5] Fundamentals of Physics and Nuclear Physics (PDF). Retrieved 21 July 2012.
[6] Scientic Explorer:
Quasiparticles.
Sciexplorer.blogspot.com.
22 May 2012.
Retrieved 21
July 2012.
[7] Nakamura, K (1 July 2010).
Review of Particle
Physics. Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle
Physics. 37 (7A): 075021. Bibcode:2010JPhG...37g5021N.
doi:10.1088/0954-3899/37/7A/075021.
[8] Mann, Adam (28 March 2013). Newly Discovered Particle
Appears to Be Long-Awaited Higgs Boson - Wired Science.
Wired.com. Retrieved 6 February 2014.
Ford, Kenneth W. (2005).

Harvard University Press.
The Quantum World.
Oerter, Robert (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of
Modern Physics. Plume.
Schumm, Bruce A. (2004). Deep Down Things: The
Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7971-X.
Close, Frank (2006). The New Cosmic Onion. Taylor
& Francis. ISBN 1-58488-798-2.
76
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
Advanced reading
When considering extensions of the Standard Model, the sprex from sparticle is used to form names of superpartners
of the Standard Model fermions, e.g. the stop squark.
Robinson, Matthew B.; Bland, Karen R.; Cleaver,
The
superpartners
of Standard Model Bosons have an -ino
Gerald. B.; Dittmann, Jay R. (2008). A Simple Introappended to their name, e.g. gluino, the set of all gauge
duction to Particle Physics. arXiv:0810.3328 [hepsuperpartners are called the gauginos.
th].
Robinson, Matthew B.; Ali, Tibra; Cleaver, Gerald B.
4.3.1 Theoretical predictions
(2009). A Simple Introduction to Particle Physics
Part II. arXiv:0908.1395 [hep-th].
According to the supersymmetry theory, each fermion
Griths, David J. (1987). Introduction to Elementary should have a partner boson, the fermions superpartner,
Particles. Wiley, John & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471- and each boson should have a partner fermion. Exact unbroken supersymmetry would predict that a particle and its
60386-4.
superpartners would have the same mass. No superpartners
Kane, Gordon L. (1987). Modern Elementary Particle of the Standard Model particles have yet been found. This
may indicate that supersymmetry is incorrect, or it may also
Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN 0-201-11749-5.
be the result of the fact that supersymmetry is not an exact,
Perkins, Donald H. (1999). Introduction to High En- unbroken symmetry of nature. If superpartners are found,
ergy Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0- their masses would indicate the scale at which supersym521-62196-8.
metry is broken.[1][3]
Povh, Bogdan (1995). Particles and Nuclei: An In- For particles that are real scalars (such as an axion), there is
troduction to the Physical Concepts. Springer-Verlag. a fermion superpartner as well as a second, real scalar eld.
For axions, these particles are often referred to as axinos
ISBN 0-387-59439-6.
and saxions.
Boyarkin, Oleg (2011). Advanced Particle Physics
In extended supersymmetry there may be more than one
Two-Volume Set. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398superparticle for a given particle. For instance, with two
0412-4.
copies of supersymmetry in four dimensions, a photon
would have two fermion superpartners and a scalar superpartner.
4.2.11
External links
Symmetry magazine
Fermilab
In zero dimensions it is possible to have supersymmetry, but

no superpartners. However, this is the only situation where
supersymmetry does not imply the existence of superpartners.
Particle physics it matters the Institute of Physics
4.3.2
Recreating superpartners
Nobes, Matthew (2002) Introduction to the Standard

Model of Particle Physics on Kuro5hin: Part 1, Part
If the supersymmetry theory is correct, it should be possible
2, Part 3a, Part 3b.
to recreate these particles in high-energy particle accelerators.
Doing so will not be an easy task; these particles may
CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research
have masses up to a thousand times greater than their cor The Particle Adventure educational project spon- responding real particles.[1]
sored by the Particle Data Group of the Lawrence Some researchers have hoped the Large Hadron Collider at
Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL)
CERN might produce evidence for the existence of super-
4.3 Superpartner
In particle physics, a superpartner (also sparticle) is a hypothetical elementary particle. Supersymmetry is one of
the synergistic theories in current high-energy physics that
predicts the existence of these shadow particles.[1][2]
partner particles.[1] However, as of 2013, no such evidence

has been found.[4]
4.3.3
See also
Chargino
Gluino
4.4. SUPERSYMMETRY
77
Gravitino as a superpartner of the hypothetical gravi- of which diers by a half-integer. In a theory with perton
fectly "unbroken" supersymmetry, each pair of superpartners would share the same mass and internal quantum num Higgsino
bers besides spin. For example, there would be a selectron (superpartner electron), a bosonic version of the
Neutralino
electron with the same mass as the electron, that would
be easy to nd in a laboratory. Thus, since no superpart Sfermion
ners have been observed, if supersymmetry exists it must
be a spontaneously broken symmetry so that superpartners
4.3.4 References
may dier in mass.[2][3] Spontaneously-broken supersymmetry could solve many mysterious problems in particle
[1] Langacker, Paul (November 22, 2010).
Sprouse, physics including the hierarchy problem. The simplest reGene D., ed.
Meet a superpartner at the LHC. alization of spontaneously-broken supersymmetry, the soPhysics. New York: American Physical Society. 3 (98).
called Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, is one of
Bibcode:2010PhyOJ...3...98L. doi:10.1103/Physics.3.98.
the best studied candidates for physics beyond the Standard
ISSN 1943-2879. OCLC 233971234. Archived from the
Model.
original on 2011-02-22. Retrieved 21 February 2011.
[2] Overbye, Dennis (May 15, 2007). A Giant Takes
On Physics Biggest Questions. The New York Times.
Manhattan, New York: Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr. p. F1.
ISSN 0362-4331. OCLC 1645522. Retrieved 21 February
2011.
[3] Quigg, Chris (January 17, 2008). Sidebar: Solving the
Higgs Puzzle. Scientic American. Nature Publishing
Group. ISSN 0036-8733. OCLC 1775222. Archived from
the original on 2011-02-22. Retrieved 21 February 2011.
[4] Jamieson, Valerie (13 December 2013). Higgs Nobel bash:
I was at the party of the universe. New Scientist. Retrieved
20 December 2013. So far the Higgs hasn't given many supersymmetric clues.
There is only indirect evidence and motivation for the existence of supersymmetry. Direct conrmation would entail
production of superpartners in collider experiments, such as
the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). The rst run of the LHC
found no evidence for supersymmetry (all results were consistent with the Standard Model), and thus set limits on superpartner masses in supersymmetric theories. While some
remain enthusiastic about supersymmetry,[4] this rst run at
the LHC led some physicists to explore other ideas.[5] The
LHC resumed its search for supersymmetry and other new
physics in its second run.
4.4.1
4.3.5
Motivations
External links
Argonne National Laboratory

There are numerous phenomenological motivations for supersymmetry close to the electroweak scale, as well as technical motivations for supersymmetry at any scale.
CERN homepage
4.4 Supersymmetry
SUSY redirects here. For other uses, see Susy (disambiguation).
For the episode of the American TV series Angel, see
Supersymmetry (Angel).
In particle physics, supersymmetry (SUSY) is a proposed
type of spacetime symmetry that relates two basic classes
of elementary particles: bosons, which have an integervalued spin, and fermions, which have a half-integer spin.[1]
Each particle from one group is associated with a particle from the other, known as its superpartner, the spin
The hierarchy problem

Supersymmetry close to the electroweak scale ameliorates
the hierarchy problem that aicts the Standard Model.[6] In
the Standard Model, the electroweak scale receives enormous Planck-scale quantum corrections. The observed
hierarchy between the electroweak scale and the Planck
scale must be achieved with extraordinary ne tuning. In
a supersymmetric theory, on the other hand, Planck-scale
quantum corrections cancel between partners and superpartners (owing to a minus sign associated with fermionic
loops). The hierarchy between the electroweak scale and
the Planck scale is achieved in a natural manner, without
miraculous ne-tuning.
78
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
Gauge coupling unication

The idea that the gauge symmetry groups unify at highenergy is called Grand unication theory. In the Standard
Model, however, the weak, strong and electromagnetic couplings fail to unify at high energy. In a supersymmetry
theory, the running of the gauge couplings are modied,
and precise high-energy unication of the gauge couplings
is achieved. The modied running also provides a natural
mechanism for radiative electroweak symmetry breaking.
Dark matter
TeV-scale supersymmetry (augmented with a discrete symmetry) typically provides a candidate dark matter particle at a mass scale consistent with thermal relic abundance
calculations.[7][8]
Other technical motivations
Supersymmetry is also motivated by solutions to several
theoretical problems, for generally providing many desirable mathematical properties, and for ensuring sensible behavior at high energies. Supersymmetric quantum eld theory is often much easier to analyze, as many more problems become exactly solvable. When supersymmetry is imposed as a local symmetry, Einsteins theory of general relativity is included automatically, and the result is said to
be a theory of supergravity. It is also a necessary feature
of the most popular candidate for a theory of everything,
superstring theory, and a SUSY theory could explain the
issue of cosmological ination.
Another theoretically appealing property of supersymmetry is that it oers the only loophole to the Coleman
Mandula theorem, which prohibits spacetime and internal symmetries from being combined in any nontrivial
way, for quantum eld theories like the Standard Model
with very general assumptions. The Haag-LopuszanskiSohnius theorem demonstrates that supersymmetry is the
only way spacetime and internal symmetries can be combined consistently.[9]
4.4.2
History
A supersymmetry relating mesons and baryons was rst

proposed, in the context of hadronic physics, by Hironari
Miyazawa during 1966. This supersymmetry did not involve spacetime, that is, it concerned internal symmetry,
and was broken badly. Miyazawas work was largely ignored
at the time.[10][11][12][13]
J. L. Gervais and B. Sakita (during 1971),[14] Yu. A. Gol-
fand and E. P. Likhtman (also during 1971), and D.V.

Volkov and V.P. Akulov (1972),[15] independently rediscovered supersymmetry in the context of quantum eld theory, a radically new type of symmetry of spacetime and fundamental elds, which establishes a relationship between elementary particles of dierent quantum nature, bosons and
fermions, and unies spacetime and internal symmetries of
microscopic phenomena. Supersymmetry with a consistent
Lie-algebraic graded structure on which the GervaisSakita
rediscovery was based directly rst arose during 1971[16] in
the context of an early version of string theory by Pierre
Ramond, John H. Schwarz and Andr Neveu.
Finally, Julius Wess and Bruno Zumino (during 1974)[17]
identied the characteristic renormalization features of
four-dimensional supersymmetric eld theories, which
identied them as remarkable QFTs, and they and Abdus
Salam and their fellow researchers introduced early particle physics applications. The mathematical structure
of supersymmetry (Graded Lie superalgebras) has subsequently been applied successfully to other topics of physics,
ranging from nuclear physics,[18][19] critical phenomena,[20]
quantum mechanics to statistical physics. It remains a vital
part of many proposed theories of physics.
The rst realistic supersymmetric version of the Standard
Model was proposed during 1977 by Pierre Fayet and is
known as the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model or
MSSM for short. It was proposed to solve, amongst other
things, the hierarchy problem.
4.4.3
Applications
Extension of possible symmetry groups

One reason that physicists explored supersymmetry is because it oers an extension to the more familiar symmetries
of quantum eld theory. These symmetries are grouped
into the Poincar group and internal symmetries and the
ColemanMandula theorem showed that under certain assumptions, the symmetries of the S-matrix must be a direct product of the Poincar group with a compact internal symmetry group or if there is not any mass gap, the
conformal group with a compact internal symmetry group.
During 1971 Golfand and Likhtman were the rst to show
that the Poincar algebra can be extended through introduction of four anticommuting spinor generators (in four
dimensions), which later became known as supercharges.
During 1975 the Haag-Lopuszanski-Sohnius theorem analyzed all possible superalgebras in the general form, including those with an extended number of the supergenerators
and central charges. This extended super-Poincar algebra
paved the way for obtaining a very large and important class
of supersymmetric eld theories.
4.4. SUPERSYMMETRY
The supersymmetry
Supersymmetry algebra
79
algebra
Main
article:
Traditional symmetries of physics are generated by objects that transform by the tensor representations of the
Poincar group and internal symmetries. Supersymmetries, however, are generated by objects that transform by
the spinor representations. According to the spin-statistics
theorem, bosonic elds commute while fermionic elds
anticommute. Combining the two kinds of elds into a single algebra requires the introduction of a Z2 -grading under
which the bosons are the even elements and the fermions
are the odd elements. Such an algebra is called a Lie superalgebra.
The simplest supersymmetric extension of the Poincar algebra is the Super-Poincar algebra. Expressed in terms of
two Weyl spinors, has the following anti-commutation relation:
Cancellation of the Higgs boson quadratic mass renormalization

between fermionic top quark loop and scalar stop squark tadpole
Feynman diagrams in a supersymmetric extension of the Standard
Model
{Q , Q}
= 2( ) P
and all other anti-commutation relations between the Qs and

commutation relations between the Qs and Ps vanish. In the
above expression P = i are the generators of translation and are the Pauli matrices.
There are representations of a Lie superalgebra that are
analogous to representations of a Lie algebra. Each Lie algebra has an associated Lie group and a Lie superalgebra
can sometimes be extended into representations of a Lie
supergroup.
The Supersymmetric Standard Model
Main article: Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model
Incorporating supersymmetry into the Standard Model requires doubling the number of particles since there is no
way that any of the particles in the Standard Model can
be superpartners of each other. With the addition of new
particles, there are many possible new interactions. The
simplest possible supersymmetric model consistent with the
Standard Model is the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard
Model (MSSM) which can include the necessary additional
new particles that are able to be superpartners of those in
the Standard Model.
One of the main motivations for SUSY comes from the
quadratically divergent contributions to the Higgs mass
squared. The quantum mechanical interactions of the Higgs
boson causes a large renormalization of the Higgs mass and
unless there is an accidental cancellation, the natural size
of the Higgs mass is the greatest scale possible. This problem is known as the hierarchy problem. Supersymmetry
reduces the size of the quantum corrections by having automatic cancellations between fermionic and bosonic Higgs
interactions. If supersymmetry is restored at the weak scale,
then the Higgs mass is related to supersymmetry breaking
which can be induced from small non-perturbative eects
explaining the vastly dierent scales in the weak interactions and gravitational interactions.
In many supersymmetric Standard Models there is a heavy
stable particle (such as neutralino) which could serve as a
weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter
candidate. The existence of a supersymmetric dark matter
candidate is related closely to R-parity.
The standard paradigm for incorporating supersymmetry
into a realistic theory is to have the underlying dynamics
of the theory be supersymmetric, but the ground state of
the theory does not respect the symmetry and supersymmetry is broken spontaneously. The supersymmetry break can
not be done permanently by the particles of the MSSM as
they currently appear. This means that there is a new sector
of the theory that is responsible for the breaking. The only
constraint on this new sector is that it must break supersymmetry permanently and must give superparticles TeV scale
masses. There are many models that can do this and most
of their details do not matter. In order to parameterize the
relevant features of supersymmetry breaking, arbitrary soft
SUSY breaking terms are added to the theory which temporarily break SUSY explicitly but could never arise from
a complete theory of supersymmetry breaking.
80
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
Gauge-coupling unication
Main article: Minimal the 'statistics don't matter. The use of the supersymmeSupersymmetric Standard Model Gauge-coupling uni- try method provides a mathematical rigorous alternative to
cation
the replica trick, but only in non-interacting systems, which
attempts to address the so-called 'problem of the denomiOne piece of evidence for supersymmetry existing is gauge nator' under disorder averaging. For more on the applicaof supersymmetry in condensed matter physics see the
coupling unication. The renormalization group evolution tions [22]
book
of the three gauge coupling constants of the Standard Model
is somewhat sensitive to the present particle content of the
theory. These coupling constants do not quite meet together
at a common energy scale if we run the renormalization
group using the Standard Model.[21] With the addition of
minimal SUSY joint convergence of the coupling constants
is projected at approximately 1016 GeV.[21]
Supersymmetric quantum mechanics
Main article: Supersymmetric quantum mechanics
Supersymmetry in optics
Integrated optics was recently found[23] to provide a fertile
ground on which certain ramications of SUSY can be explored in readily-accessible laboratory settings. Making use
of the analogous mathematical structure of the quantummechanical Schrdinger equation and the wave equation
governing the evolution of light in one-dimensional settings, one may interpret the refractive index distribution of
a structure as a potential landscape in which optical wave
packets propagate. In this manner, a new class of functional
optical structures with possible applications in phase matching, mode conversion[24] and space-division multiplexing
becomes possible. SUSY transformations have been also
proposed as a way to address inverse scattering problems in
optics and as a one-dimensional transformation optics [25]
Supersymmetric quantum mechanics adds the SUSY superalgebra to quantum mechanics as opposed to quantum eld
theory. Supersymmetric quantum mechanics often becomes relevant when studying the dynamics of supersymmetric solitons, and due to the simplied nature of having
elds which are only functions of time (rather than spacetime), a great deal of progress has been made in this subject
Mathematics
and it is now studied in its own right.
SUSY quantum mechanics involves pairs of Hamiltonians
which share a particular mathematical relationship, which
are called partner Hamiltonians. (The potential energy
terms which occur in the Hamiltonians are then known as
partner potentials.) An introductory theorem shows that for
every eigenstate of one Hamiltonian, its partner Hamiltonian has a corresponding eigenstate with the same energy.
This fact can be exploited to deduce many properties of the
eigenstate spectrum. It is analogous to the original description of SUSY, which referred to bosons and fermions. We
can imagine a bosonic Hamiltonian, whose eigenstates are
the various bosons of our theory. The SUSY partner of
this Hamiltonian would be fermionic, and its eigenstates
would be the theorys fermions. Each boson would have a
fermionic partner of equal energy.
SUSY is also sometimes studied mathematically for its intrinsic properties. This is because it describes complex
elds satisfying a property known as holomorphy, which allows holomorphic quantities to be exactly computed. This
makes supersymmetric models useful "toy models" of more
realistic theories. A prime example of this has been
the demonstration of S-duality in four-dimensional gauge
theories[26] that interchanges particles and monopoles.
SUSY concepts have provided useful extensions to the

WKB approximation. Additionally, SUSY has been applied to disorder averaged systems both quantum and
non-quantum (through statistical mechanics), the FokkerPlanck equation being an example of a non-quantum theory. The 'supersymmetry' in all these systems arises from
the fact that one is modelling one particle and as such
Extended supersymmetry
The proof of the Atiyah-Singer index theorem is much simplied by the use of supersymmetric quantum mechanics.
4.4.4
General supersymmetry
Supersymmetry appears in many related contexts of theoretical physics. It is possible to have multiple supersymmeSupersymmetry: Applications to condensed matter tries and also have supersymmetric extra dimensions.
physics
Main article: Extended supersymmetry

It is possible to have more than one kind of supersymmetry
transformation. Theories with more than one supersymmetry transformation are known as extended supersymmetric
4.4. SUPERSYMMETRY
81
theories. The more supersymmetry a theory has, the more 4.4.5 Supersymmetry in quantum gravity
constrained are the eld content and interactions. Typically
the number of copies of a supersymmetry is a power of 2,
i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8. In four dimensions, a spinor has four degrees of freedom and thus the minimal number of supersymmetry generators is four in four dimensions and having
eight copies of supersymmetry means that there are 32 su- Supersymmetry is part of a larger enterprise of theoretipersymmetry generators.
cal physics to unify everything we know about the universe
The maximal number of supersymmetry generators possi- into a single consistent set of physical principles, known as
ble is 32. Theories with more than 32 supersymmetry gen- the quest for a Theory of Everything (TOE). A signicant
erators automatically have massless elds with spin greater part of this larger enterprise is the quest for a theory of
than 2. It is not known how to make massless elds with quantum gravity, which would unify the classical theory of
spin greater than two interact, so the maximal number of general relativity and the Standard Model, which explains
supersymmetry generators considered is 32. This is due to the other three basic forces in physics (electromagnetism,
the Weinberg-Witten theorem. This corresponds to an N = the strong interaction, and the weak interaction), and pro8 supersymmetry theory. Theories with 32 supersymme- vides a palette of fundamental particles upon which all four
forces act. Two of the most active methods of forming
tries automatically have a graviton.
a theory of quantum gravity are string theory and loop
For four dimensions there are the following theories, with quantum gravity (LQG), although in theory, supersymmethe corresponding multiplets[27] (CPT adds a copy, when- try could be a component of other theories as well.
ever they are not invariant under such symmetry)
For string theory to be consistent, supersymmetry seems
to be required at some level (although it may be a strongly
N=1
broken symmetry). In particle theory, supersymmetry is
recognized as a way to stabilize the hierarchy between the
Chiral multiplet: (0,1 2 ) Vector multiplet: (1 2 ,1) Gravitino unication scale and the electroweak scale (or the Higgs bomultiplet: (1,3 2 ) Graviton multiplet: (3 2 ,2)
son mass), and can also provide a natural dark matter candidate. String theory also requires extra spatial dimensions
which have to be compactied as in KaluzaKlein theory.
N=2
Loop quantum gravity (LQG) predicts no additional spatial
hypermultiplet: (-1 2 ,02 ,1 2 ) vector multiplet: (0,1 2 2 ,1) su- dimensions, nor anything else about particle physics. These
theories can be formulated in three spatial dimensions and
pergravity multiplet: (1,3 2 2 ,2)
one dimension of time, although in some LQG theories dimensionality is an emergent property of the theory, rather
N=4
than a fundamental assumption of the theory. Also, LQG
is a theory of quantum gravity which does not require suVector multiplet: (1,-1 2 4 ,06 ,1 2 4 ,1) Supergravity multi- persymmetry. Lee Smolin, one of the originators of LQG,
plet: (0,1 2 4 ,16 ,3 2 4 ,2)
has proposed that a loop quantum gravity theory incorporating either supersymmetry or extra dimensions, or both,
be called loop quantum gravity II.
N=8
If experimental evidence conrms supersymmetry in the
(2,-3 2 8 ,128 ,- form of supersymmetric particles such as the neutralino
that is often believed to be the lightest superpartner, some
people believe this would be a major boost to string theory. Since supersymmetry is a required component of string
Supersymmetry in alternate numbers of dimensions
theory, any discovered supersymmetry would be consistent
with string theory. If the Large Hadron Collider and other
It is possible to have supersymmetry in dimensions other major particle physics experiments fail to detect supersymthan four. Because the properties of spinors change drasti- metric partners or evidence of extra dimensions, many vercally between dierent dimensions, each dimension has its sions of string theory which had predicted certain low mass
characteristic. In d dimensions, the size of spinors is ap- superpartners to existing particles may need to be signiproximately 2d/2 or 2(d 1)/2 . Since the maximum number cantly revised. The failure of experiments to discover either
of supersymmetries is 32, the greatest number of dimen- supersymmetric partners or extra spatial dimensions, as of
sions in which a supersymmetric theory can exist is eleven. 2013, has encouraged loop quantum gravity researchers.
Supergravity
multiplet:
1 56 70 1 56 28 3 8
2 ,0 , 2 ,1 , 2 ,2)
82
4.4.6
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
Current status
is Standard Model-like, which is consistent with measurements of the Higgs boson couplings at the LHC.
Supersymmetric models are constrained by a variety of experiments, including measurements of low-energy observ- 4.4.7 See also
ables for example, the anomalous magnetic moment of
the muon at Brookhaven; the WMAP dark matter density
Supersymmetric gauge theory
measurement and direct detection experiments for exam WessZumino model
ple, XENON100 and LUX; and by particle collider experiments, including B-physics, Higgs phenomenology and
Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model
direct searches for superpartners (sparticles), at the Large
ElectronPositron Collider, Tevatron and the LHC.
Supersymmetry as a quantum group
Historically, the tightest limits were from direct production
Quantum group
at colliders. The rst mass limits for squarks and gluinos
were made at CERN by the UA1 experiment and the UA2
Supercharge
experiment at the Super Proton Synchrotron. LEP later
[28]
set very strong limits., which in 2006 were extended by
Supereld
the D0 experiment at the Tevatron.[29][30] From 2003-2015,
WMAP's and Planck's dark matter density measurements
Supergeometry
have strongly constrained supersymmetry models, which,
Supergravity
if they explain dark matter, have to be tuned to invoke a
particular mechanism to suciently reduce the neutralino
Supergroup
density.
Prior to the beginning of the LHC, in 2009 ts of available
Superspace
data to CMSSM and NUHM1 indicated that squarks and
Superpartner
gluinos were most likely to have masses in the 500 to 800
GeV range, though values as high as 2.5 TeV were allowed
with low probabilities. Neutralinos and sleptons were expected to be quite light, with the lightest neutralino and the 4.4.8 References
lightest stau most likely to be found between 100 and 150
[1] Haber, Howie. SUPERSYMMETRY, PART I (THEGeV.[31]
The rst run of the LHC found no evidence for supersymmetry, and, as a result, surpassed existing experimental limits from the Large ElectronPositron Collider and
Tevatron and partially excluded the aforementioned expected ranges.[32]
During 2011 and 2012, the LHC discovered a Higgs boson with a mass of about 125 GeV, and with couplings to
fermions and bosons which are consistent with the Standard
Model. The MSSM predicts that the mass of the lightest
Higgs boson should not be much higher than the mass of
the Z boson, and, in the absence of ne tuning (with the supersymmetry breaking scale on the order of 1 TeV), should
not exceed 130 GeV. Furthermore, for values of the MSSM
parameter tan 3, it predicts a Higgs mass below 114
GeV over most of the parameter space.[33] This region of
Higgs mass was excluded by LEP by 2000. The LHC result
is somewhat problematic for the minimal supersymmetric
model, as the value of 125 GeV is relatively large for the
model and can only be achieved with large radiative loop
corrections from top squarks, which many theorists consider to be unnatural (see naturalness and ne tuning).[34]
On the other hand, the lightest Higgs boson in the MSSM
ORY)" (PDF). Reviews, Tables and Plots. Particle Data

Group (PDG). Retrieved 8 July 2015.
[2] Martin, Stephen P. (1997). A Supersymmetry Primer.

[3] Dine, Michael (2007). Supersymmetry and String Theory:
Beyond the Standard Model. p. 169.
[4] Ellis, John. The Physics Landscape after the Higgs Discovery at the LHC. arXiv:1504.03654 .
[5] Wolchover, Natalie (November 20, 2012). Supersymmetry
Fails Test, Forcing Physics to Seek New Ideas. Quanta
Magazine.
[6] David, Curtin (August 2011). MODEL BUILDING AND
COLLIDER PHYSICS ABOVE THE WEAK SCAE
(PDF) (COLLIDER PHYSICS ABOVE THE WEAK
SCALE).
[7] Jonathan Feng: Supersymmetric Dark Matter (pdf), University of California, Irvine, 11 May 2007
[8] Torsten Bringmann: The WIMP Miracle (pdf) University
of Hamburg
4.4. SUPERSYMMETRY
[9] R. Haag, J. T. Lopuszanski and M. Sohnius, "All Possible

Generators Of Supersymmetries Of The S Matrix", Nucl.
Phys. B 88 (1975) 257
[10] H. Miyazawa (1966).
Baryon Number Changing Currents.
Prog.
Theor.
Phys.
36 (6):
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doi:10.1143/PTP.36.1266.
[11] H. Miyazawa (1968).
Spinor Currents and Symmetries of Baryons and Mesons. Phys. Rev. 170
(5):
15861590.
Bibcode:1968PhRv..170.1586M.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.170.1586.
[12] Michio Kaku, Quantum Field Theory, ISBN 0-19-5091582, pg 663.
[13] Peter Freund, Introduction to Supersymmetry, ISBN 0-52135675-X, pages 26-27, 138.
[14] Gervais, J. -L.; Sakita, B. (1971). Field theory interpretation of supergauges in dual models. Nuclear Physics
B. 34 (2): 632639. Bibcode:1971NuPhB..34..632G.
doi:10.1016/0550-3213(71)90351-8.
[15] D.V. Volkov, V.P. Akulov, Pisma Zh.Eksp.Teor.Fiz. 16
(1972) 621; Phys.Lett. B46 (1973) 109; V.P. Akulov, D.V.
Volkov, Teor.Mat.Fiz. 18 (1974) 39
[16] Ramond, P. (1971).
Dual Theory for Free
Fermions.
Physical Review D. 3 (10):
24152418.
Bibcode:1971PhRvD...3.2415R.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.3.2415.
[17] Wess, J.; Zumino, B. (1974). Supergauge transformations in four dimensions. Nuclear Physics B. 70: 39
50. Bibcode:1974NuPhB..70...39W. doi:10.1016/05503213(74)90355-1.
[18] http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~{}kleinert/kleinert/?p=
supersym suggested here
[19] Iachello, F. (1980).
Dynamical Supersymmetries in Nuclei.
44
(12):
772775.
Bibcode:1980PhRvL..44..772I.
[20] Friedan, D.; Qiu, Z.; Shenker, S. (1984).
Conformal Invariance, Unitarity, and Critical Exponents
in Two Dimensions.
52
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(18):
15751578.
[21] Gordon L. Kane, The Dawn of Physics Beyond the Standard
Model, Scientic American, June 2003, page 60 and The
frontiers of physics, special edition, Vol 15, #3, page 8
[22] Supersymmetry in Disorder and Chaos, Konstantin Efetov,
Cambridge university press, 1997.
83
[23] Miri, M.-A.; Heinrich, M.; El-Ganainy, R.; Christodoulides,

D. N. (2013).
Superymmetric optical structures.
APS. 110 (23): 233902.
arXiv:1304.6646 .
Bibcode:2013PhRvL.110w3902M.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.233902. PMID 25167493.
Retrieved April 2014. Check date values in: |access-date=
(help)
[24] Heinrich, M.; Miri, M.-A.; Sttzer, S.; El-Ganainy,
R.;
Nolte, S.;
Szameit, A.;
Christodoulides,
D. N. (2014).
Superymmetric mode convertNature Communications.
NPG. 5: 3698.
ers.
arXiv:1401.5734 .
Bibcode:2014NatCo...5E3698H.
doi:10.1038/ncomms4698. PMID 24739256. Retrieved
April 2014. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
[25] Miri, M.-A.; Heinrich, Matthias; Christodoulides, D. N.
(2014). SUSY-inspired one-dimensional transformation
optics. Optica. OSA. 1 (2): 89. arXiv:1408.0832 .
doi:10.1364/OPTICA.1.000089. Retrieved August 2014.
Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
[26] Krasnitz, Michael (2002). Correlation functions in supersymmetric gauge theories from supergravity uctuauctuations hHKtions (PDF). Princeton University Department of
Physics: Princeton University Department of Physics. p. 91.
[27] Polchinski,J. String theory. Vol. 2: Superstring theory and
beyond, Appendix B
[28] LEPSUSYWG, ALEPH, DELPHI, L3 and OPAL experiments, charginos, large m0 LEPSUSYWG/01-03.1
[29] The D0-Collaboration (2009).
Search for associated production of charginos and neutralinos in
the trilepton nal state using 2.3 fb1 of data.
arXiv:0901.0646 .
Bibcode:2009PhLB..680...34D.
doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2009.08.011.
[30] The D0 Collaboration (2006). Search for squarks and
gluinos in events with jets and missing transverse energy
using 2.1 fb-1 of pp collision data at s=1.96 TeV.
arXiv:0712.3805 .
Bibcode:2008PhLB..660..449D.
doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.01.042.
[31] O. Buchmueller; et al. (2009). Likelihood Functions
for Supersymmetric Observables in Frequentist Analyses
of the CMSSM and NUHM1. The European Physical Journal C. 64 (3): 391415. arXiv:0907.5568 .
Bibcode:2009EPJC...64..391B. doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052009-1159-z.
[32] Roszkowski, Leszek; Sessolo, Enrico Maria; Williams, Andrew J. (11 August 2014). What next for the CMSSM and
the NUHM: improved prospects for superpartner and dark
matter detection. Journal of High Energy Physics. 2014
(8). arXiv:1405.4289 . Bibcode:2014JHEP...08..067R.
doi:10.1007/JHEP08(2014)067.
84
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
[33] Marcela Carena and Howard E. Haber; Haber (1970).

Higgs Boson Theory and Phenomenology. Progress in
Particle and Nuclear Physics. 50: 63152. arXiv:hepph/0208209v3 .
Bibcode:2003PrPNP..50...63C.
doi:10.1016/S0146-6410(02)00177-1.
[34] Patrick Draper; et al. (December 2011). Implications
of a 125 GeV Higgs for the MSSM and Low-Scale
SUSY Breaking. Physical Review D. 85 (9): 095007.
arXiv:1112.3068 .
Bibcode:2012PhRvD..85i5007D.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.85.095007.
4.4.9
Further reading
Supersymmetry and Supergravity page in String Theory Wiki lists more books and reviews.
Theoretical introductions, free and online
Kane, Gordon L., and Shifman, M., eds. The Supersymmetric World: The Beginnings of the Theory,
World Scientic, Singapore (2000). ISBN 981-024522-X.
Mller-Kirsten, Harald J. W., and Wiedemann,
Armin, Introduction to Supersymmetry, 2nd ed., World
Scientic, Singapore (2010). ISBN 978-981-429341-9.
Weinberg, Steven, The Quantum Theory of Fields,
Volume 3: Supersymmetry, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, (1999). ISBN 0-521-66000-9.
Wess, Julius, and Jonathan Bagger, Supersymmetry
and Supergravity, Princeton University Press, Princeton, (1992). ISBN 0-691-02530-4.
Concise Encyclopedia of Supersymmetry. 2003.
doi:10.1007/1-4020-4522-0.
ISBN 978-1-40201338-6.
S. Martin (2011). A Supersymmetry Primer.

On experiments
Joseph D. Lykken (1996). Introduction to Supersymmetry. arXiv:hep-th/9612114 .
Manuel Drees (1996). An Introduction to Supersymmetry. arXiv:hep-ph/9611409 .
Adel Bilal (2001). Introduction to Supersymmetry.
arXiv:hep-th/0101055 .
An Introduction to Global Supersymmetry by Philip
Arygres, 2001
Monographs
Weak Scale Supersymmetry by Howard Baer and
Xerxes Tata, 2006.
Bennett GW; Muon (g2) Collaboration; Bousquet;

Brown; Bunce; Carey; Cushman; Danby; Debevec;
Deile; Deng; Dhawan; Druzhinin; Duong; Farley;
Fedotovich; Gray; Grigoriev; Grosse-Perdekamp;
Grossmann; Hare; Hertzog; Huang; Hughes; Iwasaki;
Jungmann; Kawall; Khazin; Krienen; Kronkvist; et
al. (2004). Measurement of the negative muon
anomalous magnetic moment to 0.7 ppm. Physical
Review Letters. 92 (16): 161802. arXiv:hepex/0401008 .
Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92p1802B.
PMID
15169217.
Brookhaven National Laboratory (Jan. 8, 2004).
New g2 measurement deviates further from Standard
Model. Press Release.
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Sept 25,
2006). Fermilabs CDF scientists have discovered the
quick-change behavior of the B-sub-s meson. Press Release.
Cooper, F.; Khare, A.; Sukhatme, U. (1995). Supersymmetry and quantum mechanics. Physics Reports.
251 (56): 267385.
arXiv:hep-th/9405029 .
Bibcode:1995PhR...251..267C. doi:10.1016/03701573(94)00080-M. (arXiv:hep-th/9405029).
4.4.10
Junker, G. (1996). Supersymmetric Methods in
Quantum and Statistical Physics. doi:10.1007/9783-642-61194-0. ISBN 978-3-540-61591-0..
Kane, Gordon L., Supersymmetry: Unveiling the Ultimate Laws of Nature, Basic Books, New York (2001).
ISBN 0-7382-0489-7.
External links
Supersymmetry (physics) at Encyclopdia Britannica

What do current LHC results (mid-August 2011) imply about supersymmetry? Matt Strassler
ATLAS Experiment Supersymmetry search documents
4.5. HIGGS BOSON
85
CMS Experiment Supersymmetry search documents
appears to be the rst elementary scalar particle discovered

in nature.[14] More studies are needed to verify that the dis Particle wobble shakes up supersymmetry, Cosmos covered particle has properties matching those predicted for
magazine, September 2006
the Higgs boson by the Standard Model, or whether, as pre[3]
LHC results put supersymmetry theory 'on the spot' dicted by some theories, multiple Higgs bosons exist.
BBC news 27/8/2011
The Higgs boson is named after Peter Higgs, one of six
physicists who, in 1964, proposed the mechanism that sug SUSY running out of hiding places BBC news
gested the existence of such a particle. On December 10,
12/11/2012
2013, two of them, Peter Higgs and Franois Englert, were
awarded
the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work and pre Supersymmetry in optics?". skullsinthestars.com.
diction
(Englerts
co-researcher Robert Brout had died in
Skulls in the Stars. August 22, 2013. Retrieved Au2011
and
the
Nobel
Prize is not ordinarily given posthugust 23, 2016. blog
mously).[15] Although Higgss name has come to be associated with this theory, several researchers between about
1960 and 1972 independently developed dierent parts of
4.5 Higgs boson
it. In mainstream media the Higgs boson has often been
called the God particle, from a 1993 book on the topic;
God Particle redirects here. For the upcoming sci- lm, the nickname is strongly disliked by many physicists, insee God Particle (lm).
cluding Higgs, who regard it as sensationalistic.[16][17][18]
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle in the Standard
Model of particle physics. It is the quantum excitation
of the Higgs eld,[6][7] a fundamental eld of crucial importance to particle physics theory[7] rst suspected to exist in the 1960s. Unlike other known elds such as the
electromagnetic eld, it takes a non-zero constant value almost everywhere. The question of the Higgs elds existence has been the last unveried part of the Standard
Model of particle physics and, according to some, the central problem in particle physics.[8][9]
The presence of this eld, now believed to be conrmed,
explains why some fundamental particles have mass when,
based on the symmetries controlling their interactions, they
should be massless. The existence of the Higgs eld would
also resolve several other long-standing puzzles, such as the
reason for the weak forces extremely short range.
In the Standard Model, the Higgs particle is a boson with

no spin, electric charge, or colour charge. It is also very
unstable, decaying into other particles almost immediately.
It is a quantum excitation of one of the four components
of the Higgs eld. The latter constitutes a scalar eld, with
two neutral and two electrically charged components that
form a complex doublet of the weak isospin SU(2) symmetry. The Higgs eld is tachyonic (this does not refer to
faster-than-light speeds, it means that symmetry-breaking
through condensation of a particle must occur under certain
conditions), and has a "Mexican hat" shaped potential with
nonzero strength everywhere (including otherwise empty
space), which in its vacuum state breaks the weak isospin
symmetry of the electroweak interaction. When this happens, three components of the Higgs eld are absorbed by
the SU(2) and U(1) gauge bosons (the "Higgs mechanism")
to become the longitudinal components of the now-massive
W and Z bosons of the weak force. The remaining electrically neutral component separately couples to other particles known as fermions (via Yukawa couplings), causing
these to acquire mass as well. Some versions of the theory
predict more than one kind of Higgs elds and bosons. Alternative Higgsless models may have been considered if
the Higgs boson was not discovered.
Although it is hypothesised that the Higgs eld permeates

the entire Universe, evidence for its existence has been very
dicult to obtain. In principle, the Higgs eld can be detected through its excitations, manifested as Higgs particles, but these are extremely dicult to produce and detect. The importance of this fundamental question led to a
40 year search, and the construction of one of the worlds
most expensive and complex experimental facilities to date,
CERN's Large Hadron Collider,[10] in an attempt to create
Higgs bosons and other particles for observation and study.
On 4 July 2012, the discovery of a new particle with a mass 4.5.1 A non-technical summary
between 125 and 127 GeV/c2 was announced; physicists
suspected that it was the Higgs boson.[11][12][13] Since then,
the particle has been shown to behave, interact, and decay Higgs terminology
in many of the ways predicted by the Standard Model. It
was also tentatively conrmed to have even parity and zero
spin,[1] two fundamental attributes of a Higgs boson. This
86
Overview
Physicists explain the properties and forces between
elementary particles in terms of the Standard Modela
widely accepted and remarkably accurate[21] framework
based on gauge invariance and symmetries, believed to explain almost everything in the known universe, other than
gravity.[22] But by around 1960 all attempts to create a
gauge invariant theory for two of the four fundamental
forces had consistently failed at one crucial point: although
gauge invariance seemed extremely important, it seemed to
make any theory of electromagnetism and the weak force
go haywire, by demanding that either many particles with
mass were massless or that non-existent forces and massless
particles had to exist. Scientists had no idea how to get past
this point.
In 1962 physicist Philip Anderson wrote a paper that built
upon work by Yoichiro Nambu concerning broken symmetries in superconductivity and particle physics. He suggested that broken symmetries might also be the missing
piece needed to solve the problems of gauge invariance. In
1964 a theory was created almost simultaneously by 3 different groups of researchers, that showed Andersons suggestion was possible the gauge theory and mass problems could indeed be resolved if an unusual kind of eld,
now generally called the Higgs eld, existed throughout
the universe; if the Higgs eld did exist, it would apparently cause existing particles to acquire mass instead of
new massless particles being formed. Although these ideas
did not gain much initial support or attention, by 1972
they had been developed into a comprehensive theory and
proved capable of giving sensible results that accurately
described particles known at the time, and which accurately
predicted several other particles discovered during the following years.[Note 7] During the 1970s these theories rapidly
became the "standard model". There was not yet any direct evidence that the Higgs eld actually existed, but even
without proof of the eld, the accuracy of its predictions led
scientists to believe the theory might be true. By the 1980s
the question whether or not the Higgs eld existed had come
to be regarded as one of the most important unanswered
questions in particle physics.
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
constructed that allowed to search for the Higgs boson.
While several symmetries in nature are spontaneously broken through a form of the Higgs mechanism, in the context
of the Standard Model the term "Higgs mechanism" almost
always means symmetry breaking of the electroweak eld.
It is considered conrmed, but revealing the exact cause has
been dicult. Various analogies have also been invented to
describe the Higgs eld and boson, including analogies with
well-known symmetry breaking eects such as the rainbow
and prism, electric elds, ripples, and resistance of macro
objects moving through media, like people moving through
crowds or some objects moving through syrup or molasses.
However, analogies based on simple resistance to motion
are inaccurate as the Higgs eld does not work by resisting
motion.
4.5.2
Signicance
Scientic impact
Evidence of the Higgs eld and its properties has been extremely signicant scientically, for many reasons. The
Higgs bosons importance is largely that it is able to be examined using existing knowledge and experimental technology, as a way to conrm and study the entire Higgs eld
theory.[6][7] Conversely, proof that the Higgs eld and boson do not exist would also have been signicant. In discussion form, the relevance includes:
Practical and technological impact of discovery

As yet, there are no known immediate technological benets of nding the Higgs particle. However, a common
pattern for fundamental discoveries is for practical applications to follow later, once the discovery has been explored
further, at which point they become the basis for new technologies of importance to society.[44][45][46]
The challenges in particle physics have furthered major
technological progress of widespread importance. For example, the World Wide Web began as a project to improve
CERNs communication system. CERNs requirement to
process massive amounts of data produced by the Large
Hadron Collider also led to contributions to the elds of
distributed and cloud computing.
If the Higgs eld could be shown to exist, it would be a

monumental discovery for science and human knowledge,
and would open doorways to new knowledge in many disciplines. If not, then other more complicated theories would
need to be considered. The simplest means to test the
existence of the Higgs eld would be a search for a new
elementary particle that the eld would have to give o, a 4.5.3 History
particle known as the Higgs boson or the Higgs particle.
This particle would be extremely dicult to nd. After See also: 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers, Higgs
signicant technological advancements, by the 1990s two mechanism, and History of quantum eld theory
large experimental installations were being designed and Particle physicists study matter made from fundamental
4.5. HIGGS BOSON
87
other source of massless particles: spontaneous
symmetry breaking of a continuous symmetry.
What Philip Anderson realized and worked out
in the summer of 1962 was that, when you have
both gauge symmetry and spontaneous symmetry
breaking, the NambuGoldstone massless mode
can combine with the massless gauge eld modes
to produce a physical massive vector eld. This
is what happens in superconductivity, a subject
about which Anderson was (and is) one of the
leading experts. [text condensed] [48]
Nobel Prize Laureate Peter Higgs in Stockholm, December 2013
particles whose interactions are mediated by exchange particles gauge bosons acting as force carriers. At the
beginning of the 1960s a number of these particles had
been discovered or proposed, along with theories suggesting
how they relate to each other, some of which had already
been reformulated as eld theories in which the objects of
study are not particles and forces, but quantum elds and
their symmetries.[47]:150 However, attempts to unify known
fundamental forces such as the electromagnetic force and
the weak nuclear force were known to be incomplete.
One known omission was that gauge invariant approaches,
including non-abelian models such as YangMills theory
(1954), which held great promise for unied theories, also
seemed to predict known massive particles as massless.[48]
Goldstones theorem, relating to continuous symmetries
within some theories, also appeared to rule out many obvious solutions,[49] since it appeared to show that zero-mass
particles would have to also exist that were simply not
seen.[50] According to Guralnik, physicists had no understanding how these problems could be overcome.[50]
The Higgs mechanism is a process by which vector bosons

can get rest mass without explicitly breaking gauge invariance, as a byproduct of spontaneous symmetry breaking.[51][52] The mathematical theory behind spontaneous
symmetry breaking was initially conceived and published
within particle physics by Yoichiro Nambu in 1960,[53]
the concept that such a mechanism could oer a possible solution for the mass problem was originally suggested in 1962 by Philip Anderson (who had previously
written papers on broken symmetry and its outcomes
in superconductivity[54] and concluded in his 1963 paper on Yang-Mills theory that considering the superconducting analog... [t]hese two types of bosons seem capable of canceling each other out... leaving nite mass
bosons),[55]:45[56] and Abraham Klein and Benjamin Lee
showed in March 1964 that Goldstones theorem could be
avoided this way in at least some non-relativistic cases and
speculated it might be possible in truly relativistic cases.[57]
These approaches were quickly developed into a full

relativistic model, independently and almost simultaneously, by three groups of physicists: by Franois Englert and
Robert Brout in August 1964;[58] by Peter Higgs in October 1964;[59] and by Gerald Guralnik, Carl Hagen, and Tom
Kibble (GHK) in November 1964.[60] Higgs also wrote a
short but important[51] response published in September
1964 to an objection by Gilbert,[61] which showed that if
calculating within the radiation gauge, Goldstones theorem
and Gilberts objection would become inapplicable.[Note 11]
(Higgs later described Gilberts objection as prompting his
own paper.[62] ) Properties of the model were further considParticle physicist and mathematician Peter Woit sum- ered by Guralnik in 1965,[63] by Higgs in 1966,[64] by Kibmarised the state of research at the time:
ble in 1967,[65] and further by GHK in 1967.[66] The original three 1964 papers showed that when a gauge theory is
Yang and Mills work on non-abelian gauge
combined with an additional eld that spontaneously breaks
theory had one huge problem: in perturbation
the symmetry, the gauge bosons can consistently acquire
theory it has massless particles which dont correa nite mass.[51][52][67] In 1967, Steven Weinberg[68] and
Abdus Salam[69] independently showed how a Higgs mechspond to anything we see. One way of getting rid
anism could be used to break the electroweak symmetry
of this problem is now fairly well-understood, the
of Sheldon Glashow's unied model for the weak and elecphenomenon of connement realized in QCD,
where the strong interactions get rid of the masstromagnetic interactions[70] (itself an extension of work by
Schwinger), forming what became the Standard Model of
less gluon states at long distances. By the very
particle physics. Weinberg was the rst to observe that this
early sixties, people had begun to understand an-
88
would also provide mass terms for the fermions.[71] [Note 12]
However, the seminal papers on spontaneous breaking of
gauge symmetries were at rst largely ignored, because it
was widely believed that the (non-Abelian gauge) theories
in question were a dead-end, and in particular that they
could not be renormalised. In 197172, Martinus Veltman and Gerard 't Hooft proved renormalisation of Yang
Mills was possible in two papers covering massless, and
then massive, elds.[71] Their contribution, and others work
on the renormalisation group including substantial theoretical work by Russian physicists Ludvig Faddeev, Andrei
Slavnov, Em Fradkin and Igor Tyutin[72] was eventually enormously profound and inuential,[73] but even
with all key elements of the eventual theory published there
was still almost no wider interest. For example, Coleman
found in a study that essentially no-one paid any attention to Weinbergs paper prior to 1971[74] and discussed
by David Politzer in his 2004 Nobel speech.[73] now the
most cited in particle physics[75] and even in 1970 according to Politzer, Glashows teaching of the weak interaction
contained no mention of Weinbergs, Salams, or Glashows
own work.[73] In practice, Politzer states, almost everyone
learned of the theory due to physicist Benjamin Lee, who
combined the work of Veltman and 't Hooft with insights
by others, and popularised the completed theory.[73] In this
way, from 1971, interest and acceptance exploded [73] and
the ideas were quickly absorbed in the mainstream.[71][73]
The resulting electroweak theory and Standard Model have
accurately predicted (among other things) weak neutral currents, three bosons, the top and charm quarks, and with
great precision, the mass and other properties of some
of these.[Note 7] Many of those involved eventually won
Nobel Prizes or other renowned awards. A 1974 paper
and comprehensive review in Reviews of Modern Physics
commented that while no one doubted the [mathematical] correctness of these arguments, no one quite believed
that nature was diabolically clever enough to take advantage of them,[76]:9 adding that the theory had so far produced accurate answers that accorded with experiment,
but it was unknown whether the theory was fundamentally correct.[76]:9,36(footnote),4344,47 By 1986 and again in the
1990s it became possible to write that understanding and
proving the Higgs sector of the Standard Model was the
central problem today in particle physics.[8][9]
Summary and impact of the PRL papers

The three papers written in 1964 were each recognised
as milestone papers during Physical Review Letters's 50th
anniversary celebration.[67] Their six authors were also
awarded the 2010 J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics for this work.[77] (A controversy also arose the
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
same year, because in the event of a Nobel Prize only up
to three scientists could be recognised, with six being credited for the papers.[78] ) Two of the three PRL papers (by
Higgs and by GHK) contained equations for the hypothetical eld that eventually would become known as the Higgs
eld and its hypothetical quantum, the Higgs boson.[59][60]
Higgs subsequent 1966 paper showed the decay mechanism
of the boson; only a massive boson can decay and the decays
can prove the mechanism.
In the paper by Higgs the boson is massive, and in a closing sentence Higgs writes that an essential feature of the
theory is the prediction of incomplete multiplets of scalar
and vector bosons".[59] (Frank Close comments that 1960s
gauge theorists were focused on the problem of massless
vector bosons, and the implied existence of a massive scalar
boson was not seen as important; only Higgs directly addressed it.[79]:154, 166, 175 ) In the paper by GHK the boson
is massless and decoupled from the massive states.[60] In
reviews dated 2009 and 2011, Guralnik states that in the
GHK model the boson is massless only in a lowest-order
approximation, but it is not subject to any constraint and
acquires mass at higher orders, and adds that the GHK
paper was the only one to show that there are no massless Goldstone bosons in the model and to give a complete
analysis of the general Higgs mechanism.[50][80] All three
reached similar conclusions, despite their very dierent approaches: Higgs paper essentially used classical techniques,
Englert and Brouts involved calculating vacuum polarisation in perturbation theory around an assumed symmetrybreaking vacuum state, and GHK used operator formalism
and conservation laws to explore in depth the ways in which
Goldstones theorem may be worked around.[51]
4.5.4
Theoretical properties
Main article: Higgs mechanism
Theoretical need for the Higgs

Gauge invariance is an important property of modern particle theories such as the Standard Model, partly due to
its success in other areas of fundamental physics such
as electromagnetism and the strong interaction (quantum
chromodynamics). However, there were great diculties
in developing gauge theories for the weak nuclear force or
a possible unied electroweak interaction. Fermions with
a mass term would violate gauge symmetry and therefore
cannot be gauge invariant. (This can be seen by examining the Dirac Lagrangian for a fermion in terms of left
and right handed components; we nd none of the spinhalf particles could ever ip helicity as required for mass,
4.5. HIGGS BOSON
89
that arise interact with the Higgs eld (and with other particles capable of interacting with the Higgs eld) instead of
becoming new massless particles, the intractable problems
of both underlying theories neutralise each other, and the
residual outcome is that elementary particles acquire a consistent mass based on how strongly they interact with the
Higgs eld. It is the simplest known process capable of
"Symmetry breaking illustrated": At high energy levels (left) the giving mass to the gauge bosons while remaining compatball settles in the centre, and the result is symmetrical. At lower ible with gauge theories.[81] Its quantum would be a scalar
energy levels (right), the overall rules remain symmetrical, but
boson, known as the Higgs boson.[82]
the Mexican hat potential comes into eect: local symmetry inevitably becomes broken since eventually the ball must at random
roll one way or another.
Leptons
Quarks
so they must be massless.[Note 13] ) W and Z bosons are observed to have mass, but a boson mass term contains terms,
g
which clearly depend on the choice of gauge and therefore
Z
W
these masses too cannot be gauge invariant. Therefore, it
Weak
Gluons
Photon
Bosons
seems that none of the standard model fermions or bosons
could begin with mass as an inbuilt property except by
abandoning gauge invariance. If gauge invariance were to
be retained, then these particles had to be acquiring their
H
mass by some other mechanism or interaction. AdditionHiggs Boson
ally, whatever was giving these particles their mass, had to
not break gauge invariance as the basis for other parts of
Summary of interactions between certain particles described by the
the theories where it worked well, and had to not require or Standard Model.
predict unexpected massless particles and long-range forces
(seemingly an inevitable consequence of Goldstones theorem) which did not actually seem to exist in nature.
Properties of the Higgs eld
A solution to all of these overlapping problems came from
the discovery of a previously unnoticed borderline case hid- In the Standard Model, the Higgs eld is a scalar tachyonic
den in the mathematics of Goldstones theorem,[Note 11] that eld 'scalar' meaning it does not transform under Lorentz
under certain conditions it might theoretically be possible transformations, and 'tachyonic' meaning the eld (but not
for a symmetry to be broken without disrupting gauge in- the particle) has imaginary mass and in certain conguravariance and without any new massless particles or forces, tions must undergo symmetry breaking. It consists of four
and having sensible (renormalisable) results mathemati- components, two neutral ones and two charged component
cally: this became known as the Higgs mechanism.
elds. Both of the charged components and one of the neutral
elds are Goldstone bosons, which act as the longitudiThe Standard Model hypothesises a eld which is responnal
third-polarisation
components of the massive W+ , W ,
sible for this eect, called the Higgs eld (symbol: ),
and
Z
bosons.
The
quantum
of the remaining neutral comwhich has the unusual property of a non-zero amplitude in
ponent
corresponds
to
(and
is
theoretically realised as) the
its ground state; i.e., a non-zero vacuum expectation value.
[83]
massive
Higgs
boson,
this
component
can interact with
It can have this eect because of its unusual Mexican hat
fermions
via
Yukawa
coupling
to
give
them
mass, as well.
shaped potential whose lowest point is not at its centre.
Below a certain extremely high energy level the existence
of this non-zero vacuum expectation spontaneously breaks
electroweak gauge symmetry which in turn gives rise to the
Higgs mechanism and triggers the acquisition of mass by
those particles interacting with the eld. This eect occurs because scalar eld components of the Higgs eld are
absorbed by the massive bosons as degrees of freedom,
and couple to the fermions via Yukawa coupling, thereby
producing the expected mass terms. In eect when symmetry breaks under these conditions, the Goldstone bosons
Mathematically, the Higgs eld has imaginary mass and is

therefore a tachyonic eld.[84] While tachyons (particles that
move faster than light) are a purely hypothetical concept,
elds with imaginary mass have come to play an important
role in modern physics.[85][86] Under no circumstances do
any excitations ever propagate faster than light in such theories the presence or absence of a tachyonic mass has
no eect whatsoever on the maximum velocity of signals
(there is no violation of causality).[87] Instead of faster-thanlight particles, the imaginary mass creates an instability:-
90
any conguration in which one or more eld excitations are
tachyonic must spontaneously decay, and the resulting conguration contains no physical tachyons. This process is
known as tachyon condensation, and is now believed to be
the explanation for how the Higgs mechanism itself arises
in nature, and therefore the reason behind electroweak symmetry breaking.
Although the notion of imaginary mass might seem troubling, it is only the eld, and not the mass itself, that is
quantised. Therefore, the eld operators at spacelike separated points still commute (or anticommute), and information and particles still do not propagate faster than light.[88]
Tachyon condensation drives a physical system that has
reached a local limit and might naively be expected to produce physical tachyons, to an alternate stable state where no
physical tachyons exist. Once a tachyonic eld such as the
Higgs eld reaches the minimum of the potential, its quanta
are not tachyons any more but rather are ordinary particles
such as the Higgs boson.[89]
Properties of the Higgs boson

Since the Higgs eld is scalar, the Higgs boson has no spin.
The Higgs boson is also its own antiparticle and is CP-even,
and has zero electric and colour charge.[90]
The Minimal Standard Model does not predict the mass of
the Higgs boson.[91] If that mass is between 115 and 180
GeV/c2 , then the Standard Model can be valid at energy
scales all the way up to the Planck scale (1019 GeV).[92]
Many theorists expect new physics beyond the Standard
Model to emerge at the TeV-scale, based on unsatisfactory
properties of the Standard Model.[93] The highest possible
mass scale allowed for the Higgs boson (or some other electroweak symmetry breaking mechanism) is 1.4 TeV; beyond this point, the Standard Model becomes inconsistent
without such a mechanism, because unitarity is violated in
certain scattering processes.[94]
It is also possible, although experimentally dicult, to estimate the mass of the Higgs boson indirectly. In the Standard Model, the Higgs boson has a number of indirect effects; most notably, Higgs loops result in tiny corrections
to masses of W and Z bosons. Precision measurements
of electroweak parameters, such as the Fermi constant and
masses of W/Z bosons, can be used to calculate constraints
on the mass of the Higgs. As of July 2011, the precision electroweak measurements tell us that the mass of the
Higgs boson is likely to be less than about 161 GeV/c2 at
95% condence level (this upper limit would increase to
185 GeV/c2 if the lower bound of 114.4 GeV/c2 from the
LEP-2 direct search is allowed for[95] ). These indirect constraints rely on the assumption that the Standard Model is
correct. It may still be possible to discover a Higgs boson
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
above these masses if it is accompanied by other particles
beyond those predicted by the Standard Model.[96]
Production
If Higgs particle theories are valid, then a Higgs particle can
be produced much like other particles that are studied, in a
particle collider. This involves accelerating a large number of particles to extremely high energies and extremely
close to the speed of light, then allowing them to smash
together. Protons and lead ions (the bare nuclei of lead
atoms) are used at the LHC. In the extreme energies of
these collisions, the desired esoteric particles will occasionally be produced and this can be detected and studied; any
absence or dierence from theoretical expectations can also
be used to improve the theory. The relevant particle theory
(in this case the Standard Model) will determine the necessary kinds of collisions and detectors. The Standard Model
predicts that Higgs bosons could be formed in a number
of ways,[97][98][99] although the probability of producing a
Higgs boson in any collision is always expected to be very
smallfor example, only 1 Higgs boson per 10 billion collisions in the Large Hadron Collider.[Note 14] The most common expected processes for Higgs boson production are:
Gluon fusion. If the collided particles are hadrons such
as the proton or antiprotonas is the case in the LHC
and Tevatronthen it is most likely that two of the
gluons binding the hadron together collide. The easiest way to produce a Higgs particle is if the two gluons combine to form a loop of virtual quarks. Since
the coupling of particles to the Higgs boson is proportional to their mass, this process is more likely for
heavy particles. In practice it is enough to consider
the contributions of virtual top and bottom quarks (the
heaviest quarks). This process is the dominant contribution at the LHC and Tevatron being about ten times
more likely than any of the other processes.[97][98]
Higgs Strahlung. If an elementary fermion collides
with an anti-fermione.g., a quark with an anti-quark
or an electron with a positronthe two can merge to
form a virtual W or Z boson which, if it carries sucient energy, can then emit a Higgs boson. This process was the dominant production mode at the LEP,
where an electron and a positron collided to form a
virtual Z boson, and it was the second largest contribution for Higgs production at the Tevatron. At the
LHC this process is only the third largest, because the
LHC collides protons with protons, making a quarkantiquark collision less likely than at the Tevatron.
Higgs Strahlung is also known as associated production.[97][98][99]
4.5. HIGGS BOSON
91
Weak boson fusion. Another possibility when two

(anti-)fermions collide is that the two exchange a virtual W or Z boson, which emits a Higgs boson. The
colliding fermions do not need to be the same type.
So, for example, an up quark may exchange a Z boson
with an anti-down quark. This process is the second
most important for the production of Higgs particle at
the LHC and LEP.[97][99]
Top fusion. The nal process that is commonly considered is by far the least likely (by two orders of magnitude). This process involves two colliding gluons,
which each decay into a heavy quarkantiquark pair. The Standard Model prediction for the branching ratios of the difA quark and antiquark from each pair can then com- ferent decay modes of the Higgs particle depends on the value of its
mass.
bine to form a Higgs particle.[97][98]
Decay
The Standard Model prediction for the decay width of the Higgs
particle depends on the value of its mass.
fermions, because the mass of a fermion is proportional to

the strength of its interaction with the Higgs.[101] By this
logic the most common decay should be into a topantitop
quark pair. However, such a decay is only possible if the
Higgs is heavier than ~346 GeV/c2 , twice the mass of the
top quark. For a Higgs mass of 126 GeV/c2 the SM predicts
that the most common decay is into a bottomantibottom
quark pair, which happens 56.1% of the time.[5] The second
most common fermion decay at that mass is a tauantitau
pair, which happens only about 6% of the time.[5]
Another possibility is for the Higgs to split into a pair of
massive gauge bosons. The most likely possibility is for the
Higgs to decay into a pair of W bosons (the light blue line
in the plot), which happens about 23.1% of the time for a
Higgs boson with a mass of 126 GeV/c2 .[5] The W bosons
can subsequently decay either into a quark and an antiquark
or into a charged lepton and a neutrino. However, the decays of W bosons into quarks are dicult to distinguish
from the background, and the decays into leptons cannot
be fully reconstructed (because neutrinos are impossible to
detect in particle collision experiments). A cleaner signal
is given by decay into a pair of Z-bosons (which happens
about 2.9% of the time for a Higgs with a mass of 126
GeV/c2 ),[5] if each of the bosons subsequently decays into a
pair of easy-to-detect charged leptons (electrons or muons).
Quantum mechanics predicts that if it is possible for a particle to decay into a set of lighter particles, then it will eventually do so.[100] This is also true for the Higgs boson. The
likelihood with which this happens depends on a variety of
factors including: the dierence in mass, the strength of
the interactions, etc. Most of these factors are xed by the
Standard Model, except for the mass of the Higgs boson itself. For a Higgs boson with a mass of 126 GeV/c2 the SM
Decay into massless gauge bosons (i.e., gluons or photons)
predicts a mean life time of about 1.61022 s.[Note 2]
is also possible, but requires intermediate loop of virtual
Since it interacts with all the massive elementary particles heavy quarks (top or bottom) or massive gauge bosons.[101]
of the SM, the Higgs boson has many dierent processes The most common such process is the decay into a pair of
through which it can decay. Each of these possible pro- gluons through a loop of virtual heavy quarks. This process,
cesses has its own probability, expressed as the branching which is the reverse of the gluon fusion process mentioned
ratio; the fraction of the total number decays that follows above, happens approximately 8.5% of the time for a Higgs
that process. The SM predicts these branching ratios as a boson with a mass of 126 GeV/c2 .[5] Much rarer is the defunction of the Higgs mass (see plot).
cay into a pair of photons mediated by a loop of W bosons
One way that the Higgs can decay is by splitting into or heavy quarks, which happens only twice for every thoua fermionantifermion pair. As general rule, the Higgs sand decays.[5] However, this process is very relevant for
is more likely to decay into heavy fermions than light experimental searches for the Higgs boson, because the en-
92
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
ergy and momentum of the photons can be measured very

precisely, giving an accurate reconstruction of the mass of
the decaying particle.[101]
Alternative models
Main article: Alternatives to the Standard Model Higgs
The Minimal Standard Model as described above is the simplest known model for the Higgs mechanism with just one
Higgs eld. However, an extended Higgs sector with additional Higgs particle doublets or triplets is also possible,
and many extensions of the Standard Model have this feature. The non-minimal Higgs sector favoured by theory are
the two-Higgs-doublet models (2HDM), which predict the
existence of a quintet of scalar particles: two CP-even neutral Higgs bosons h0 and H0 , a CP-odd neutral Higgs boson
A0 , and two charged Higgs particles H . Supersymmetry
(SUSY) also predicts relations between the Higgs-boson
masses and the masses of the gauge bosons, and could accommodate a 125 GeV/c2 neutral Higgs boson.
The key method to distinguish between these dierent
models involves study of the particles interactions (coupling) and exact decay processes (branching ratios),
which can be measured and tested experimentally in particle collisions. In the Type-I 2HDM model one Higgs
doublet couples to up and down quarks, while the second doublet does not couple to quarks. This model has
two interesting limits, in which the lightest Higgs couples to just fermions (gauge-phobic") or just gauge bosons
(fermiophobic), but not both. In the Type-II 2HDM
model, one Higgs doublet only couples to up-type quarks,
the other only couples to down-type quarks.[102] The heavily researched Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model
(MSSM) includes a Type-II 2HDM Higgs sector, so it could
be disproven by evidence of a Type-I 2HDM Higgs.
A one-loop Feynman diagram of the rst-order correction to the

Higgs mass. In the Standard Model the eects of these corrections
are potentially enormous, giving rise to the so-called hierarchy problem.
culated. This is seen as theoretically unsatisfactory, particularly as quantum corrections (related to interactions with
virtual particles) should apparently cause the Higgs particle
to have a mass immensely higher than that observed, but
at the same time the Standard Model requires a mass of
the order of 100 to 1000 GeV to ensure unitarity (in this
case, to unitarise longitudinal vector boson scattering).[105]
Reconciling these points appears to require explaining why
there is an almost-perfect cancellation resulting in the visible mass of ~ 125 GeV, and it is not clear how to do this.
Because the weak force is about 1032 times stronger than
gravity, and (linked to this) the Higgs bosons mass is so
much less than the Planck mass or the grand unication energy, it appears that either there is some underlying connection or reason for these observations which is unknown and
not described by the Standard Model, or some unexplained
and extremely precise ne-tuning of parameters however
at present neither of these explanations is proven. This is
known as a hierarchy problem.[106] More broadly, the hierarchy problem amounts to the worry that a future theory
of fundamental particles and interactions should not have
excessive ne-tunings or unduly delicate cancellations, and
should allow masses of particles such as the Higgs boson to
be calculable. The problem is in some ways unique to spin0 particles (such as the Higgs boson), which can give rise to
issues related to quantum corrections that do not aect particles with spin.[105] A number of solutions have been proposed, including supersymmetry, conformal solutions and
solutions via extra dimensions such as braneworld models.
In other models the Higgs scalar is a composite particle. For

example, in technicolor the role of the Higgs eld is played
by strongly bound pairs of fermions called techniquarks.
Other models, feature pairs of top quarks (see top quark
condensate). In yet other models, there is no Higgs eld
at all and the electroweak symmetry is broken using extra
There are also issues of quantum triviality, which suggests
dimensions.[103][104]
that it may not be possible to create a consistent quantum
eld theory involving elementary scalar particles.
Further theoretical issues and hierarchy problem
Main articles: Hierarchy problem and Hierarchy problem 4.5.5 Experimental search
The Higgs mass
Main article: Search for the Higgs boson
The Standard Model leaves the mass of the Higgs boson as

a parameter to be measured, rather than a value to be cal- To produce Higgs bosons, two beams of particles are accel-
4.5. HIGGS BOSON

erated to very high energies and allowed to collide within a
particle detector. Occasionally, although rarely, a Higgs boson will be created eetingly as part of the collision byproducts. Because the Higgs boson decays very quickly, particle
detectors cannot detect it directly. Instead the detectors register all the decay products (the decay signature) and from
the data the decay process is reconstructed. If the observed
decay products match a possible decay process (known as
a decay channel) of a Higgs boson, this indicates that a
Higgs boson may have been created. In practice, many processes may produce similar decay signatures. Fortunately,
the Standard Model precisely predicts the likelihood of each
of these, and each known process, occurring. So, if the detector detects more decay signatures consistently matching
a Higgs boson than would otherwise be expected if Higgs
bosons did not exist, then this would be strong evidence that
the Higgs boson exists.
Because Higgs boson production in a particle collision is
likely to be very rare (1 in 10 billion at the LHC),[Note 14] and
many other possible collision events can have similar decay signatures, the data of hundreds of trillions of collisions
needs to be analysed and must show the same picture before a conclusion about the existence of the Higgs boson
can be reached. To conclude that a new particle has been
found, particle physicists require that the statistical analysis of two independent particle detectors each indicate that
there is lesser than a one-in-a-million chance that the observed decay signatures are due to just background random
Standard Model eventsi.e., that the observed number of
events is more than 5 standard deviations (sigma) dierent
from that expected if there was no new particle. More collision data allows better conrmation of the physical properties of any new particle observed, and allows physicists to
decide whether it is indeed a Higgs boson as described by
the Standard Model or some other hypothetical new particle.
93
Search before 4 July 2012
The rst extensive search for the Higgs boson was conducted at the Large ElectronPositron Collider (LEP) at
CERN in the 1990s. At the end of its service in 2000, LEP
had found no conclusive evidence for the Higgs.[Note 15] This
implied that if the Higgs boson were to exist it would have
to be heavier than 114.4 GeV/c2 .[111]
The search continued at Fermilab in the United States,
where the Tevatronthe collider that discovered the top
quark in 1995had been upgraded for this purpose. There
was no guarantee that the Tevatron would be able to nd
the Higgs, but it was the only supercollider that was operational since the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) was still
under construction and the planned Superconducting Super
Collider had been cancelled in 1993 and never completed.
The Tevatron was only able to exclude further ranges for
the Higgs mass, and was shut down on 30 September 2011
because it no longer could keep up with the LHC. The nal analysis of the data excluded the possibility of a Higgs
boson with a mass between 147 GeV/c2 and 180 GeV/c2 .
In addition, there was a small (but not signicant) excess
of events possibly indicating a Higgs boson with a mass between 115 GeV/c2 and 140 GeV/c2 .[112]
The Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Switzerland, was

designed specically to be able to either conrm or exclude
the existence of the Higgs boson. Built in a 27 km tunnel
under the ground near Geneva originally inhabited by LEP,
it was designed to collide two beams of protons, initially at
energies of 3.5 TeV per beam (7 TeV total), or almost 3.6
times that of the Tevatron, and upgradeable to 2 7 TeV
(14 TeV total) in future. Theory suggested if the Higgs boson existed, collisions at these energy levels should be able
to reveal it. As one of the most complicated scientic instruments ever built, its operational readiness was delayed
for 14 months by a magnet quench event nine days after its
To nd the Higgs boson, a powerful particle accelerator inaugural tests, caused by a faulty electrical connection that
was needed, because Higgs bosons might not be seen in damaged over 50 superconducting magnets and contamilower-energy experiments. The collider needed to have a nated the vacuum system.[113][114][115]
high luminosity in order to ensure enough collisions were
Data collection at the LHC nally commenced in March
seen for conclusions to be drawn. Finally, advanced com2010.[116] By December 2011 the two main particle detecputing facilities were needed to process the vast amount
tors at the LHC, ATLAS and CMS, had narrowed down the
of data (25 petabytes per year as of 2012) produced by
mass range where the Higgs could exist to around 116-130
[108]
the collisions.
For the announcement of 4 July 2012,
GeV (ATLAS) and 115-127 GeV (CMS).[117][118] There
a new collider known as the Large Hadron Collider was
had also already been a number of promising event excesses
constructed at CERN with a planned eventual collision enthat had evaporated and proven to be nothing but random
ergy of 14 TeVover seven times any previous collider
uctuations. However, from around May 2011,[119] both
14
and over 300 trillion (310 ) LHC protonproton colexperiments had seen among their results, the slow emerlisions were analysed by the LHC Computing Grid, the
gence of a small yet consistent excess of gamma and 4worlds largest computing grid (as of 2012), comprising
lepton decay signatures and several other particle decays,
over 170 computing facilities in a worldwide network across
all hinting at a new particle at a mass around 125 GeV.[119]
[108][109][110]
36 countries.
By around November 2011, the anomalous data at 125
GeV was becoming too large to ignore (although still far
94
from conclusive), and the team leaders at both ATLAS and
CMS each privately suspected they might have found the
Higgs.[119] On November 28, 2011, at an internal meeting
of the two team leaders and the director general of CERN,
the latest analyses were discussed outside their teams for the
rst time, suggesting both ATLAS and CMS might be converging on a possible shared result at 125 GeV, and initial
preparations commenced in case of a successful nding.[119]
While this information was not known publicly at the time,
the narrowing of the possible Higgs range to around 115
130 GeV and the repeated observation of small but consistent event excesses across multiple channels at both ATLAS
and CMS in the 124-126 GeV region (described as tantalising hints of around 2-3 sigma) were public knowledge
with a lot of interest.[120] It was therefore widely anticipated around the end of 2011, that the LHC would provide
sucient data to either exclude or conrm the nding of a
Higgs boson by the end of 2012, when their 2012 collision
data (with slightly higher 8 TeV collision energy) had been
examined.[120][121]
Discovery of candidate boson at CERN

On 22 June 2012 CERN announced an upcoming seminar
covering tentative ndings for 2012,[125][126] and shortly afterwards (from around 1 July 2012 according to an analysis
of the spreading rumour in social media[127] ) rumours began to spread in the media that this would include a major
announcement, but it was unclear whether this would be a
stronger signal or a formal discovery.[128][129] Speculation
escalated to a fevered pitch when reports emerged that
Peter Higgs, who proposed the particle, was to be attending
the seminar,[130][131] and that ve leading physicists had
been invited generally believed to signify the ve living
1964 authors with Higgs, Englert, Guralnik, Hagen attending and Kibble conrming his invitation (Brout having
died in 2011).[132][133]
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
validation of a particle.[108] This level of evidence, conrmed independently by two separate teams and experiments, meets the formal level of proof required to announce
a conrmed discovery.
On 31 July 2012, the ATLAS collaboration presented additional data analysis on the observation of a new particle,
including data from a third channel, which improved the signicance to 5.9 sigma (1 in 588 million chance of obtaining
at least as strong evidence by random background eects
alone) and mass 126.0 0.4 (stat) 0.4 (sys) GeV/c2 , [138]
and CMS improved the signicance to 5-sigma and mass
125.3 0.4 (stat) 0.5 (sys) GeV/c2 .[135]
The new particle tested as a possible Higgs boson

Following the 2012 discovery, it was still unconrmed
whether or not the 125 GeV/c2 particle was a Higgs boson.
On one hand, observations remained consistent with the
observed particle being the Standard Model Higgs boson,
and the particle decayed into at least some of the predicted
channels. Moreover, the production rates and branching ratios for the observed channels broadly matched the predictions by the Standard Model within the experimental uncertainties. However, the experimental uncertainties currently
still left room for alternative explanations, meaning an announcement of the discovery of a Higgs boson would have
been premature.[101] To allow more opportunity for data
collection, the LHCs proposed 2012 shutdown and 2013
14 upgrade were postponed by 7 weeks into 2013.[139]
On 4 July 2012 both of the CERN experiments announced

they had independently made the same discovery:[134] CMS
of a previously unknown boson with mass 125.3 0.6
GeV/c2[135][136] and ATLAS of a boson with mass 126.0
0.6 GeV/c2 .[137][138] Using the combined analysis of two
interaction types (known as 'channels), both experiments
independently reached a local signicance of 5 sigma
implying that the probability of getting at least as strong a
result by chance alone is less than 1 in 3 million. When
additional channels were taken into account, the CMS signicance was reduced to 4.9 sigma.[136]
In November 2012, in a conference in Kyoto researchers

said evidence gathered since July was falling into line
with the basic Standard Model more than its alternatives,
with a range of results for several interactions matching
that theorys predictions.[140] Physicist Matt Strassler highlighted considerable evidence that the new particle is not
a pseudoscalar negative parity particle (consistent with this
required nding for a Higgs boson), evaporation or lack
of increased signicance for previous hints of non-Standard
Model ndings, expected Standard Model interactions with
W and Z bosons, absence of signicant new implications
for or against supersymmetry, and in general no signicant deviations to date from the results expected of a Standard Model Higgs boson.[141] However some kinds of extensions to the Standard Model would also show very similar results;[142] so commentators noted that based on other
particles that are still being understood long after their discovery, it may take years to be sure, and decades to fully
understand the particle that has been found.[140][141]
The two teams had been working 'blinded' from each other
from around late 2011 or early 2012,[119] meaning they
did not discuss their results with each other, providing additional certainty that any common nding was genuine
These ndings meant that as of January 2013, scientists

were very sure they had found an unknown particle of mass
~ 125 GeV/c2 , and had not been misled by experimental
error or a chance result. They were also sure, from initial
4.5. HIGGS BOSON

observations, that the new particle was some kind of boson.
The behaviours and properties of the particle, so far as examined since July 2012, also seemed quite close to the behaviours expected of a Higgs boson. Even so, it could still
have been a Higgs boson or some other unknown boson,
since future tests could show behaviours that do not match
a Higgs boson, so as of December 2012 CERN still only
stated that the new particle was consistent with the Higgs
boson,[11][13] and scientists did not yet positively say it was
the Higgs boson.[143] Despite this, in late 2012, widespread
media reports announced (incorrectly) that a Higgs boson
had been conrmed during the year.[Note 16]
95
a combination of its PRL author names (including at times
Anderson), for example the BroutEnglertHiggs particle,
the Anderson-Higgs particle, or the EnglertBroutHiggs
GuralnikHagenKibble mechanism,[Note 17] and these are
still used at times.[51][161] Fuelled in part by the issue of
recognition and a potential shared Nobel Prize,[161][162] the
most appropriate name is still occasionally a topic of debate
as of 2012.[161] (Higgs himself prefers to call the particle
either by an acronym of all those involved, or the scalar
boson, or the so-called Higgs particle.[162] )
A considerable amount has been written on how Higgs

name came to be exclusively used. Two main explanations
In January 2013, CERN director-general Rolf-Dieter are oered.
Heuer stated that based on data analysis to date, an answer
could be possible 'towards mid-2013,[149] and the deputy
chair of physics at Brookhaven National Laboratory stated
in February 2013 that a denitive answer might require
another few years after the colliders 2015 restart.[150]
Nickname
The Higgs boson is often referred to as
In early March 2013, CERN Research Director Sergio
the God particle in popular media outside the scienBertolucci stated that conrming spin-0 was the major retic community.[172][173][174][175][176] The nickname comes
maining requirement to determine whether the particle is at
from the title of the 1993 book on the Higgs boson
least some kind of Higgs boson.[151]
and particle physics, The God Particle: If the Universe
Is the Answer, What Is the Question? by Nobel Physics
[21]
Preliminary conrmation of existence and current sta- prizewinner and Fermilab director Leon Lederman. Lederman wrote it in the context of failing US governtus
ment support for the Superconducting Super Collider,[177]
a part-constructed titanic[178][179] competitor to the Large
On 14 March 2013 CERN conrmed that:
Hadron Collider with planned collision energies of 2
20 TeV that was championed by Lederman since its 1983
CMS and ATLAS have compared a number of
inception[177][180][181] and shut down in 1993. The book
options for the spin-parity of this particle, and
sought in part to promote awareness of the signicance and
these all prefer no spin and even parity [two funneed for such a project in the face of its possible loss of
damental criteria of a Higgs boson consistent
funding.[182] Lederman, a leading researcher in the eld,
with the Standard Model]. This, coupled with the
wanted to title his book The Goddamn Particle: If the Unimeasured interactions of the new particle with
verse is the Answer, What is the Question? But his editor
other particles, strongly indicates that it is a Higgs
decided
that the title was too controversial and convinced
boson. [1]
Lederman to change the title to The God Particle: If the
Universe is the Answer, What is the Question?[183]
This also makes the particle the rst elementary scalar parWhile media use of this term may have contributed to wider
ticle to be discovered in nature.[14]
awareness and interest,[184] many scientists feel the name
Examples of tests used to validate whether the 125 GeV is inappropriate[16][17][185] since it is sensational hyperbole
particle is a Higgs boson:[141][152]
and misleads readers;[186] the particle also has nothing to do
with God, leaves open numerous questions in fundamental
physics, and does not explain the ultimate origin of the universe. Higgs, an atheist, was reported to be displeased and
stated in a 2008 interview that he found it embarrassing
because it was the kind of misuse... which I think might
4.5.6 Public discussion
oend some people.[186][187][188] Science writer Ian Sample stated in his 2010 book on the search that the nickname
Naming
is universally hate[d]" by physicists and perhaps the worst
Names used by physicists The name most strongly as- derided in the history of physics, but that (according to Lesociated with the particle and eld is the Higgs boson[79]:168 derman) the publisher rejected all titles mentioning Higgs
and Higgs eld. For some time the particle was known by as unimaginative and too unknown.[189]
96
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
Lederman begins with a review of the long human search

for knowledge, and explains that his tongue-in-cheek title
draws an analogy between the impact of the Higgs eld on
the fundamental symmetries at the Big Bang, and the apparent chaos of structures, particles, forces and interactions
that resulted and shaped our present universe, with the biblical story of Babel in which the primordial single language
of early Genesis was fragmented into many disparate languages and cultures.[190]
creates mass,[194][195] including coverage of explanatory attempts in their own right and a competition in 1993 for
the best popular explanation by then-UK Minister for Science Sir William Waldegrave[196] and articles in newspapers worldwide.
Today ... we have the standard model, which

reduces all of reality to a dozen or so particles
and four forces. ... Its a hard-won simplicity
[...and...] remarkably accurate. But it is also
incomplete and, in fact, internally inconsistent...
This boson is so central to the state of physics
today, so crucial to our nal understanding of
the structure of matter, yet so elusive, that I have
given it a nickname: the God Particle. Why
God Particle? Two reasons. One, the publisher
wouldn't let us call it the Goddamn Particle,
though that might be a more appropriate title,
given its villainous nature and the expense it is
causing. And two, there is a connection, of sorts,
to another book, a much older one...
Leon M. Lederman and Dick Teresi, The
God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What
is the Question[21] p. 22
Lederman asks whether the Higgs boson was added just to

perplex and confound those seeking knowledge of the universe, and whether physicists will be confounded by it as
recounted in that story, or ultimately surmount the challenge and understand how beautiful is the universe [God
has] made.[191]
Photograph of light passing through a dispersive prism: the rainbow

eect arises because photons are not all aected to the same degree
by the dispersive material of the prism.
An educational collaboration involving an LHC physicist

and a High School Teachers at CERN educator suggests
that dispersion of light responsible for the rainbow and
dispersive prism is a useful analogy for the Higgs elds
symmetry breaking and mass-causing eect.[197]
Other proposals A renaming competition by British

newspaper The Guardian in 2009 resulted in their science
correspondent choosing the name the champagne bottle
Matt Strassler uses electric elds as an analogy:[198]
boson as the best submission: The bottom of a champagne bottle is in the shape of the Higgs potential and is
Some particles interact with the Higgs eld
often used as an illustration in physics lectures. So its not
while
others dont. Those particles that feel the
an embarrassingly grandiose name, it is memorable, and [it]
Higgs
eld act as if they have mass. Something
[192]
The name Higgson
has some physics connection too.
similar
happens in an electric eld charged obwas suggested as well, in an opinion piece in the Institute of
jects
are
pulled around and neutral objects can
[193]
Physics' online publication physicsworld.com.
sail through unaected. So you can think of the
Higgs search as an attempt to make waves in the
Higgs eld [create Higgs bosons] to prove its reMedia explanations and analogies
ally there.
There has been considerable public discussion of analogies
and explanations for the Higgs particle and how the eld A similar explanation was oered by The Guardian:[199]
4.5. HIGGS BOSON

The Higgs boson is essentially a ripple in a
eld said to have emerged at the birth of the universe and to span the cosmos to this day ... The
particle is crucial however: it is the smoking gun,
the evidence required to show the theory is right.
The Higgs elds eect on particles was famously described
by physicist David Miller as akin to a room full of political
party workers spread evenly throughout a room: the crowd
gravitates to and slows down famous people but does not
slow down others.[Note 18] He also drew attention to wellknown eects in solid state physics where an electrons effective mass can be much greater than usual in the presence
of a crystal lattice.[200]
Analogies based on drag eects, including analogies of
"syrup" or "molasses" are also well known, but can be somewhat misleading since they may be understood (incorrectly)
as saying that the Higgs eld simply resists some particles
motion but not others a simple resistive eect could also
conict with Newtons third law.[202]
Recognition and awards

There has been considerable discussion of how to allocate
the credit if the Higgs boson is proven, made more pointed
as a Nobel prize had been expected, and the very wide basis
of people entitled to consideration. These include a range of
theoreticians who made the Higgs mechanism theory possible, the theoreticians of the 1964 PRL papers (including
Higgs himself), the theoreticians who derived from these, a
working electroweak theory and the Standard Model itself,
and also the experimentalists at CERN and other institutions who made possible the proof of the Higgs eld and
boson in reality. The Nobel prize has a limit of 3 persons
to share an award, and some possible winners are already
prize holders for other work, or are deceased (the prize is
only awarded to persons in their lifetime). Existing prizes
for works relating to the Higgs eld, boson, or mechanism
include:
97
J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics
(2010) Hagen, Englert, Guralnik, Higgs, Brout, and
Kibble, for elucidation of the properties of spontaneous symmetry breaking in four-dimensional relativistic gauge theory and of the mechanism for the consistent
generation of vector boson masses [77] (for the 1964 papers described above)
Wolf Prize (2004) Englert, Brout, and Higgs
Nobel Prize in Physics (2013) Peter Higgs and
Franois Englert, for the theoretical discovery of a
mechanism that contributes to our understanding of the
origin of mass of subatomic particles, and which recently was conrmed through the discovery of the predicted fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS
experiments at CERNs Large Hadron Collider [205]
Additionally Physical Review Letters' 50-year review
(2008) recognised the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers and Weinbergs 1967 paper A model of Leptons (the
most cited paper in particle physics, as of 2012) milestone
Letters.[75]
Following reported observation of the Higgs-like particle in
July 2012, several Indian media outlets reported on the supposed neglect of credit to Indian physicist Satyendra Nath
Bose after whose work in the 1920s the class of particles
"bosons" is named[206][207] (although physicists have described Boses connection to the discovery as tenuous).[208]
4.5.7
Technical aspects and mathematical

formulation
See also: Standard Model (mathematical formulation)

In the Standard Model, the Higgs eld is a four-component
scalar eld that forms a complex doublet of the weak isospin
SU(2) symmetry:
while the eld has charge +1/2 under the weak hypercharge
Nobel Prize in Physics (1979) Glashow, Salam, and
U(1) symmetry (in the convention where the electric charge,
Weinberg, for contributions to the theory of the unied
Q, the weak isospin, I3 , and the weak hypercharge, Y, are
weak and electromagnetic interaction between elemenrelated by Q = I3 + Y).[209]
tary particles [203]
The Higgs part of the Lagrangian is[209]
Nobel Prize in Physics (1999) 't Hooft and Veltman,
for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics [204]
where Wa and B are the gauge bosons of the SU(2) and
Nobel Prize in Physics (2008) Nambu (shared), for U(1) symmetries, g and g their respective coupling conthe discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken stants, a = a /2 (where a are the Pauli matrices) a complete set generators of the SU(2) symmetry, and > 0 and
symmetry in subatomic physics [53]
98
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
for the fermions. Rotating the quark and lepton elds to the
basis where the matrices of Yukawa couplings are diagonal,
one gets
where the masses of the fermions are miu,d,e = iu,d,e v/ 2

, and iu,d,e denote the eigenvalues of the Yukawa
matrices.[209]
4.5.8
See also
Standard Model
Quantum gauge theory
History of quantum eld theory
0
The potential for the Higgs eld, plotted as function of and

. It has a Mexican-hat or champagne-bottle prole at the ground.
Introduction to quantum mechanics

Noncommutative
standard
model
noncommutative geometry generally
and
2 > 0 , so that the ground state breaks the SU(2) symmetry (see gure). The ground state of the Higgs eld (the
Standard Model (mathematical formulation) (and esbottom of the potential) is degenerate with dierent ground
pecially Standard Model elds overview and mass
states related to each other by a SU(2) gauge transformaterms and the Higgs mechanism)
tion. It is always possible to pick a gauge such that in the
W and Z bosons
ground state 1 = 2 = 3 = 0 . The expectation value
0
of in the ground state (the vacuum expectation value or
||
vev) is then 0 = v2 , where v =
. The measured Other
2 [101]
value of this parameter is ~246 GeV/c .
It has units of
BoseEinstein statistics
mass, and is the only free parameter of the Standard Model
that is not a dimensionless number. Quadratic terms in W
Dalitz plot
and B arise, which give masses to the W and Z bosons:[209]
Higgs boson in ction
Quantum triviality
ZZ diboson
with their ratio determining the Weinberg angle, cos W =
MW
|g| 2 , and leave a massless U(1) photon, .
MZ =
2
g +g
The quarks and the leptons interact with the Higgs eld
through Yukawa interaction terms:
Scalar boson
Stueckelberg action
Tachyonic eld
4.5.9
where (d, u, e, )iL,R are left-handed and right-handed
quarks and leptons of the ith generation, ij
u,d,e are matrices
of Yukawa couplings where h.c. denotes the hermitian conjugate terms. In the symmetry breaking ground state, only
the terms containing 0 remain, giving rise to mass terms
Notes
[1] Note that such events also occur due to other processes.
Detection involves a statistically signicant excess of such
events at specic energies.
[2] In the Standard Model, the total decay width of a Higgs boson with a mass of 126 GeV/c2 is predicted to be 4.21103
GeV.[5] The mean lifetime is given by = / .
4.5. HIGGS BOSON
[3] It is quite common for a law of physics to hold true only

if certain assumptions held true or only under certain conditions. For example, Newtons laws of motion apply only
at speeds where relativistic eects are negligible; and laws
related to conductivity, gases, and classical physics (as opposed to quantum mechanics) may apply only within certain
ranges of size, temperature, pressure, or other conditions.
[4] Electroweak symmetry is broken by the Higgs eld in its lowest energy state, called its "ground state". At high energy levels this does not happen, and the gauge bosons of the weak
force would therefore be expected to be massless.
[5] The range of a force is inversely proportional to the mass of
the particles transmitting it.[20] In the Standard Model, forces
are carried by virtual particles. These particles movement
and interactions with each other are limited by the energy
time uncertainty principle. As a result, the more massive a
single virtual particle is, the greater its energy, and therefore the shorter the distance it can travel. A particles mass
therefore determines the maximum distance at which it can
interact with other particles and on any force it mediates. By
the same token, the reverse is also true: massless and nearmassless particles can carry long distance forces. (See also:
Compton wavelength and Static forces and virtual-particle exchange) Since experiments have shown that the weak force
acts over only a very short range, this implies that there must
exist massive gauge bosons. And indeed, their masses have
since been conrmed by measurement.
[6] By the 1960s, many had already started to see gauge theories as failing to explain particle physics because theorists
had been unable to solve the mass problem or even explain
how gauge theory could provide a solution. So the idea that
the Standard Model which relied on a Higgs eld, not yet
proved to exist could be fundamentally incorrect. Against
this, once the model was developed around 1972, no better
theory existed, and its predictions and solutions were so accurate, that it became the preferred theory anyway. It then
became crucial to science, to know whether it was correct.
[7] The success of the Higgs-based electroweak theory and Standard Model is illustrated by their predictions of the mass of
two particles later detected: the W boson (predicted mass:
80.390 0.018 GeV, experimental measurement: 80.387
0.019 GeV), and the Z boson (predicted mass: 91.1874
0.0021, experimental measurement: 91.1876 0.0021
GeV). The existence of the Z boson was itself another prediction. Other accurate predictions included the weak neutral current, the gluon, and the top and charm quarks, all later
proven to exist as the theory said.
[8] For example, Hungton Post/Reuters[35] and others[36][37]
[9] The bubbles eects would be expected to propagate across
the universe at the speed of light from wherever it occurred.
However space is vast with even the nearest galaxy being over 2 million lightyears from us, and others being many
billions of lightyears distant, so the eect of such an event
would be unlikely to arise here for billions of years after rst
occurring.[39][40]
99
[10] If the Standard Model is valid, then the particles and

forces we observe in our universe exist as they do, because
of underlying quantum elds. Quantum elds can have
states of diering stability, including 'stable', 'unstable' and
'metastable' states (the latter remain stable unless suciently
perturbed). If a more stable vacuum state were able to arise,
then existing particles and forces would no longer arise as
they presently do. Dierent particles or forces would arise
from (and be shaped by) whatever new quantum states arose.
The world we know depends upon these particles and forces,
so if this happened, everything around us, from subatomic
particles to galaxies, and all fundamental forces, would be
reconstituted into new fundamental particles and forces and
structures. The universe would potentially lose all of its
present structures and become inhabited by new ones (depending upon the exact states involved) based upon the same
quantum elds.
[11] Goldstones theorem only applies to gauges having manifest
Lorentz covariance, a condition that took time to become
questioned. But the process of quantisation requires a gauge
to be xed and at this point it becomes possible to choose
a gauge such as the 'radiation' gauge which is not invariant
over time, so that these problems can be avoided. According
to Bernstein (1974, p.8):
the radiation gauge condition A(x) = 0 is
clearly noncovariant, which means that if we
wish to maintain transversality of the photon
in all Lorentz frames, the photon eld A(x)
cannot transform like a four-vector. This is
no catastrophe, since the photon eld is not an
observable, and one can readily show that the
S-matrix elements, which are observable have
covariant structures .... in gauge theories one
might arrange things so that one had a symmetry
breakdown because of the noninvariance of the
vacuum; but, because the Goldstone et al. proof
breaks down, the zero mass Goldstone mesons
need not appear. [Emphasis in original]
Bernstein (1974) contains an accessible and comprehensive
background and review of this area, see external links
[12] A eld with the Mexican hat potential V () = 2 2 +
4 and 2 < 0 has a minimum not at zero but at some
non-zero value 0 . By expressing the action in terms of
the eld = 0 (where 0 is a constant independent of
position), we nd the Yukawa term has a component g0

. Since both g and 0 are constants, this looks exactly like
the mass term for a fermion of mass g0 . The eld is
then the Higgs eld.
[13] In the Standard Model, the mass term arising from the Dirac
. This is not inLagrangian for any fermion is m
variant under the electroweak symmetry, as can be seen by
writing in terms of left and right handed components:
= m(L R + R L )
m
i.e., contributions from L L and R R terms do not
appear. We see that the mass-generating interaction is
100
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
achieved by constant ipping of particle chirality. Since the

spin-half particles have no right/left helicity pair with the
same SU(2) and SU(3) representation and the same weak
hypercharge, then assuming these gauge charges are conserved in the vacuum, none of the spin-half particles could
ever swap helicity. Therefore, in the absence of some other
cause, all fermions must be massless.
[14] The example is based on the production rate at the LHC
operating at 7 TeV. The total cross-section for producing
a Higgs boson at the LHC is about 10 picobarn,[97] while
the total cross-section for a protonproton collision is 110
millibarn.[107]
[15] Just before LEPs shut down, some events that hinted at
a Higgs were observed, but it was not judged signicant
enough to extend its run and delay construction of the LHC.
[144]
[16] Announced in articles in Time,

NPR,[147] and others.[148]
[145]
Forbes,
[146]
Slate,
[17] Other names have included: the AndersonHiggs

mechanism,[160] HiggsKibble mechanism (by Abdus
Salam)[79] and ABEGHHK'tH mechanism [for Anderson,
Brout, Englert, Guralnik, Hagen, Higgs, Kibble and 't
Hooft] (by Peter Higgs).[79]
[18] In Millers analogy, the Higgs eld is compared to political
party workers spread evenly throughout a room. There will
be some people (in Millers example an anonymous person)
who pass through the crowd with ease, paralleling the interaction between the eld and particles that do not interact
with it, such as massless photons. There will be other people
(in Millers example the British prime minister) who would
nd their progress being continually slowed by the swarm
of admirers crowding around, paralleling the interaction for
particles that do interact with the eld and by doing so, acquire a nite mass.[200][201]
4.5.10
References
[1] O'Luanaigh, C. (14 March 2013). New results indicate that

new particle is a Higgs boson. CERN. Retrieved 2013-1009.
[2] Bryner, J. (14 March 2013). Particle conrmed as Higgs
boson. NBC News. Retrieved 2013-03-14.
[3] Heilprin, J. (14 March 2013). Higgs Boson Discovery Conrmed After Physicists Review Large Hadron Collider Data
at CERN. The Hungton Post. Retrieved 2013-03-14.
[4] ATLAS; CMS (26 March 2015). Combined Measurement of the Higgs Boson Mass in pp Collisions at s=7
and 8 TeV with the ATLAS and CMS Experiments.
arXiv:1503.07589 .
[5] LHC Higgs Cross Section Working Group; Dittmaier;
Mariotti; Passarino; Tanaka; Alekhin; Alwall; Bagnaschi;
Ban (2012). Handbook of LHC Higgs Cross Sections: 2. Dierential Distributions. CERN Report 2
(Tables A.1 A.20). 1201: 3084. arXiv:1201.3084 .

Bibcode:2012arXiv1201.3084L.
[6] Onyisi, P. (23 October 2012). Higgs boson FAQ.
University of Texas ATLAS group. Retrieved 2013-01-08.
[7] Strassler, M. (12 October 2012). The Higgs FAQ 2.0.
ProfMattStrassler.com. Retrieved 2013-01-08. [Q] Why do
particle physicists care so much about the Higgs particle?
[A] Well, actually, they dont. What they really care about
is the Higgs eld, because it is so important. [emphasis in
original]
[8] Jos Luis Lucio; Arnulfo Zepeda (1987). Proceedings of
the II Mexican School of Particles and Fields, CuernavacaMorelos, 1986. World Scientic. p. 29. ISBN 9971504340.
[9] Gunion, Dawson, Kane, and Haber (199). The Higgs
Hunters Guide (1st ed.). pp. 11 (?). ISBN 978-0-78674318-6. quoted as being in the rst (1990) edition of the
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[198] Flam, Faye (2012-07-12). Finally A Higgs Boson
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[190] Cole, K. (2000-12-14). One Thing Is Perfectly Clear:
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universea state of pure, perfect nothingness; a formless fog
of undierentiated stu ... 'perfect symmetry' ... What shat- [201] Kathryn Grim. Ten things you may not know about the
tered this primordial perfection? One likely culprit is the soHiggs boson. Symmetry Magazine. Retrieved 10 July
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2012.
way the Higgs operates to the biblical story of Babel [whose
citizens] all spoke the same language ... Like God, says Le- [202] David Goldberg, Associate Professor of Physics, Drexel
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fusing everyone (physicists included) ... [Nobel Prizewinner
2013.
Richard] Feynman wondered why the universe we live in was
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[204] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1999 ocial Nobel Prize website.
[191] Lederman, p. 22 et seq:
[205] ocial Nobel Prize website.
Something we cannot yet detect and which,
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[206] Daigle, Katy (10 July 2012). India: Enough about Higgs,
confuse us ... The issue is whether physicists
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will be confounded by this puzzle or whether,
[207] Bal, Hartosh Singh (19 September 2012). The Bose in the
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[208] Alikhan, Anvar (16 July 2012). The Spark In A Crowded
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confounding my confounding. And the Lord
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give them the God Particle so that they may see
how beautiful is the universe I have made.
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[193] Gordon, Fraser (5 July 2012). Introducing the higgson.
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[194] Wolchover, Natalie (2012-07-03). Higgs Boson Explained:
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[195] Oliver, Laura (2012-07-04). Higgs boson: how would you
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4.5.11
Further reading
Nambu, Yoichiro; Jona-Lasinio, Giovanni (1961).

Dynamical Model of Elementary Particles Based on
an Analogy with Superconductivity. Physical Review.
Bibcode:1961PhRv..122..345N.
122: 345358.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.122.345.
Klein, Abraham; Lee, Benjamin W. (1964). Does
Spontaneous Breakdown of Symmetry Imply ZeroMass Particles?". Physical Review Letters. 12
(10): 266268. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..12..266K.
4.5. HIGGS BOSON
109
Anderson, Philip W. (1963). Plasmons, Gauge

Invariance, and Mass. Physical Review. 130:
439442.
Bibcode:1963PhRv..130..439A.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.130.439.
Gilbert, Walter (1964). Broken Symmetries and
Massless Particles. Physical Review Letters. 12
(25): 713714. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..12..713G.
Higgs, Peter (1964). Broken Symmetries, Massless Particles and Gauge Fields. Physics Letters.
12 (2): 132133. Bibcode:1964PhL....12..132H.
doi:10.1016/0031-9163(64)91136-9.
Guralnik, Gerald S.; Hagen, C.R.; Kibble, Tom W.B.
(1968). Broken Symmetries and the Goldstone Theorem. In R.L. Cool and R.E. Marshak. Advances in
Physics, Vol. 2. Interscience Publishers. pp. 567708.
ISBN 978-0-470-17057-1.
The Higgs Boson discovery Karl
Chris Seez Scholarpedia 10(9):32413.
10.4249/scholarpedia.32413
Jakobs,
doi:
Sean Carroll (2013). The Particle at the End of the

Universe: How the Hunt for the Higgs Boson Leads Us
to the Edge of a New World. Dutton. ISBN 978-0-14218030-3.
4.5.12
External links
Popular science, mass media, and general coverage

Hunting the Higgs Boson at C.M.S. Experiment, at
CERN
The Higgs Boson by the CERN exploratorium.
Particle Fever, documentary lm about the search for
the Higgs Boson.
The Atom Smashers, documentary lm about the
search for the Higgs Boson at Fermilab.
Collected Articles at the Guardian
Video (04:38) CERN Announcement on 4 July
2012, of the discovery of a particle which is suspected
will be a Higgs Boson.
Carroll, Sean. Higgs Boson with Sean Carroll. Sixty

Symbols. University of Nottingham.
Overbye, Dennis (2013-03-05). Chasing the Higgs
Boson: How 2 teams of rivals at CERN searched for
physics most elusive particle. New York Times Science pages. Retrieved 22 July 2013. - New York Times
behind the scenes style article on the Higgs search
at ATLAS and CMS
The story of the Higgs theory by the authors of the
PRL papers and others closely associated:
Higgs, Peter (2010). My Life as a Boson
(PDF). Talk given at Kings College, London,
Nov 24 2010. Retrieved 17 January 2013. (also:
)
Kibble, Tom (2009). EnglertBroutHiggs
GuralnikHagenKibble mechanism (history)".
Scholarpedia. Retrieved 17 January 2013. (also:
)
Guralnik, Gerald (2009).
The History
of the Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous
Symmetry Breaking and Gauge Particles.
International Journal of Modern Physics A.
24 (14): 26012627.
arXiv:0907.3466 .
doi:10.1142/S0217751X09045431.,
Guralnik, Gerald (2011).
The Beginnings of
Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking in Particle
Physics. Proceedings of the DPF-2011 Conference, Providence, RI, 813 August 2011.
arXiv:1110.2253v1
[physics.hist-ph]., and
Guralnik, Gerald (2013). Heretical Ideas that
Provided the Cornerstone for the Standard
Model of Particle Physics. SPG MITTEILUNGEN March 2013, No. 39, (p. 14), and Talk at
Brown University about the 1964 PRL papers
Philip Anderson (not one of the PRL authors)
on symmetry breaking in superconductivity and
its migration into particle physics and the PRL
papers
Cartoon about the search
Cham, Jorge (2014-02-19). True Tales from the
Road: The Higgs Boson Re-Explained. Piled Higher
and Deeper. Retrieved 2014-02-25.
Video1 (07:44) + Video2 (07:44) Higgs Boson Ex- Signicant papers and other
plained by CERN Physicist, Dr. Daniel Whiteson (16
Observation of a new particle in the search for the
June 2011).
Standard Model Higgs Boson with the ATLAS detec HowStuWorks: What exactly is the Higgs Boson?
tor at the LHC
110
Observation of a new Boson at a mass of 125 GeV
with the CMS experiment at the LHC
Particle Data Group: Review of searches for Higgs
Bosons.
2001, a spacetime odyssey: proceedings of the Inaugural Conference of the Michigan Center for Theoretical Physics : Michigan, USA, 2125 May 2001, (p.86
88), ed. Michael J. Du, James T. Liu, ISBN 978981-238-231-3, containing Higgs story of the Higgs
Boson.
A.A. Migdal & A.M. Polyakov, Spontaneous Breakdown of Strong Interaction Symmetry and the Absence
of Massless Particles, Sov.J.-JETP 24,91 (1966) example of a 1966 Russian paper on the subject.
Introductions to the eld
Spontaneous symmetry breaking, gauge theories, the
Higgs mechanism and all that (Bernstein, Reviews of
Modern Physics Jan 1974) an introduction of 47
pages covering the development, history and mathematics of Higgs theories from around 1950 to 1974.
CHAPTER 4. THEORY
Chapter 5
Safety
5.1 Safety of particle collisions at the
mandated a group of independent scientists to review these

scenarios. In a report issued in 2003, they concluded that,
like current particle experiments such as the Relativistic
Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), the LHC particle collisions
pose no conceivable threat.[2] A second review of the evidence commissioned by CERN was released in 2008. The
report, prepared by a group of physicists aliated to CERN
but not involved in the LHC experiments, rearmed the
safety of the LHC collisions in light of further research conducted since the 2003 assessment.[3][4] It was reviewed and
endorsed by a CERN committee of 20 external scientists
and by the Executive Committee of the Division of Particles & Fields of the American Physical Society,[5][6] and
was later published in the peer-reviewed Journal of Physics
G by the UK Institute of Physics, which also endorsed its
conclusions.[3][7]
The report ruled out any doomsday scenario at the LHC,
noting that the physical conditions and collision events
which exist in the LHC, RHIC and other experiments occur naturally and routinely in the universe without hazardous consequences,[3] including ultra-high-energy cosmic
rays observed to impact Earth with energies far higher than
those in any man-made collider.
A simulated particle collision in the LHC.
The safety of high energy particle collisions was a topic of

widespread discussion and topical interest during the time
when the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) and later
the Large Hadron Collider (LHC)currently the worlds
largest and most powerful particle acceleratorwere being
constructed and commissioned. Concerns arose that such
high energy experimentsdesigned to produce novel particles and forms of matterhad the potential to create harmful states of matter or even doomsday scenarios. Claims escalated as commissioning of the LHC drew closer, around
20082010. The claimed dangers included the production
of stable micro black holes and the creation of hypothetical particles called strangelets,[1] and these questions were
explored in the media, on the Internet and at times through
the courts.
5.1.1
Background
Main articles: Particle collider and Large Hadron Collider

Particle colliders are a type of particle accelerator used by
physicists as a research tool to understand fundamental aspects of the universe. Their operation involves directed
beams of particles accelerated to very high kinetic energy
and allowed to collide; analysis of the byproducts of these
collisions gives scientists good evidence of the structure of
the subatomic world and the laws of nature governing it.
These may become apparent only at high energies and for
tiny periods of time, and therefore may be hard or impossible to study in other ways.
To address these concerns in the context of the LHC, CERN Because of the high energy levels involved, concerns have
111
112
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
Similar concerns had previously also been raised in the
context of the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, with Frank
Close, professor of physics at the University of Oxford, to
comment at the time that the chance of [strangelet creation] is like you winning the major prize on the lottery 3
weeks in succession; the problem is that people believe it is
possible to win the lottery 3 weeks in succession.[13]
5.1.2
Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider
Main article: Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider

Concerns about possible adverse consequences
were raised in connection with the RHIC particle
accelerator.[14][15][16][17] After detailed studies, scientists
reached such conclusions as beyond reasonable doubt,
heavy-ion experiments at RHIC will not endanger our
planet[18] and that there is powerful empirical evidence against the possibility of dangerous strangelet
production.[19]
The LHCs CMS detector.
arisen at times in the public arena as to whether such

collisions are safe, or whether they might, by reason of
their extreme energy, trigger unforeseen problems or consequences.
Examples of colliders
Concerns were noted during the construction of the Large
Hadron Collider (LHC), which began operations in 2008,
is the worlds largest and highest-energy particle accelerator complex, intended to collide opposing beams of either
protons or lead nuclei with very high kinetic energy.[8][9]
It was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) near Geneva, in Switzerland. The LHCs
main purpose is to explore the validity and limitations of the
Standard Model, the current theoretical picture for particle
physics. The rst particle collisions at the LHC took place
shortly after startup in November 2009, at energies up to
1.2 TeV per beam.[10] On 30 March 2010, the rst planned
collisions took place between two 3.5 TeV beams, which
set another new world record for the highest energy manmade particle collisions.[11] The LHC will begin to operate
at its designed 7 TeV per beam (14 TeV center-of-mass) after a long shutdown that was scheduled to begin at the end
of 2012.[12] and was later postponed for a few weeks until
early 2013.
Before the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider started operation, critics postulated that the extremely high energy
could produce catastrophic scenarios,[20] such as creating a
black hole, a transition into a dierent quantum mechanical
vacuum (see false vacuum), or the creation of strange matter that is more stable than ordinary matter. These hypotheses are complex, but many predict that the Earth would be
destroyed in a time frame from seconds to millennia, depending on the theory considered. However, the fact that
objects of the Solar System (e.g., the Moon) have been
bombarded with cosmic particles of signicantly higher energies than that of RHIC and other man made colliders
for billions of years, without any harm to the Solar System, were among the most striking arguments that these
hypotheses were unfounded.[21]
The other main controversial issue was a demand by critics
for physicists to reasonably exclude the probability for such
a catastrophic scenario. Physicists are unable to demonstrate experimental and astrophysical constraints of zero
probability of catastrophic events, nor that tomorrow Earth
will be struck with a "doomsday" cosmic ray (they can only
calculate an upper limit for the likelihood). The result
would be the same destructive scenarios described above,
although obviously not caused by humans. According to
this argument of upper limits, RHIC would still modify the
chance for the Earths survival by an innitesimal amount.
Concerns were raised in connection with the RHIC particle accelerator, both in the media[22][23] and in the popular
science media.[24] The risk of a doomsday scenario was indicated by Martin Rees, with respect to the RHIC, as being
at least a 1 in 50 million chance.[25] With regards to the pro-
5.1. SAFETY OF PARTICLE COLLISIONS AT THE LARGE HADRON COLLIDER

duction of strangelets, Frank Close, professor of physics at
the University of Oxford, indicates that the chance of this
happening is like you winning the major prize on the lottery
3 weeks in succession; the problem is that people believe it
is possible to win the lottery 3 weeks in succession.[13] After detailed studies, scientists reached such conclusions as
beyond reasonable doubt, heavy-ion experiments at RHIC
will not endanger our planet[26] and that there is powerful empirical evidence against the possibility of dangerous
strangelet production.[27]
History of discussion
The debate started in 1999 with an exchange of letters in
Scientic American between Walter L. Wagner,[28] and F.
Wilczek,[29] Institute for Advanced Study, in response to a
previous article by M. Mukerjee.[30] The media attention
unfolded with an article in U.K. Sunday Times of July 18,
1999 by J. Leake,[31] closely followed by articles in the U.S.
media.[32] The controversy mostly ended with the report of
a committee convened by the director of Brookhaven National Laboratory, J. H. Marburger, ostensibly ruling out the
catastrophic scenarios depicted.[21] However, the report left
open the possibility that relativistic cosmic ray impact products might behave dierently while transiting earth compared to at rest RHIC products; and the possibility that
the qualitative dierence between high-E proton collisions
with earth or the moon might be dierent than gold on gold
collisions at the RHIC. Wagner tried subsequently to stop
full energy collision at RHIC by ling Federal lawsuits in
San Francisco and New York, but without success.[33] The
New York suit was dismissed on the technicality that the
San Francisco suit was the preferred forum. The San Francisco suit was dismissed, but with leave to rele if additional
information was developed and presented to the court.[34]
On March 17, 2005, the BBC published an article[35] implying that researcher Horaiu Nstase believes black holes
have been created at RHIC. However, the original papers of
H. Nstase[36] and the New Scientist article[37] cited by the
BBC state that the correspondence of the hot dense QCD
matter created in RHIC to a black hole is only in the sense
of a correspondence of QCD scattering in Minkowski space
and scattering in the AdS 5 X5 space in AdS/CFT; in other
words, it is similar mathematically. Therefore, RHIC collisions might be described by mathematics relevant to theories of quantum gravity within AdS/CFT, but the described
physical phenomena are not the same.
5.1.3
Main article: Large Hadron Collider
113
In the run up to the commissioning of the LHC, Walter L. Wagner (an original opponent of the RHIC), Luis
Sancho (a Spanish science writer) and Otto Rssler (a
German biochemist) expressed concerns over the safety
of the LHC, and attempted to halt the beginning of the
experiments through petitions to the US and European
Courts.[38][39][40][41][42] These opponents assert that the
LHC experiments have the potential to create low velocity micro black holes that could grow in mass or release
dangerous radiation leading to doomsday scenarios, such
as the destruction of the Earth.[1][43] Other claimed potential risks include the creation of theoretical particles called
strangelets, magnetic monopoles and vacuum bubbles.[1][43]
Based on such safety concerns, US federal judge Richard
Posner,[44] Future of Humanity Institute research associate Toby Ord[45] and others[46][47][48][49] have argued that
the LHC experiments are too risky to undertake. In
the book Our Final Century: Will the Human Race Survive the Twenty-rst Century?, English cosmologist and
astrophysicist Martin Rees calculated an upper limit of 1 in
50 million for the probability that the Large Hadron Collider will produce a global catastrophe or black hole.[39]
However, Rees has also reported not to be losing sleep over
the collider, and trusts the scientists who have built it.[50]
He has stated: My book has been misquoted in one or two
places. I would refer you to the up-to-date safety study.[51]
The risk assessments of catastrophic scenarios at the LHC
sparked public fears,[38] and some scientists associated with
the project received protests - the Large Hadron Collider
team revealed that they had received death threats and
threatening emails and phone calls demanding the experiment be halted.[51] On 9 September 2008, Romanias Conservative Party held a protest before the European Commission mission to Bucharest, demanding that the experiment
be halted because it feared that the LHC could create dangerous black holes.[52][53]
Media coverage
The safety concerns regarding the LHC collisions have attracted widespread media attention.[38][54] Various widely
circulated newspapers have reported doomsday fears in
connection with the collider, including The Times,[55] The
Guardian,[56] The Independent,[57] The Sydney Morning
Herald,[58] and Time.[59] Among other media sources, CNN
mentioned that Some have expressed fears that the project
could lead to the Earths demise,[60] but it assured its readers with comments from scientists like John Huth, who said
that it was baloney.[60] MSNBC said that, there are more
serious things to worry about[61] and allayed fears that the
atom-smasher might set o earthquakes or other dangerous rumblings.[61] The results of an online survey it con-
114
ducted indicate that a lot of [the public] know enough not
to panic.[61] The BBC stated, the scientic consensus appears to be on the side of CERNs theorists[62] who say the
LHC poses no conceivable danger.[62] Brian Greene in
the New York Times reassured readers by saying, If a black
hole is produced under Geneva, might it swallow Switzerland and continue on a ravenous rampage until the Earth is
devoured? Its a reasonable question with a denite answer:
no.[63]
The tabloids also covered the safety concerns. The Daily
Mail produced headlines such as Are we all going to
die next Wednesday?"[64] and End of the world postponed as broken Hadron Collider out of commission until
the spring.[65] The Sun quoted Otto Rssler saying, The
weather will change completely, wiping out life. There will
be a Biblical Armageddon.[66] After the launch of the collider, it had a story entitled, Success! The world hasn't
ended.[67]
On 10 September 2008, a 16-year-old girl from Sarangpur,
Madhya Pradesh, India committed suicide, having become
distressed about predictions of an impending "doomsday"
made on an Indian news channel (Aaj Tak) covering the
LHC.[68]
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
has had the sensitivity required to nd direct evidence for
it.[3]
According to the LSAG, even if micro black holes were
produced by the LHC and were stable, they would be unable to accrete matter in a manner dangerous for the Earth.
They would also have been produced by cosmic rays and
have stopped in neutron stars and white dwarfs, and the stability of these astronomical bodies means that they cannot
be dangerous:[3][77]
Stable black holes could be either electrically
charged or neutral. [...] If stable microscopic
black holes had no electric charge, their interactions with the Earth would be very weak. Those
produced by cosmic rays would pass harmlessly
through the Earth into space, whereas those produced by the LHC could remain on Earth. However, there are much larger and denser astronomical bodies than the Earth in the Universe. Black
holes produced in cosmic-ray collisions with bodies such as neutron stars and white dwarf stars
would be brought to rest. The continued existence of such dense bodies, as well as the Earth,
rules out the possibility of the LHC producing
any dangerous black holes.[4]
After the dismissal of the federal lawsuit, The Daily Shows

correspondent John Oliver interviewed Walter L. Wagner,
who declared that he believed the chance of the LHC destroying the Earth to be 50%, since it will either happen or Strangelets Main article: Strangelets
it won't.[69][70]
Strangelets are small fragments of strange mattera hypothetical form of quark matterthat contain roughly equal
Specic concerns
numbers of up, down, and strange quarks and that are
more stable than ordinary nuclei (strangelets would range
Micro black holes Main article: Micro black hole
in size from a few femtometers to a few meters across).[3]
If strangelets can actually exist, and if they were produced
Although the Standard Model of particle physics predicts at the LHC, they could conceivably initiate a runaway futhat LHC energies are far too low to create black holes, sion process in which all the nuclei in the planet would be
some extensions of the Standard Model posit the existence converted to strange matter, similar to a strange star.[3]
of extra spatial dimensions, in which it would be possible
The probability of the creation of strangelets decreases at
to create micro black holes at the LHC at a rate of the
higher energies.[3] As the LHC operates at higher energies
order of one per second.[71][72][73][74][75] According to the
than the RHIC or the heavy ion programs of the 1980s
standard calculations these are harmless because they would
and 1990s, the LHC is less likely to produce strangelets
quickly decay by Hawking radiation.[73] Hawking radiation
than its predecessors.[3] Furthermore, models indicate that
is a thermal radiation predicted to be emitted by black holes
strangelets are only stable or long-lived at low temperatures.
due to quantum eects. Because Hawking radiation allows
Strangelets are bound at low energies (in the range of 110
black holes to lose mass, black holes that lose more matter
MeV), while the collisions in the LHC release energies in
than they gain through other means are expected to dissithe range of 714 TeV. Thermodynamics very strongly dispate, shrink, and ultimately vanish. Smaller micro black
favors the formation of a cold condensate that is an order
holes (MBHs), which could be produced at the LHC, are
of magnitude cooler than the surrounding medium. As an
currently predicted by theory to be larger net emitters of raexample, it is about as likely as producing an icecube in a
diation than larger black holes, and to shrink and dissipate
furnace.[3]
instantly.[76] The LHC Safety Assessment Group (LSAG)
indicates that there is broad consensus among physicists on
the reality of Hawking radiation, but so far no experiment Concerns not meeting peer review Otto Rssler, a Ger-

man chemistry professor at the University of Tbingen,
argues that micro black holes created in the LHC could
grow exponentially.[78][79][80][81][82] On 4 July 2008, Rssler
met with a CERN physicist, Rolf Landua, with whom he
discussed his safety concerns.[83] Following the meeting,
Landua asked another expert, Hermann Nicolai, Director
of the Albert Einstein Institute, in Germany, to examine
Rsslers arguments.[83] Nicolai reviewed Otto Rsslers research paper on the safety of the LHC[79] and issued a
statement highlighting logical inconsistencies and physical
misunderstandings in Rsslers arguments.[84] Nicolai concluded that this text would not pass the referee process
in a serious journal.[82][84] Domenico Giulini also commented with Hermann Nicolai on Otto Rsslers thesis,
concluding that his argument concerns only the General
Theory of Relativity (GRT), and makes no logical connection to LHC physics; the argument is not valid; the argument is not self-consistent.[85] On 1 August 2008, a
group of German physicists, the Committee for Elementary Particle Physics (KET),[86] published an open letter further dismissing Rsslers concerns and carrying assurances
that the LHC is safe.[87][88] Otto Rssler was due to meet
Swiss president Pascal Couchepin in August 2008 to discuss
this concern,[89] but it was later reported that the meeting
had been canceled as it was believed Rssler and his fellow opponents would have used the meeting for their own
publicity.[90]
On 10 August 2008, Rainer Plaga, a German astrophysicist, posted a research paper on the arXiv Web archive concluding that LHC safety studies have not denitely ruled
out the potential catastrophic threat from microscopic black
holes, including the possible danger from Hawking radiation emitted by black holes.[1][91][92][93] In a follow-up paper
posted on the arXiv on 29 August 2008, Steven Giddings
and Michelangelo Mangano, the authors of the research paper Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeVscale black holes,[94] responded to Plagas concerns.[95]
They pointed out what they see as a basic inconsistency in
Plagas calculation, and argued that their own conclusions
on the safety of the collider, as referred to in the LHC safety
assessment (LSAG) report,[3] remain robust.[95] Giddings
and Mangano also referred to the research paper Exclusion of black hole disaster scenarios at the LHC, which
relies on a number of new arguments to conclude that there
is no risk due to mini black holes at the LHC.[1][96] On
19 January 2009 Roberto Casadio, Sergio Fabi and Benjamin Harms posted on the arXiv a paper, later published
on Physical Review D, ruling out the catastrophic growth of
black holes in the scenario considered by Plaga.[97] In reaction to the criticisms, Plaga updated his paper on the arXiv
on 26 September 2008 and again on 9 August 2009.[91] So
far, Plagas paper has not been published in a peer-reviewed
journal.
115
Safety reviews
CERN-commissioned reports Drawing from research
performed to assess the safety of the RHIC collisions, the
LHC Safety Study Group, a group of independent scientists, performed a safety analysis of the LHC, and released
their ndings in the 2003 report Study of Potentially Dangerous Events During Heavy-Ion Collisions at the LHC. The
report concluded that there is no basis for any conceivable threat.[2] Several of its arguments were based on the
predicted evaporation of hypothetical micro black holes by
Hawking radiation and on the theoretical predictions of the
Standard Model with regard to the outcome of events to be
studied in the LHC. One argument raised against doomsday
fears was that collisions at energies equivalent to and higher
than those of the LHC have been happening in nature for
billions of years apparently without hazardous eects, as
ultra-high-energy cosmic rays impact Earths atmosphere
and other bodies in the universe.[2]
In 2007, CERN mandated a group of ve particle physicists
not involved in the LHC experimentsthe LHC Safety Assessment Group (LSAG), consisting of John Ellis, Gian
Giudice, Michelangelo Mangano and Urs Wiedemann, of
CERN, and Igor Tkachev, of the Institute for Nuclear Research in Moscowto monitor the latest concerns about
the LHC collisions.[4] On 20 June 2008, in light of new experimental data and theoretical understanding, the LSAG
issued a report updating the 2003 safety review, in which
they rearmed and extended its conclusions that LHC
collisions present no danger and that there are no reasons for concern.[3][4] The LSAG report was then reviewed by CERNs Scientic Policy Committee (SPC), a
group of external scientists that advises CERNs governing body, its Council.[5][41][98] The report was reviewed and
endorsed by a panel of ve independent scientists, Peter
Braun-Munzinger, Matteo Cavalli-Sforza, Gerard 't Hooft,
Bryan Webber and Fabio Zwirner, and their conclusions
were unanimously approved by the full 20 members of the
SPC.[98] On 5 September 2008, the LSAGs Review of the
safety of LHC collisions was published in the Journal of
Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics by the UK Institute
of Physics, which endorsed its conclusions in a press release
that announced the publication.[3][7]
Following the July 2008 release of the LSAG safety
report,[3] the Executive Committee of the Division of Particles and Fields (DPF) of the American Physical Society,
the worlds second largest organization of physicists, issued
a statement approving the LSAGs conclusions and noting
that this report explains why there is nothing to fear from
particles created at the LHC.[6] On 1 August 2008, a group
of German quantum physicists, the Committee for Elementary Particle Physics (KET),[86] published an open letter further dismissing concerns about the LHC experiments and
116
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
carrying assurances that they are safe based on the LSAG 2010.[107][108]
safety review.[87][88]
On 26 August 2008, a group of European citizens, led by
German biochemist Otto Rssler, led a suit against CERN
[80]
Other publications On 20 June 2008, Steven Giddings in the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.
and Michelangelo Mangano issued a research paper titled The suit, which was summarily rejected on the same day,
the Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV- alleged that the Large Hadron Collider posed grave risks for
member states of the European Union
scale black holes, where they develop arguments to exclude the safety of the 27
[55][59][80]
and
their
citizens.
[94]
any risk of dangerous black hole production at the LHC.
On 18 August 2008, this safety review was published in the
Physical Review D,[99] and a commentary article which appeared the same day in the journal Physics endorsed Giddings and Manganos conclusions.[100] The LSAG report
draws heavily on this research.[41]
On 9 February 2009, a paper titled Exclusion of black
hole disaster scenarios at the LHC was published in the
journal Physics Letters B.[96] The article, which summarizes
proofs aimed at ruling out any possible black hole disaster
at the LHC, relies on a number of new safety arguments as
well as certain arguments already present in Giddings and
Manganos paper Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV-scale black holes.[94]
Legal challenges
Late in 2009 a review of the legal situation by Eric Johnson, a lawyer, was published in the Tennessee Law Review.[109][110][111] In this paper, Johnson states, remarkably,
that Given such a state, it is not clear that any particlephysics testimony should be allowed in the courtroom, in
reference to the dual problems that (a) the scientic arguments regarding the risks are so complex that only persons
who have devoted many years to particle physics study are
competent to understand them, but (b) any such persons, by
reason of this huge personal investment, will inevitably be
highly biased in favor of the experiments, and also endangered by severe professional censure if they threaten their
continuation.[112] In February 2010 a summary of Johnsons
article appeared as an opinion piece in New Scientist.[113]
In February 2010, the German Constitutional Court
(Bundesverfassungsgericht) rejected an injunction petition
to halt the LHCs operation as unfounded, without hearing
the case, stating that the opponents had failed to produce
plausible evidence for their theories.[114] A subsequent petition was rejected by the Administrative Court of Cologne in
January 2011.[115] An appeal against the latter ruling was rejected by the Higher Administrative Court of North RhineWestphalia in October 2012.[116]
On 21 March 2008, a complaint requesting an injunction to

halt the LHCs startup was led by Walter L. Wagner and
Luis Sancho against CERN and its American collaborators,
the US Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation and the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, before the United States District Court for the District of
Hawaii.[43][101][102] The plaintis demanded an injunction
against the LHCs activation for 4 months after issuance of
the LHC Safety Assessment Groups (LSAG) most recent 5.1.4 See also
safety documentation, and a permanent injunction until the
LHC can be demonstrated to be reasonably safe within in- 5.1.5 References
dustry standards.[103] The US Federal Court scheduled trial
to begin 16 June 2009.[104]
[1] Boyle, Alan (19 August 2008). "Twists in the Doomsday
The LSAG review, issued on 20 June 2008 after outside
review, found no basis for any concerns about the consequences of new particles or forms of matter that could possibly be produced by the LHC.[3] The US Government, in response, called for summary dismissal of the suit against the
government defendants as untimely due to the expiration
of a six-year statute of limitations (since funding began by
1999 and has essentially been completed already), and also
called the hazards claimed by the plaintis overly speculative and not credible.[105] The Hawaii District Court
heard the governments motion to dismiss on 2 September
2008,[38] and on 26 September the Court issued an order
granting the motion to dismiss on the grounds that it had no
jurisdiction over the LHC project.[106] A subsequent appeal
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"Legal bid to
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Telegraph.co.uk.
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Exclusion of black hole disaster scenarios at the LHC (PDF).
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[81] Patorski, Gregor (10 September 2008). "Grsstes Verbrechen der Menschheit" (in German). 20 Minuten.
[82] "Publicity fr eine fragwrdige Hypothese" (in German).
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[83] Schmidt, Von Wolf (7 September 2008). "Der Prophet des
Planetentods" (in German). Taz.de.
[97] R. Casadio, S. Fabi and B. Harms Possibility of Catastrophic

Black Hole Growth in the Warped Brane-World Scenario at
the LHC (PDF).
[98] "CERN Council looks forward to LHC start-up". PR05.08
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[99] Mgrdichian, Laura (1 September 2008). "Physicists Rule

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120
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
the gravitational constant, c is the speed of light, and M the

mass of the black hole. On the other hand, the Compton
wavelength, = h/M c , where h is Plancks constant, represents a limit on the minimum size of the region in which
[114] BVerfG, 2 BvR 2502/08 vom 18.2.2010
a mass M at rest can be localized. For suciently small M,
[115] Ruling of the Administrative Court of Cologne, Case Nr. 13 the reduced Compton wavelength ( = /M c , where
is Reduced planck constant) exceeds half the Schwarzschild
K 5693/08 (in German)
radius, and no black hole description exists. This smallest
[116] Web portal of the Justice Ministry of North Rhine- mass for a black hole is thus approximately the Planck mass.
[113] Johnson, Eric E. (23 February 2010). CERN on trial: could
a lawsuit shut the LHC down?". New Scientist. Retrieved
2010-04-01.
Westphalia (in German).
Some extensions of present physics posit the existence of

extra dimensions of space. In higher-dimensional spacetime, the strength of gravity increases more rapidly with
5.1.6 External links
decreasing distance than in three dimensions. With cer The safety of the LHC, CERN webpage.
tain special congurations of the extra dimensions, this effect can lower the Planck scale to the TeV range. Exam The LHC is safe (video), talk by John Ellis at CERN, ples of such extensions include large extra dimensions, speon 14 August 2008.
cial cases of the RandallSundrum model, and string theory congurations like the GKP solutions. In such scenarios, black hole production could possibly be an im5.2 Micro black hole
portant and observable eect at the large hadron collider
(LHC).[1][2][3][4][5] It would also be a common natural pheMicro black holes, also called quantum mechanical nomenon induced by the cosmic rays.
black holes or mini black holes, are hypothetical tiny All this assumes that the theory of general relativity reblack holes, for which quantum mechanics eects play an mains valid at these small distances. If it does not, then
important role.[1]
other, presently unknown, eects will limit the minimum
It is possible that such quantum primordial black holes were size of a black hole. Elementary particles are equipped with
created in the high-density environment of the early Uni- a quantum-mechanical, intrinsic angular momentum (spin).
verse (or big bang), or possibly through subsequent phase The correct conservation law for the total (orbital plus spin)
transitions. They might be observed by astrophysicists in angular momentum of matter in curved spacetime requires
the near future, through the particles they are expected to that spacetime is equipped with torsion. The simplest and
most natural theory of gravity with torsion is the Einsteinemit by Hawking radiation.
Cartan theory.[6][7] Torsion modies the Dirac equation in
Some hypotheses involving additional space dimensions the presence of the gravitational eld and causes fermion
predict that micro black holes could be formed at ener- particles to be spatially extended.[8] The spatial extension
gies as low as the TeV range, which are available in par- of fermions limits the minimum mass of a black hole to be
ticle accelerators such as the LHC (Large Hadron Col- on the order of 1016 kg, showing that mini black holes may
lider). Popular concerns have then been raised over end- not exist. The energy necessary to produce such a black
of-the-world scenarios (see Safety of particle collisions at hole is 39 orders of magnitude greater than the energies
the Large Hadron Collider). However, such quantum black available at the LHC, indicating that the LHC cannot proholes would instantly evaporate, either totally or leaving duce mini black holes. But if black holes are produced, then
only a very weakly interacting residue. Beside the theo- the theory of general relativity is proven wrong and does not
retical arguments, the cosmic rays bombarding the Earth exist at these small distances. The rules of general relativdo not produce any damage, although they reach center of ity would be broken, as is consistent with theories of how
mass energies in the range of hundreds of TeV.
matter, space, and time break down around the event horizon of a black hole. This would prove the spatial extensions
of the fermions limits incorrect as well. The fermion limits
5.2.1 Minimum mass of a black hole
assumes a minimum mass needed to sustain a black hole, as
opposed to the opposite, the minimum mass needed to start
In principle, a black hole can have any mass equal to or
a black hole, which in theory is achievable in the LHC.[9]
above the Planck mass (about 22 micrograms). To make
a black hole, one must concentrate mass or energy suciently that the escape velocity from the region in which it
is concentrated exceeds the speed of light. This condition 5.2.2 Stability of a micro black hole
gives the Schwarzschild radius, R = 2GM /c2 , where G is
5.2. MICRO BLACK HOLE

Hawking radiation
Main article: Hawking radiation
In 1974, Stephen Hawking argued that, due to quantum effects, black holes evaporate by a process now referred to
as Hawking radiation in which elementary particles (photons, electrons, quarks, gluons, etc.) are emitted.[10] His
calculations show that the smaller the size of the black hole,
the faster the evaporation rate, resulting in a sudden burst
of particles as the micro black hole suddenly explodes.
Any primordial black hole of suciently low mass will
evaporate to near the Planck mass within the lifetime of the
Universe. In this process, these small black holes radiate
away matter. A rough picture of this is that pairs of virtual
particles emerge from the vacuum near the event horizon,
with one member of a pair being captured, and the other
escaping the vicinity of the black hole. The net result is the
black hole loses mass (due to conservation of energy). According to the formulae of black hole thermodynamics, the
more the black hole loses mass, the hotter it becomes, and
the faster it evaporates, until it approaches the Planck mass.
At this stage, a black hole would have a Hawking temperature of TP / 8 (5.61032 K), which means an emitted
Hawking particle would have an energy comparable to the
mass of the black hole. Thus, a thermodynamic description
breaks down. Such a mini-black hole would also have an
entropy of only 4 nats, approximately the minimum possible value. At this point then, the object can no longer be
described as a classical black hole, and Hawkings calculations also break down.
While Hawking radiation is sometimes questioned,[11]
Leonard Susskind summarizes an expert perspective in his
recent book:[12] Every so often, a physics paper will appear claiming that black holes don't evaporate. Such papers quickly disappear into the innite junk heap of fringe
ideas.
Conjectures for the nal state
121
5.2.3
Primordial black holes
Main article: Primordial black hole
Formation in the early Universe

Production of a black hole requires concentration of mass
or energy within the corresponding Schwarzschild radius.
It is hypothesized that, shortly after the Big Bang, the Universe was dense enough for any given region of space to t
within its own Schwarzschild radius. Even so, at that time,
the Universe was not able to collapse into a singularity due
to its uniform mass distribution and rapid growth. This,
however, does not fully exclude the possibility that black
holes of various sizes may have emerged locally. A black
hole formed in this way is called a primordial black hole and
is the most widely accepted hypothesis for the possible creation of micro black holes. Computer simulations suggest
that the probability of formation of a primordial black hole
is inversely proportional to its mass. Thus, the most likely
outcome would be micro black holes.
Expected observable eects
A primordial black hole with an initial mass of around 1012
kg would be completing its evaporation today; a lighter primordial black hole would have already evaporated.[1] In optimistic circumstances, the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope satellite, launched in June 2008, might detect experimental evidence for evaporation of nearby black holes by
observing gamma ray bursts.[14][15][16] It is unlikely that a
collision between a microscopic black hole and an object
such as a star or a planet would be noticeable. The small
radius and high density of the black hole would allow it to
pass straight through any object consisting of normal atoms,
interacting with only few of its atoms while doing so. It has,
however, been suggested that a small black hole (of sucient mass) passing through the Earth would produce a detectable acoustic or seismic signal.[17][18][19][lower-alpha 1]
5.2.4
Man-made micro black holes
Feasibility of production
Conjectures for the nal fate of the black hole include total
evaporation and production of a Planck-mass-sized black
hole remnant. Such Planck-mass black holes may in eect
be stable objects if the quantised gaps between their allowed
energy levels bar them from emitting Hawking particles or
absorbing energy gravitationally like a classical black hole.
In such case, they would be WIMPs (weakly interacting
massive particles); this could explain dark matter.[13]
In familiar three-dimensional gravity, the minimum energy

of a microscopic black hole is 1019 GeV, which would have
to be condensed into a region on the order of the Planck
length. This is far beyond the limits of any current technology. It is estimated that to collide two particles to within a
distance of a Planck length with currently achievable magnetic eld strengths would require a ring accelerator about
122
1000 light years in diameter to keep the particles on track.
Stephen Hawking also said in chapter 6 of his Brief History
of Time that physicist John Archibald Wheeler once calculated that a very powerful hydrogen bomb using all the
deuterium in all the water on Earth could also generate such
a black hole, but Hawking does not provide this calculation
or any reference to it to support this assertion.
However, in some scenarios involving extra dimensions of
space, the Planck mass can be as low as the TeV range.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) has a design energy of
14 TeV for protonproton collisions and 1150 TeV for Pb
Pb collisions. It was argued in 2001 that, in these circumstances, black hole production could be an important and
observable eect at the LHC[2][3][4][5][20] or future higherenergy colliders. Such quantum black holes should decay
emitting sprays of particles that could be seen by detectors at these facilities.[2][3] A paper by Choptuik and Pretorius, published on March 17, 2010 in Physical Review
Letters, presented a computer-generated proof that micro
black holes must form from two colliding particles with sufcient energy, which might be allowable at the energies of
the LHC if additional dimensions are present other than the
customary four (three spatial, one temporal).[21][22]
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
life, the energy released may be captured for re-use. A factor limiting power output is the rate at which mass can be
moved into the black hole during its short duration of existence. As the fuel mass cannot travel faster than the speed
of light, smaller masses of roughly 1 g to 1 kg added to the
black hole could not travel fast enough to be absorbed in
time (between 10^25 to 10^16 seconds) to create a viable energy source. Larger masses of 1000+ kg for each
round of explosion (creation of black hole followed by its
destruction) are required instead. When converted to energy (E=mc^2) the explosions have an energy level of 10+
TeraWattHours. The capturing of the explosion energy for
re-use would be an engineering challenge.
5.2.5
Black holes in quantum theories of

gravity
It is possible, in some theories of quantum gravity, to calculate the quantum corrections to ordinary, classical black
holes. Contrarily to conventional black holes which are solutions of gravitational eld equations of the general theory of relativity, quantum gravity black holes incorporate
quantum gravity eects in the vicinity of the origin, where
classically a curvature singularity occurs. According to the
Safety arguments
theory employed to model quantum gravity eects, there
are dierent kinds of quantum gravity black holes, namely
Main article: Safety of high-energy particle collision loop quantum black holes, non-commutative black holes,
experiments
asymptotically safe black holes. In these approaches, black
holes are singularity free.
Hawkings calculation[10] and more general quantum mechanical arguments predict that micro black holes evaporate almost instantaneously. Additional safety arguments
beyond those based on Hawking radiation were given in the
paper,[23][24] which showed that in hypothetical scenarios
with stable black holes that could damage Earth, such black
holes would have been produced by cosmic rays and would
have already destroyed known astronomical objects such as
the Earth, Sun, neutron stars, or white dwarfs.
Virtual-micro black holes (VMBH) have been proposed by

Stephen Hawking in 1995,[25] and by Fabio Scardigli in
1999 as part of a GUT which could be a quantum gravity
candidate.[26][27]
5.2.6
See also
Black holes in ction

Planck particle
As a power source
Holeum
If a way to create articial micro black holes were discov Kugelblitz (astrophysics)
ered, they could provide an abundant energy source by absorbing and converting their Hawking radiation. The pro Black hole starship
cess may occur with a smaller mass black hole evaporating
Black hole electron
as a gamma ray burst immediately after creation. It may
also occur in a zero gravity environment, with a larger mass
black hole, that may emit radiation for years before becoming unstable and needing replacement, such as in a black 5.2.7 Notes
hole starship.
Mass may be added to a black hole power source as fuel
during its existence. At the end of the black holes service
[1] The Schwarzschild radius of a 1015 g black hole is ~148

fm (1481015 m), which is much smaller than an atom but
larger than an atomic nucleus.
5.2. MICRO BLACK HOLE
5.2.8
123
References
[1] B.J. Carr and S.B. Giddings, Quantum

holes,Scientic American 292N5 (2005) 30.
[16] Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope: Mini black hole detection.
black
[2] Giddings, S. B. & Thomas, S. D. (2002). High-energy

colliders as black hole factories: The End of short distance
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[3] Dimopoulos, S.; Landsberg, G. L. (2001).
Black
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[17] Khriplovich, I. B.; Pomeransky, A. A.; Produit, N. & Ruban,

G. Yu. (2008). Can one detect passage of small black hole
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Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77f4017K.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.064017.
[18] Khriplovich, I. B.; Pomeransky, A. A.; Produit, N. & Ruban,
G. Yu. (2008). Passage of small black hole through the
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Bibcode:2008arXiv0801.4623K.
[19] Cain, Fraser (20 June 2007). Are Microscopic Black Holes
Buzzing Inside the Earth?". Universe Today.
[4] Johnson, George (September 11, 2001). Physicists Strive

to Build A Black Hole. The New York Times. Retrieved
2010-05-12.
[20] Schewe, Phillip F.; Stein, Ben & Riordon, James (September 26, 2001). "??". Bulletin of Physics News. American
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2004.
[21] Choptuik,
Matthew W. & Pretorius,
Frans
(2010).
Ultrarelativistic
Particle
Collisions.
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eld. J. Math. Phys. 2, 212-221 (1961).
[8] Nikodem J. Popawski (2010). Nonsingular Dirac particles in spacetime with torsion. Phys. Lett. B. 690: 73
77. arXiv:0910.1181 . Bibcode:2010PhLB..690...73P.
doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2010.04.073.
[9] Stephen Hawking, new doomsday warning
[10] Hawking, S. W. (1975).
Particle Creation by
Black Holes.
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Math.
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43
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doi:10.1007/BF02345020.
[11] Helfer, A. D. (2003). Do black holes radiate?". Reports on
Progress in Physics. 66 (6): 943. arXiv:gr-qc/0304042 .
Bibcode:2003RPPh...66..943H.
doi:10.1088/00344885/66/6/202.
[12] Susskind, L. (2008). The Black Hole War: My battle with
Stephen Hawking to make the world safe for quantum mechanics. New York: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-31601640-7.
[22] Peng, G. X.; Wen, X. J.; Chen, Y. D. (2006). New

solutions for the color-avor locked strangelets.
Bibcode:2006PhLB..633..314P.
doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2005.11.081.
[23] S.B. Giddings and M.L. Mangano, Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV-scale black holes, arXiv:
0806.3381, Phys. Rev. D78: 035009, 2008
[24] M.E. Peskin, The end of the world at the Large Hadron
Collider?" Physics 1, 14 (2008)
[25] Hawking, Stephen (1995).
arXiv:hep-th/9510029v1 .
Virtual Black Holes.
[26] Scardigli, Fabio (1999). Generalized Uncertainty Principle in Quantum Gravity from Micro-Black Hole Gedanken
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[27] https://plus.google.com/+JonathanLangdale/posts/
RUroe4Lv2iu
[13] J. H. MacGibbon, Nature 329, 308 (1987)

[14] Barrau, A. (2000). Primordial black holes as a source
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[15] McKee, M. (30 May 2006). Satellite could open door on
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5.2.9
Bibliography
D. Page, Phys. Rev. D13 (1976) 198 : rst detailed

studies of the evaporation mechanism
B.J. Carr & S.W. Hawking, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron.
Soc 168 (1974) 399 : links between primordial black
holes and the early universe
124
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
A. Barrau et al., Astron. Astrophys. 388 (2002) 676, 5.3 Strangelet

Astron. Astrophys. 398 (2003) 403, Astrophys. J.
630 (2005) 1015 : experimental searches for primor- A strangelet is a hypothetical particle consisting of a bound
dial black holes thanks to the emitted antimatter
state of roughly equal numbers of up, down, and strange
quarks. Its size would be a minimum of a few femtometers
A. Barrau & G. Boudoul, Review talk given at across (with the mass of a light nucleus). Once the size bethe International Conference on Theoretical Physics comes macroscopic (on the order of metres across), such
TH2002 : cosmology with primordial black holes
an object is usually called a quark star or strange star
rather than a strangelet. An equivalent description is that
A. Barrau & J. Grain, Phys. Lett. B 584 (2004) 114 a strangelet is a small fragment of strange matter. The
: searches for new physics (quantum gravity) with pri- term strangelet originates with Edward Farhi and R. L.
mordial black holes
Jae.[1] Strangelets have been suggested as a dark matter
candidate.[2]
P. Kanti, Int. J. Mod. Phys. A19 (2004) 4899 : evaporating black holes and extra dimensions
5.3.1
Theoretical possibility
D. Ida, K.-y. Oda & S.C.Park, : determination of

black holes life and extra dimensions
Strange matter hypothesis
Sabine Hossenfelder: What Black Holes Can Teach Us,

The known particles with strange quarks are unstable behep-ph/0412265
cause the strange quark is heavier than the up and down
quarks, so strange particles, such as the Lambda particle,
L. Modesto, PhysRevD.70.124009: Disappearance of
which contains an up, down, and strange quark, always
Black Hole Singularity in Quantum Gravity
lose their strangeness, by decaying via the weak interaction to lighter particles containing only up and down quarks.
P. Nicolini,
A. Smailacic,
E. Spallucci,
But states with a larger number of quarks might not suer
j.physletb.2005.11.004:
Noncommutative geomfrom this instability. This is the strange matter hypotheetry inspired Schwarzschild black hole
sis of Bodmer [3] and Witten.[2] According to this hypothesis, when a large enough number of quarks are collected
A. Bonanno, M. Reuter, PhysRevD.73.083005: together, the lowest energy state is one which has roughly
Spacetime Structure of an Evaporating Black Hole in
equal numbers of up, down, and strange quarks, namely a
Quantum Gravity
strangelet. This stability would occur because of the Pauli
exclusion principle; having three types of quarks, rather
S. Fujioka et al., Nature Physics 5, 821 825 (2009): than two as in normal nuclear matter, allows more quarks
X-ray astronomy in the laboratory with a miniature to be placed in lower energy levels.
compact object produced by laser-driven implosion
5.2.10
External links
Relationship with nuclei
A nucleus is a collection of a large number of up and down

Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV- quarks, conned into triplets (neutrons and protons). Acscale black holes
cording to the strange matter hypothesis, strangelets are
more stable than nuclei, so nuclei are expected to decay
A. Barrau & J. Grain, The Case for mini black holes into strangelets. But this process may be extremely slow
: a review of the searches for new physics with micro because there is a large energy barrier to overcome: as the
black holes possibly formed at colliders
weak interaction starts making a nucleus into a strangelet,
the rst few strange quarks form strange baryons, such as
Mini Black Holes Might Reveal 5th Dimension the Lambda, which are heavy. Only if many conversions ocSpace.com
cur almost simultaneously will the number of strange quarks
reach the critical proportion required to achieve a lower en Doomsday Machine Large Hadron Collider? A sci- ergy state. This is very unlikely to happen, so even if the
entic essay about energies, dimensions, black holes, strange matter hypothesis were correct, nuclei would never
and the associated public attention to CERN, by Nor- be seen to decay to strangelets because their lifetime would
bert Frischauf (also available as Podcast)
be longer than the age of the universe.
5.3. STRANGELET
125
Size
Accelerator production
The stability of strangelets depends on their size. This

is because of (a) surface tension at the interface between
quark matter and vacuum (which aects small strangelets
more than big ones), and (b) screening of charges, which
allows small strangelets to be charged, with a neutralizing
cloud of electrons/positrons around them, but requires large
strangelets, like any large piece of matter, to be electrically neutral in their interior. The charge screening distance
tends to be of the order of a few femtometers, so only the
outer few femtometers of a strangelet can carry charge.[4]
At heavy ion accelerators like the Relativistic Heavy Ion

Collider (RHIC), nuclei are collided at relativistic speeds,
creating strange and antistrange quarks that could conceivably lead to strangelet production. The experimental signature of a strangelet would be its very high ratio of mass to
charge, which would cause its trajectory in a magnetic eld
to be very nearly, but not quite, straight. The STAR collaboration has searched for strangelets produced at the RHIC,[7]
but none were found. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is
even less likely to produce strangelets,[8] but searches are
planned[9] for the LHC ALICE detector.
The surface tension of strange matter is unknown. If it

is smaller than a critical value (a few MeV per square
femtometer[5] ) then large strangelets are unstable and will
Space-based detection
tend to ssion into smaller strangelets (strange stars would
still be stabilized by gravity). If it is larger than the critiThe Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), an instrument
cal value, then strangelets become more stable as they get
that is mounted on the International Space Station, could
bigger.
detect strangelets.[10]
5.3.2
Natural or articial occurrence
Although nuclei do not decay to strangelets, there are other

ways to create strangelets, so if the strange matter hypothesis is correct there should be strangelets in the universe.
There are at least three ways they might be created in nature:
Possible seismic detection

In May 2002, a group of researchers at Southern Methodist
University reported the possibility that strangelets may have
been responsible for seismic events recorded on October 22
and November 24 in 1993.[11] The authors later retracted
their claim, after nding that the clock of one of the seismic
stations had a large error during the relevant period.[12]
Cosmogonically, i.e. in the early universe when the

QCD connement phase transition occurred. It is possible that strangelets were created along with the neutrons and protons that form ordinary matter.
It has been suggested that the International Monitoring System being set up to verify the Comprehensive Nuclear Test
Ban Treaty (CTBT) after entry into force may be useful as
a sort of strangelet observatory using the entire Earth as
its detector. The IMS will be designed to detect anomalous
High energy processes. The universe is full of very seismic disturbances down to 1 kiloton of TNT (4.2 TJ) enhigh-energy particles (cosmic rays). It is possible that ergy release or less, and could be able to track strangelets
when these collide with each other or with neutron passing through Earth in real time if properly exploited.
stars they may provide enough energy to overcome the
energy barrier and create strangelets from nuclear matter. Some identied exotic cosmic ray events, like the Impacts on Solar System bodies
Prices event with very low charge to mass ratio could
have already registered strangelets.[6]
It has been suggested that strangelets of subplanetary i.e.
heavy metorite mass, would puncture planets and other so Cosmic ray impacts. In addition to head-on collisions lar system objects, leading to impact (exit) craters which
of cosmic rays, ultra high energy cosmic rays impact- show characteristic features.[13]
ing on Earths atmosphere may create strangelets.
These scenarios oer possibilities for observing strangelets.
If there are strangelets ying around the universe, then occasionally a strangelet should hit Earth, where it would appear as an exotic type of cosmic ray. If strangelets can
be produced in high energy collisions, then we might make
them at heavy-ion colliders.
5.3.3
Dangers
If the strange matter hypothesis is correct and its surface

tension is larger than the aforementioned critical value, then
a larger strangelet would be more stable than a smaller
one. One speculation that has resulted from the idea is
126
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
that a strangelet coming into contact with a lump of ordinary matter could convert the ordinary matter to strange
matter.[14][15] This "ice-nine"-like disaster scenario is as follows: one strangelet hits a nucleus, catalyzing its immediate
conversion to strange matter. This liberates energy, producing a larger, more stable strangelet, which in turn hits
another nucleus, catalyzing its conversion to strange matter.
In the end, all the nuclei of all the atoms of Earth are converted, and Earth is reduced to a hot, large lump of strange
matter.
This is not a concern for strangelets in cosmic rays because
they are produced far from Earth and have had time to decay
to their ground state, which is predicted by most models to
be positively charged, so they are electrostatically repelled
by nuclei, and would rarely merge with them.[16][17] But
high-energy collisions could produce negatively charged
strangelet states which live long enough to interact with the
nuclei of ordinary matter.[18]
Another argument against the hypothesis is that if it were

true, all neutron stars should be made of strange matter,
and otherwise none should be.[26] Even if there were only a
few strange stars initially, violent events such as collisions
would soon create many strangelets ying around the universe. Because one strangelet will convert a neutron star to
strange matter, by now all neutron stars would have been
converted. This argument is still debated,[27][28][29][30] but
if it is correct then showing that one neutron star has a conventional nuclear matter crust would disprove the strange
matter hypothesis.
Because of its importance for the strange matter hypothesis, there is an ongoing eort to determine whether the surfaces of neutron stars are made of strange matter or nuclear
matter. The evidence currently favors nuclear matter. This
comes from the phenomenology of X-ray bursts, which is
well-explained in terms of a nuclear matter crust,[31] and
from measurement of seismic vibrations in magnetars.[32]
The danger of catalyzed conversion by strangelets produced in heavy-ion colliders has received some media
5.3.5 In ction
attention,[19][20] and concerns of this type were raised[14][21]
at the commencement of the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider
An episode of Odyssey 5 featured an attempt to destroy
(RHIC) experiment at Brookhaven, which could potentially
the planet by intentionally creating negatively charged
[15]
have created strangelets. A detailed analysis
concluded
strangelets in a particle accelerator.[33]
that the RHIC collisions were comparable to ones which
naturally occur as cosmic rays traverse the solar system, so
The BBC docudrama End Day features a scenario
we would already have seen such a disaster if it were poswhere a particle accelerator in New York City exsible. RHIC has been operating since 2000 without inciplodes, creating a strangelet and starting a catastrophic
dent. Similar concerns have been raised about the operation
chain reaction which destroys Earth.
of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN[22] but such
fears are dismissed as far-fetched by scientists.[22][23][24]
The story A Matter most Strange in the collection
Indistinguishable from Magic by Robert L. Forward
In the case of a neutron star, the conversion scenario seems
deals with the making of a strangelet in a particle acmuch more plausible. A neutron star is in a sense a giant
celerator.
nucleus (20 km across), held together by gravity, but it is
electrically neutral and so does not electrostatically repel
Impact, published in 2010 and written by Douglas
strangelets. If a strangelet hit a neutron star, it could convert
Preston, deals with an alien machine that creates
a small region of it, and that region would grow to consume
strangelets. The machines strangelets impact the
[25]
the entire star, creating a quark star.
Earth and Moon and pass through.
5.3.4
Debate about the strange matter hypothesis
The strange matter hypothesis remains unproven. No direct search for strangelets in cosmic rays or particle accelerators has seen a strangelet (see references in earlier sections). If any of the objects we call neutron stars could be
shown to have a surface made of strange matter, this would
indicate that strange matter is stable at zero pressure, which
would vindicate the strange matter hypothesis. But there is
no strong evidence for strange matter surfaces on neutron
stars (see below).
The novel Phobos, published in 2011 and written by

Steve Alten as the third and nal part of his Domain
trilogy, presents a ctional story where strangelets are
unintentionally created at the Large Hadron Collider
and escape from it to destroy the Earth.
In the 1992 black-comedy novel Humans by Donald
E. Westlake, an irritated God sends an angel to Earth
to bring about Armageddon by means of using a
strangelet created in a particle accelerator to convert
the Earth into a quark star.
In the 2010 lm Quantum Apocalypse, a strangelet approaches the Earth from space.
5.3. STRANGELET
127
In the novel The Quantum Thief by Hannu Rajaniemi [13] Lance Labun, Jeremey Birrell, Johann Rafelski, Solar
System Signatures of Impacts by Compact Ultra Dense
and the rest of the trilogy, strangelets are mostly used
Objects,arXiv:1104.4572
as weapons, but during an early project to terraform
Mars, one was used to convert Phobos into an addi[14] A. Dar, A. De Rujula, U. Heinz, Will relativistic heavy ion
tional sun.
colliders destroy our planet?", Phys. Lett. B470:142-148
(1999) arXiv:hep-ph/9910471
5.3.6
See also
Grey goo
Ice-nine
5.3.7
References
[1] E. Farhi and R. Jae, Strange Matter, Phys. Rev. D30,

2379 (1984)
[2] E. Witten, Cosmic Separation Of Phases Phys. Rev. D30,
272 (1984)
[3] A. Bodmer Collapsed Nuclei Phys. Rev. D4, 1601 (1971)
[4] H. Heiselberg, Screening in quark droplets, Phys. Rev.
D48, 1418 (1993)
[5] M. Alford, K. Rajagopal, S. Reddy, A. Steiner, The Stability of Strange Star Crusts and Strangelets, Phys. Rev. D73
114016 (2006) arXiv:hep-ph/0604134
[6] Shibaji Banerjee, Sanjay K. Ghosh, Sibaji Raha, and Debapriyo Syam, Can Cosmic Strangelets Reach the Earth?",
Phys. Rev. Lett. 85, 1384 Published 14 August 2000,
http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0006286
[7] STAR Collaboration, Strangelet search at RHIC, arXiv:
nucl-ex/0511047
[8] Ellis J, Giudice G, Mangano ML, Tkachev I, Wiedemann
U (LHC Safety Assessment Group) (5 September 2008).
"Review of the Safety of LHC Collisions" (PDF, 586 KiB).
''Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics. 35,
115004 (18pp). doi:10.1088/0954-3899/35/11/115004.
arXiv:0806.3414. CERN record.
[9] A. Angelis et al., Model of Centauro and strangelet production in heavy ion collisions, Phys. Atom. Nucl. 67:396-405
(2004) arXiv:nucl-th/0301003
[10] J. Sandweiss, Overview of strangelet searches and Alpha
Magnetic Spectrometer: When will we stop searching?" J.
Phys. G30:S51-S59 (2004)
[11] D. Anderson et al., Two seismic events with the properties
for the passage of strange quark matter through the earth
arXiv:astro-ph/0205089
[12] E.T. Herrin et al., Seismic Search for Strange Quark
Nuggets
[15] W. Busza, R. Jae, J. Sandweiss, F. Wilczek, Review

of speculative 'disaster scenarios at RHIC, Rev. Mod.
Phys.72:1125-1140 (2000) arXiv:hep-ph/9910333
[16] J. Madsen, Intermediate mass strangelets are positively
charged, Phys. Rev. Lett. 85 (2000) 4687-4690 (2000)
arXiv:hep-ph/0008217
[17] J. Madsen Strangelets in Cosmic Rays, for Proceedings
of 11th Marcel Grossmann Meeting, Germany, Jul 2006,
[18] J. Schaner-Bielich, C. Greiner, A. Diener, H. Stoecker,
Detectability of strange matter in heavy ion experiments,
Phys. Rev. C55:3038-3046 (1997), arXiv:nucl-th/9611052
[19] New Scientist, 28 August 1999: A Black Hole Ate My
Planet
[20] Horizon: End Days, an episode of the BBC television series
Horizon
[21] W. Wagner, Black holes at Brookhaven?" and reply by
F. Wilzcek, Letters to the Editor, Scientic American July
1999
[22] Dennis Overbye, Asking a Judge to Save the World, and
Maybe a Whole Lot More, NY Times, 29 March 2008
[23] Safety at the LHC.
[24] J. Blaizot et al., Study of Potentially Dangerous Events During Heavy-Ion Collisions at the LHC, CERN library record
CERN Yellow Reports Server (PDF)
[25] Alcock, Charles; Farhi, Edward & Olinto, Angela
(1986). Strange stars. Astrophys. J. 310: 261.
Bibcode:1986ApJ...310..261A. doi:10.1086/164679.
[26] J. Friedman and R. Caldwell, Evidence against a strange
ground state for baryons, Phys. Lett. B264, 143-148
(1991)
[27] J. Madsen, Strangelets as cosmic rays beyond the GZKcuto, Phys. Rev. Lett. 90:121102 (2003) arXiv:stro-ph/
0211597
[28] S. Balberg, Comment on 'strangelets as cosmic rays beyond
the Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin cuto'", Phys. Rev. Lett.
92:119001 (2004), arXiv:astro-ph/0403503
[29] J. Madsen, Reply to Comment on Strangelets as Cosmic
Rays beyond the Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin Cuto, Phys.
Rev.Lett. 92:119002 (2004), arXiv:astro-ph/0403515
128
CHAPTER 5. SAFETY
[30] J. Madsen,
Strangelet propagation and cosmic ray ux,Phys.
Rev.
D71, 014026 (2005)
[31] A. Heger, A. Cumming, D. Galloway, S. Woosley, Models
of Type I X-ray Bursts from GS 1826-24: A Probe of rpProcess Hydrogen Burning, arXiv:0711.1195
[32] A. Watts and S. Reddy, Magnetar oscillations pose challenges for strange stars, MNRAS, 379, L63 (2007) arXiv:
astro-ph/0609364
[33] Odyssey 5: Trouble with Harry, an episode of the Canadian
science ction television series Odyssey 5 by Manny Coto
(2002)
5.3.8
Further reading
Holden, Joshua (May 17, 1998). The Story of

Strangelets. Rutgers. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
Fridolin Weber (2004). Strange Quark Matter
and Compact Stars.
Progress in Particle and
Nuclear Physics.
54: 193288.
arXiv:astroph/0407155 .
Bibcode:2005PrPNP..54..193W.
doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2004.07.001.
Jes Madsen (1998). Hadrons in Dense Matter and
Hadrosynthesis. Lect.Notes Phys. Lecture Notes in
Physics. 516: 162203. arXiv:astro-ph/9809032 .
doi:10.1007/BFb0107314. ISBN 978-3-540-652090. |chapter= ignored (help)
Chapter 6
Future
6.1 Super Large Hadron Collider
Proton Synchrotron 2 (PS2): Accelerating the beam from 5

GeV at injection to 50 GeV at extraction.
Not to be confused with Very Large Hadron Collider.
Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) Upgraded: The present

SPS would be substantially upgraded to handle an increased
The High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL- beam intensity from PS2.
LHC; formerly SLHC, Super Large Hadron Collider)
is a proposed upgrade to the Large Hadron Collider to be
6.1.2 References
made after around ten years of operation. The upgrade
aims at increasing the luminosity of the machine by a fac- [1] IR optics collection
tor of 10, up to 1035 cm2 s1 , providing a better chance
to see rare processes and improving statistically marginal [2] LUMI 06 workshop
measurements.
[3] ATLAS upgrade web page
Many dierent paths exist for upgrading the collider. A

collection of dierent designs of the high luminosity interaction regions is being maintained by the European Or- 6.1.3 External links
ganization for Nuclear Research (CERN).[1] A workshop
A comprehensive press article on the 2006 workshop
was held in 2006 to establish which are the most promis[2]
can be found at the CERN Courier.
ing options. Increasing LHC luminosity involves reduction of beam size at the collision point and either reduc A summary of the possible machine parameters can
tion of bunch length and spacing, or signicant increase
be found at Machine parameters collection.
in bunch length and population. The maximum integrated
luminosity increase of the existing options is about a factor of 4 higher than the LHC ultimate performance, unfortunately far below the LHC upgrade projects initial am- 6.2 Very Large Hadron Collider
bition of a factor of 10. However, at the latest LUMI'06
workshop,[2] several suggestions were proposed that would Not to be confused with Large Hadron Collider or High
boost the LHC peak luminosity by a factor of 10 beyond Luminosity Large Hadron Collider.
nominal towards 1035 cm2 s1 .
The resultant higher event rate poses important challenges The Very Large Hadron Collider (VLHC) is a hypothetfor the particle detectors located in the collision areas.[3]
ical future hadron collider with performance signicantly
beyond the Large Hadron Collider.[1][2]
There is no detailed plan or schedule for the VLHC; the
name is used only to discuss the technological feasibility
of such a collider and ways that it might be designed. The
As part of the Phase 2 Super LHC, signicant changes Future Circular Collider concept would qualify as such a
would be made to the proton injector.
collider.
6.1.1
Injector upgrade
Superconducting Proton Linac (SPL): Accelerating protons Given that such a performance increase necessitates a correwith superconducting radio frequency cavities to an energy spondingly large increase in size, cost, and power requireof 5 GeV.
ments, a signicant amount of international collaboration
129
130
CHAPTER 6. FUTURE
over a period of decades would be required to construct such

a collider.[1]
6.2.1
See also
Particle physics
High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider
6.2.2
References
[1] Glanz, James (10 July 2001). Physicists Unite, Sort of, on
Next Collider. The New York Times. Retrieved 27 June
2009.
[2] Reich, Eugenie Samuel (2013-11-12), Physicists
plan to build a bigger LHC, Nature News,
Bibcode:2013Natur.503..177S,
doi:10.1038/503177a,
retrieved 2013-12-03, The giant machine would dwarf all
of its predecessors. It would collide protons at energies
around 100 teraelectronvolts (TeV), compared with the
planned 14 TeV of the LHC at CERN, Europes particlephysics lab near Geneva in Switzerland. And it would
require a tunnel 80100 kilometres around, compared with
the LHCs 27-km circumference. For the past decade or
so, there has been little research money available worldwide
to develop the concept. But this summer, at the Snowmass
meeting in Minneapolis, Minnesota where hundreds of
particle physicists assembled to dream up machines for
their elds long-term future the VLHC concept stood
out as a favourite.
6.2.3
External links
vlhc.org, a Fermilab webpage on VLHC research and

development
VLHC Design Materials
Chapter 7
Text and image sources, contributors, and

licenses
7.1 Text
CERN Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN?oldid=739481861 Contributors: Calypso, Vicki Rosenzweig, Bryan Derksen, Rmhermen,
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Tpbradbury, Itai, Bevo, Joy, Prisonblues, Qertis, David.Monniaux, Freerk~enwiki, Robbot, Schutz, Ghettobodhi, Gnomon Kelemen, Caknuck,
Billranton, Xanzzibar, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Harp, Netoholic, Zigger, Everyking, Ptk~enwiki, Finn-Zoltan, Softssa, Pne, Beland, Kusunose,
OwenBlacker, Elwell, Ukexpat, Hugh Mason, Robin klein, Klemen Kocjancic, Humblefool, Jayjg, A-giau, Felix Wiemann, Discospinster, Alby,
Rama, David Schaich, Alistair1978, Michael Zimmermann, Justwes, Bender235, Andrejj, Engmark, Kwamikagami, Vinsci, Laurascudder,
RoyBoy, Simsh, Coolcaesar, Spoon!, Ora, Jpgordon, Che090572, Apyule, Jakew, Jumbuck, Danski14, Ksnow, Ronark, BRW, Irdepesca572,
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Korg, YurikBot, Wavelength, Spleodrach, RussBot, Koeyahoo, DJCJ~enwiki, JabberWok, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Alifazal, NawlinWiki, Aeusoes1, Gillis, SCZenz, Brandon, Daniel Mietchen, Jpbowen, Zagalejo, Ospalh, BOT-Superzerocool, Gadget850, Empty2005, Caroline Sanford, Ms2ger, Illuminatiscott, 21655, The Fish, Closedmouth, Ted Easton, Fsiler, Easter Monkey, Allens, Robert L, GrinBot~enwiki,
Gephart, Tom Morris, Andreask~enwiki, SmackBot, David Kernow, SteveTraylen, C.Fred, Wogsland, Jagged 85, Zonder, Eskimbot, Alsandro, TypoDotOrg, Gilliam, Dark jedi requiem, Alias777, Chris the speller, Shoofy, Miquonranger03, Hibernian, Jerome Charles Potts, Letdorf, Ctbolt, Modest Genius, Xchbla423, Rogermw, Famspear, Sergio.ballestrero, AussieLegend, Matchups, Addshore, Greenshed, Xltel, Jmnbatista, DinosaursLoveExistence, Khukri, JonasRH, TedE, Funky Monkey, Alexandra lb, Aaker, Qasinka, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Saippuakauppias, Kukini, Ohconfucius, Krashlandon, Minaker, Kuru, Cruist22, Berchemboy, Dumelow, CredoFromStart, IronGargoyle, Ex nihil, 2T,
Waggers, Mets501, Gpanda~enwiki, DomStapleton, Andrwsc, Beefyt, Kencf0618, Joseph Solis in Australia, Amakuru, Benplowman, Lucymarie, Gilabrand, George100, LessHeard vanU, Bsegal, CmdrObot, Porterjoh, Raysonho, Yinchongding, Vyznev Xnebara, Aop27, Shandris,
WeggeBot, Jersildj00, Sod aries, Myasuda, D.stewart, Hemlock Martinis, Elfrah, Equendil, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Forthommel,
HitroMilanese, Ameliorate!, Kozuch, Thealaskinwonder, Jon C., Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Mbell, Mojo Hand, Headbomb, Simeon H, DmitTrix,
James086, Uiteoi, MichaelMaggs, JRRobinson, AntiVandalBot, Michael Fitzgerald, Credema, CrazyPhunk, Arx Fortis, MrHat1065, Golgofrinchian, DagosNavy, Deective, MER-C, LeedsKing, Andonic, Pkoppenb, IIIIIIIII, TimRI, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Wikidudeman, Jancikotuc, Freefry, The Anomebot2, Tanvirzaman, Huseyx2, Allstarecho, DIEXEL, Snorgle, Gwern, Pvosta, MartinBot, Kirankumarpec,
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Wolvve85, Mike V, Cs302b, Idioma-bot, Sheliak, Jhutchin, FloydRTurbo, VolkovBot, Johnfos, The Wild Falcon, Indubitably, Kumarg83, Seattle Skier, TurboNOMAD, Philip Trueman, Af648, Andrius.v, Aymatth2, JhsBot, LeaveSleaves, Jorophose, Hughly741, SheeldSteel, Andy
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Afernand74, NastalgicCam, StaticGull, Blacklemon67, Jan Jansson, TubularWorld, Nergaal, Randy Kryn, Srbounds, Scaler1112, StewartMH,
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132
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GreenC bot, Aaron.iji2, Dapper ames, Smosescle, Kaushal Agnihotri, Acopyeditor and Anonymous: 1462
List of Large Hadron Collider experiments Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Large_Hadron_Collider_experiments?oldid=
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A Large Ion Collider Experiment Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALICE%3A_A_Large_Ion_Collider_Experiment?oldid=736730705
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ATLAS experiment Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATLAS_experiment?oldid=735324532 Contributors: SimonP, Sfdan, Bcrowell,
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Anonymous: 91
Compact Muon Solenoid Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Muon_Solenoid?oldid=738656157 Contributors: Michael Hardy,
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Filedelinkerbot, Akro7, Kunzejo, ConejitaDo, CPTquark, SU3XSU2XU1 and Anonymous: 80
LHCb Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHCb_experiment?oldid=729682578 Contributors: Harp, HorsePunchKid, Rich Farmbrough,
Laurascudder, Remuel, Michael Dring, Keenan Pepper, RJFJR, AndyBuckley, Linas, Mark Williamson, Turnstep, Goudzovski, Pip2andahalf,
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Sheliak, CaptinJohn, SieBot, MenoBot, Kyurkewicz, Alexbot, Addbot, AndersBot, Heliotropia, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Themisb, Archon 2488,
Citation bot, GrouchoBot, Davdde, LucienBOT, Steve Quinn, Citation bot 1, Minimac, AndyHe829, Timetraveler3.14, Ebehn, Bibcode Bot,
BG19bot, Mdneedham, Metricopolus, NotWith, Ttquer, GabeIglesia, Bibliophilen, Mfb and Anonymous: 31
LHCf Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHCf_experiment?oldid=729682652 Contributors: Rich Farmbrough, Alby, Laurascudder,
Bobo192, Erkcan, Alynna Kasmira, Welsh, SmackBot, Khukri, LeoNomis, Cydebot, Alaibot, Headbomb, The Anomebot2, Fuenfundachtzig,
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Davdde, Puzl bustr, Javachan, Bibcode Bot, GabeIglesia, Bibliophilen, WPratiwi and Anonymous: 13
FP420 experiment Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FP420_experiment?oldid=651829998 Contributors: Thomas Blomberg, Cydebot,
Headbomb, Rettetast, Slyatslys, Vanished user lkdoqw39ru239jwionwcihu8wt4ihjsf, SkywalkerPL, BG19bot, Bibliophilen, Ellipapa and
Anonymous: 3
TOTEM Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOTEM_experimemt?oldid=729680189 Contributors: Philopp, Harp, Jcw69, Rich Farmbrough, Laurascudder, Water Bottle, Gortu, Falcorian, Conscious, David Biddulph, 7segment, Khukri, LeoNomis, Cydebot, Headbomb, Magioladitis, The Anomebot2, Idioma-bot, Sheliak, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Kyurkewicz, Kaspar.jan, XLinkBot, Addbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot,
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Bibliophilen and Anonymous: 10
7.1. TEXT
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Beetle (ASIC) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beetle_(ASIC)?oldid=651656392 Contributors: Gary, Cburnett, RJFJR, Tole, Larosch,
SmackBot, OrphanBot, JonHarder, Amakuru, Headbomb, Addbot, AvicAWB, Bibliophilen and Anonymous: 3
LHC Computing Grid Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldwide_LHC_Computing_Grid?oldid=738763553 Contributors: Edward,
Egil, Jll, Mattaschen, Cobaltbluetony, Beland, Thorwald, FT2, Bender235, Fieldt, GregorB, Kolbasz, Penguin, Twigboy, Sim@simpol.net,
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DumZiBoT, BillinSanDiego, Legosock, JMacalinao, LaaknorBot, OlEnglish, AnomieBOT, W Nowicki, Steve Quinn, Dewritech, Josve05a,
Concord113, Cyberbot II, YiFeiBot, Kmonschke, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 28
LHC@home Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC%40home?oldid=726045319 Contributors: Ilyanep, Echoray, Lzur, Giftlite, Wwoods,
Creidieki, Rich Farmbrough, Wikiacc, Bender235, ZeroOne, Mr. Billion, Laurascudder, RoyBoy, Giraedata, Minghong, Kocio, Wdfarmer,
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Anonymous: 16
Proton Synchrotron Booster Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_Synchrotron_Booster?oldid=686397620 Contributors: Laurascudder, Nanite, Khukri, Headbomb, Rtomas, Sheliak, VolkovBot, Andrius.v, Addbot, Dawynn, Eshmo~enwiki, Lightbot, Buddy431, BG19bot and
Anonymous: 6
VELO Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHCb_experiment?oldid=729682578 Contributors: Harp, HorsePunchKid, Rich Farmbrough,
Laurascudder, Remuel, Michael Dring, Keenan Pepper, RJFJR, AndyBuckley, Linas, Mark Williamson, Turnstep, Goudzovski, Pip2andahalf,
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Citation bot, GrouchoBot, Davdde, LucienBOT, Steve Quinn, Citation bot 1, Minimac, AndyHe829, Timetraveler3.14, Ebehn, Bibcode Bot,
BG19bot, Mdneedham, Metricopolus, NotWith, Ttquer, GabeIglesia, Bibliophilen, Mfb and Anonymous: 31
Standard Model Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model?oldid=738010996 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Derek Ross, CYD, Bryan
Derksen, The Anome, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Roadrunner, Anthere, David spector, Isis~enwiki, Youandme, Ram-Man, Stevertigo, Edward,
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Bot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Tirebiter78, AvocatoBot, Lukys~enwiki, Stapletongrey, Ownedroad9, Chip123456, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Billyfesh399, Rhlozier, JYBot, Dexbot, Doom636, Rongended, Cerabot~enwiki, CuriousMind01, Cjean42, Jayanta mallick, Joeinwiki, Kowtje,
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Particle physics Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics?oldid=738262604 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Chenyu, Matthew Woodcraft, Trelvis, The Epopt, Sodium, Lee Daniel Crocker, CYD, Eloquence, Mav, Gareth Owen, Larry Sanger, XJaM, Roadrunner, SimonP,
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Acopyeditor and Anonymous: 373
Superpartner Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superpartner?oldid=739053658 Contributors: Roadrunner, SimonP, Phys, Donarreiskoffer, Giftlite, 4pq1injbok, Kocio, Alai, Duncan.france, Mpatel, Rjwilmsi, R.e.b., Drrngrvy, FlaBot, KFP, Conscious, SCZenz, SmackBot, Reedy,
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Supersymmetry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry?oldid=738684812 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Taw, Andre Engels,
Roadrunner, Maury Markowitz, Ewen, Stevertigo, Edward, Michael Hardy, Arpingstone, Theresa knott, IMSoP, Jeandr du Toit, Samw, Smack,
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Aknochel, Tom1661, Gagoga ju, TobeBot, Puzl bustr, Andraas, EmausBot, Djloststylez, Klbrain, Ddimenses, Arbnos, Susy is it, ChuispastonBot, Isocli, ClueBot NG, KagakuKyouju, IJVin, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Teika kazura, JayBeeEye, Ninmacer20,
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Higgs boson Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_boson?oldid=738739769 Contributors: AxelBoldt, CYD, ClaudeMuncey, Bryan
Derksen, Manning Bartlett, Roadrunner, David spector, Heron, Ewen, Stevertigo, Edward, Boud, TeunSpaans, Dante Alighieri, Ixfd64, Gaurav, TakuyaMurata, CesarB, Anders Feder, Mgimpel~enwiki, Bueller 007, Mark Foskey, Kaihsu, Samw, Cherkash, Lee M, Mxn, Ehn, Timwi,
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Weaselpit, Newty23125, Techhead7890, Tesseract2, Skamecrazy123, Northern Arrow, Mukogodo, J36miles, EmausBot, John of Reading,
138
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Greengreengreenred,
, Technogeek101, NicoPosner, Apurva Godghase, Durfyy, Soumya Mittal, American In Brazil, SaifAli13, Qwerkysteve, Spatiandas, Retroherb, Tango303, Hoppeduppeanut, Redplain, Shaelote, Quadrum, AntiguanAcademic, Simpsonojsim, Agyeyaankur,
DavidLeighEllis, Ethanthevelociraptor, Qfang12, Comp.arch, Eletro1903, E8xE8, HeineBOB, JWNoctis, Kahtar, Depthdiver, UY Scuti, Mfb,
Anrnusna, Stamptrader, Man of Steel 85, Cteirmn, AiraCobra, MyNameIsn'tElvis, Meganlock8, Sxxximf, Drsoumyadeepb, 22merlin, Ndidi
Okonkwo Nwuneli, Monkbot, Dialga5555, Fred1810, Akro7, Pewpewpewpapapa, BradNorton1979, 21bhargav, Whistlemethis, Thinking Skeptically, Amk365, Gagnonlg, Knowledgebattle, L21234, TheNextMessiah, Naterealm224, Joey van Helsing, Adrian Lamplighter, Arnab santra,
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Matttsui 2004, Suhaibsid, Wikteman23, Tatalvit, EngvarO consistency and Anonymous: 1003
Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron Collider Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_of_high-energy_particle_collision_
experiments?oldid=722251803 Contributors: The Anome, Stevenj, Lfh, Radiojon, Furrykef, BenRG, Jeq, Moondyne, Rorro, HaeB, Fred Stober, Apalsola, FT2, Vsmith, Sockatume, Jonathan Drain, Bobo192, WoKrKmFK3lwz8BKvaB94, Alansohn, Radical Mallard, RainbowOfLight,
Jtrainor, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, GregorB, Darkoneko, Mandarax, MassGalactusUniversum, RichardWeiss, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Strait, Jehochman, Bubba73, Boccobrock, Yar Kramer, 8q67n4tqr5, Stevenfruitsmaak, Physchim62, TheDoober, Bovineone, SCZenz, Jalabi99, Silverhill, 2over0, Ageekgal, Closedmouth, Th1rt3en, Kevin, Ilmari Karonen, Eaefremov, Dkasak, Perardi, SaveTheWhales, SmackBot, TheBilly,
Elonka, Aetheling1125, Nickst, Jamie C, Sizif, Thumperward, Miquonranger03, Baronnet, Davidbeaumont, Cybercobra, Khukri, Atkinson
291, Mgiganteus1, Smith609, RKT, Dr.K., B7T, Colonel Warden, Newone, Blehfu, Chovain, MarkTB, Ilikefood, Vyznev Xnebara, Frankly
Man, HumanJHawkins, Frostlion, Islander, Milesgillham, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Yellowdesk, Darrenhusted, Mcorazao, Fetchcomms, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Cmpd1, Steven Walling, Cgingold, Johnson Lau, Canberra User, R'n'B, J.delanoy, NerdyNSK, Emmalouise99, Plasticup,
Jtankers, Million Moments, GrahamHardy, Mmerlo, VolkovBot, Hqb, THEemu, SheeldSteel, Staka, Steve Smith, Ptrslv72, Strayan, Annoyed
with fanboys, TrevorX, Tombomp, Profgregory, Maxime.Debosschere, ClueBot, Andrew Nutter, Artichoker, General Epitaph, Wwheaton, Gaia
Octavia Agrippa, Phenylalanine, MichaelKthx, Excirial, Alexbot, Eeekster, John Nevard, Conte0, MickMacNee, PhySusie, Bleubeatle, Sparrowgoose, Apparition11, TimothyRias, Oldnoah, Orbnauticus, IngerAlHaosului, Alexius08, Gazimo, Fieldday-sunday, SoSaysChappy, Barak Sh,
XXOni-kunXx, Dayewalker, Verbal, BoogieRock, Yobot, Allemandtando, Snippyquiz, MarcoAurelio, AmeliorationBot, Patfrank, Ayrton Prost,
Dustand, BCEagle21, Orion11M87, AnomieBOT, Ormers, Contribut, ConspiracyFAIL, Darkensei, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Xqbot, Brutaldeluxe, Sophus Bie, Bytbox, CaZeRillo, Nunc aut numquam, Psychlohexane, Citation bot 2, Citation bot 1, MMS2013, Feedahungryhippo,
EmausBot, RA0808, Swagmuncher, QuantumSquirrel, ClueBot NG, Jbackroyd, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, Wzrd1, Ugncreative Usergname, NotinREALITY, ChrisGualtieri, Andyhowlett, Reatlas, Jmolive, CV9933 and Anonymous: 126
Micro black hole Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_black_hole?oldid=737961417 Contributors: XJaM, Deb, Roadrunner, Patrick,
D, Ixfd64, Iluvcapra, Egil, Anders Feder, Julesd, Ehn, Timwi, Fairandbalanced, Topbanana, Nurg, Sverdrup, Henrygb, Rorro, Meelar, Auric,
Jheise, Pengo, Giftlite, Smjg, Eequor, Mckaysalisbury, Zeimusu, Aisphording~enwiki, DragonySixtyseven, RayBirks, Trilobite, , Discospinster, Cacycle, Vsmith, Draugen, Antaeus Feldspar, Pavel Vozenilek, Olau, Bender235, Spiralx, Pjf, El C, Viriditas, Supersheep, Nsaa,
Lysdexia, DonJStevens, Snowolf, Radical Mallard, Jheald, Velho, Linas, Siener, Scootey, GregorB, Christopher Thomas, Mandarax, Opie,
Rjwilmsi, Zbxgscqf, Martin-C, Palpatine, BradBeattie, Smithbrenon, Chobot, TexasAndroid, Jengelh, Hellbus, Oni Lukos, Wiki alf, Thiseye,
Dbrs, Gadget850, Silverhill, FF2010, NorsemanII, Light current, Donald Albury, GraemeL, Caco de vidro, Katieh5584, Sinus, WikiFew,
SmackBot, Melchoir, Delldot, Atomota, Lainagier, Paxfeline, Chris the speller, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Otus, V1adis1av, Khukri,
Teehee123, Dreadstar, Natecull, Diverman, EdC~enwiki, Clarityend, Leo Vuyk, Chovain, Scpark, JForget, Oerjan, Headbomb, Uiteoi, Yettie0711, Blue Tie, Scepia, CrankyScorpion, Harelx, Email4mobile, Wormcast, Fabricebaro, Quasarq, Crunchy Numbers, Lenticel, MartinBot, Jim.henderson, SuperMarioMan, Anaxial, Keith D, Numbo3, Melamed katz, Aswarp, Tarotcards, Gurchzilla, Wesino, Trilobitealive, SJP,
Norbi et Orbi~enwiki, ArmAndLeg, Jamesontai, Eladganl, Vinsfan368, Bobwhitten, VolkovBot, Je G., Indubitably, Philip Trueman, Qxz,
Mazarin07, DeathNomad, Antixt, Fleela, Spinningspark, Berndf, Deconstructhis, BalanceRestored, YonaBot, Jack Merridew, Sakkura, Mlbphd,
Danielgrad, Profgregory, Lethesl, AerosmithNirvana, ClueBot, WurmWoode, PipepBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Mild Bill Hiccup, Blanchardb, Phenylalanine, Excirial, Alexbot, PixelBot, Vanisheduser12345, Esorbalo, Coinmanj, BOTarate, Versus22, Mythdon, Skunkboy74, Oldnoah, JCDenton2052, NonvocalScream, Addbot, Ronhjones, Ersik, Deamon138, SamatBot, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme,
AnomieBOT, Utan Vax, Jim1138, RBM 72, Citation bot, Clark89, Gravitivistically, Capricorn42, Physprof, The Wiki ghost, JediMaster362,
CES1596, FrescoBot, John85, JMilty, Citation bot 1, Cam-Ann, Tom.Reding, IVAN3MAN, RjwilmsiBot, Bento00, Rayman60, EmausBot,
Bdijkstra, FineCheeses, Carbosi, Bollyje, Bldrjn, Quondum, QEDK, Fkara, Crux007, Marcelocantos, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, OperaJoeGreen, Nahiyan8, Rezabot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Imgaril, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Zipzipnadanadazip, Aisteco, StarryGrandma, ChrisGualtieri, Reatlas, AmaryllisGardener, Melonkelon, ElHef, Ettwang, PedroGodoyP, GLG GLG, Gaelan, CAPTAIN
7.2. IMAGES
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RAJU, Thewikipediaguy3001, PigeonOfTheNight and Anonymous: 205

Strangelet Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangelet?oldid=737519801 Contributors: Oliver Pereira, Julesd, Joquarky, Wertperch,
Xanzzibar, Jackol, Pgan002, Darksun, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, FT2, Army1987, Gunark, Guy Harris, Dark Shikari, Radical Mallard,
Pauli133, Killing Vector, Dmitry Brant, Christopher Thomas, Squideshi, Rjwilmsi, KungFuMonkey, Eyu100, Nihiltres, Physchim62, Retodon8,
Brad Rousse, NawlinWiki, Werdna, Light current, 2over0, Fourohfour, Kgf0, Treesmill, SmackBot, Lainagier, DomQ, Bluebot, Rickythesk8r,
Egsan Bacon, V1adis1av, Cybercobra, Omgoleus, PsychoJosh, Twir, Takeshi Nakagawa~enwiki, Dark Formal, JorisvS, JarahE, Clarityend, Johnthescavenger, Chovain, Nfwu, OS2Warp, CharacterZero, Hydraton31, Headbomb, Davidhorman, JEH, Demophon, Chkno, Barry
Haworth, CommonsDelinker, It Is Me Here, LokiClock, Someguy1221, Njt3011, Ilyushka88, Edvvc, Petero9, Lamro, Danielgrad, Oxymoron83, Maxime.Debosschere, Lethesl, MoeDrippins, ClueBot, Taquito1, Chouca, Phenylalanine, L.tak, Homocion, Oldnoah, Henry the 1st, Il
Sc0rpi0ne, Addbot, Mjamja, Download, Halum, Barak Sh, Denicho, NightmareZ, Lightbot, OlEnglish, , Specious, Justacec, Viapx,
3vil-Lyn, Robert Treat, AnomieBOT, Duvnuj, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ProtectionTaggingBot, Citation bot 2, Citation bot 1, Akasanof,
Tom.Reding, Johann137, Mered4, Gerasime, Suslindisambiguator, Ego White Tray, Orange Suede Sofa, RockMagnetist, Insidepocket, ClueBot
NG, Bibcode Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, RhinoMind, Darbischer, Donottroll, Denniscabrams, HPotterK, Mckburton and Anonymous: 118
Super Large Hadron Collider Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Luminosity_Large_Hadron_Collider?oldid=651657027 Contributors: The Anome, BenRG, Discospinster, Laurascudder, Bobo192, Bngrybt, Kocio, Bart133, Kay Dekker, Rjwilmsi, WriterHound, Ste1n, QuantumShadow, Nickst, Skizzik, Father McKenzie, Khukri, Courcelles, Epbr123, Headbomb, Ygrange, Rtomas, Astavats, VoABot II, Seba5618,
TechnoFaye, HEL, Hans Dunkelberg, Dbiel, Calwiki, Zorx12, ClueBot, Franamax, MaverickFurmeson, DaL33T, Fieldday-sunday, Lightbot,
OlEnglish, 1exec1, Materialscientist, HappyArtichoke, Shadowjams, Fumitol, RA0808, Jasonbuzz, Morray, Silvrous, Blaspie55, DoctorKubla,
Cheerioswithmilk, Bibliophilen, La Plaza Cultural and Anonymous: 59
Very Large Hadron Collider Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_Large_Hadron_Collider?oldid=719974665 Contributors: Andrewa,
Halfdan, Bevo, Northgrove, Dbachmann, Laurascudder, Mac Davis, RainbowOfLight, JackSeoul, Ashmoo, Rjwilmsi, Grafen, SCZenz, Zzuuzz,
ViperSnake151, SmackBot, Nickst, Skizzik, Yin Huang, XSG, Salamurai, LeoNomis, Iridescent, Headbomb, WilliamH, Widefox, RogueNinja,
Astavats, Albany NY, Ponty Pirate, Seba5618, Science Guy, J.delanoy, Hans Dunkelberg, Anna Lincoln, Aly89, Svick, ClueBot, PMDrive1061,
CoRdigALZ, Qwfp, Addbot, Tcncv, Verbal, Worm That Turned, Azcolvin429, Fatal!ty, 1exec1, JackieBot, Guy Thoreau, Joe446465446,
Tuankiet65, Bibcode Bot, Physnar, Mfb, Parabolooidal, Ellipapa and Anonymous: 39
7.2 Images
File:1011252_11-A4-at-144-dpi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/1011252_11-A4-at-144-dpi.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pcharito
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File:2012-Aug-02-ALICE_3D_v0_with_Text_(1)_2.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/
2012-Aug-02-ALICE_3D_v0_with_Text_%281%29_2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pcharito
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File:ALICE_HMPID.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/ALICE_HMPID.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
This photograph was produced by CERN.
Their website states: So, encouraged and supported by our experiment outreach teams, we have made our rst collection available under a
Creative Commons licence. We chose the CC-BY-SA licence, to ensure credit is given to CERN for the photos (BY) and that modied versions also
get shared freely (Share Alike).
To the uploader: You must provide a link (URL) to the original le and the authorship information if available. Original artist: Antonio Saba
File:ALICE_ITS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/ALICE_ITS.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Antonio Saba
File:ALICE_TPC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/ALICE_TPC.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
This photograph was produced by CERN.
Their website states: So, encouraged and supported by our experiment outreach teams, we have made our rst collection available under a
Creative Commons licence. We chose the CC-BY-SA licence, to ensure credit is given to CERN for the photos (BY) and that modied versions also
get shared freely (Share Alike).
To the uploader: You must provide a link (URL) to the original le and the authorship information if available. Original artist: Antonio Saba
File:ALICE_ZDC3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/ALICE_ZDC3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pcharito
File:ALICE_all.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/ALICE_all.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
http://cds.cern.ch/record/1436153?ln=it Original artist: Antonio Saba
File:ALICE_pPb_event.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/ALICE_pPb_event.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pcharito
140
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The logo may be obtained from ATLAS experiment.
Original artist: ?
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svg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ATLAS_Drawing.jpg Original artist:
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National Laboratory
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work Original artist: Pcharito
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File:BH_LMC.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/BH_LMC.png License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: User:Alain r
File:Beetle_ASIC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a8/Beetle_ASIC.jpg License: PD Contributors:
Own work
Original artist:
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File:CERN-Rama-33.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/CERN-Rama-33.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr
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File:CERN-aerial_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/CERN-aerial_1.jpg License: CC0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Brcke-Osteuropa
File:CERN_ALICE_Experiment.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/CERN_ALICE_Experiment.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: John-vogel
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File:CERN_Globe_of_Science_and_Innovation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/CERN_Globe_of_
Science_and_Innovation.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Adam Nieman
File:CERN_LHC_Proton_Source.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/CERN_LHC_Proton_Source.JPG
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File:CERN_LHC_Tunnel1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/CERN_LHC_Tunnel1.jpg License:
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CC
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18.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Darkzink
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relations_map.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: U5K0
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7.2. IMAGES
141
File:CMS_Hcal_26_01_2007.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/CMS_Hcal_26_01_2007.JPG License:

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Contributors: http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/628469 Original artist: Lucas Taylor / CERN
File:CMS_Under_Construction_Apr_05.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/CMS_Under_Construction_
Apr_05.jpg License:
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http://hepwww.rl.ac.uk/CMSvpt/bestphotos/CERN%20Pt5%20CMS%
20Construction%20June%2006/slides/CERN%20Pt5%20Jun%2006%20CMS%20Constn%20Hall%2005.htm Original artist:
Julian
Williams
File:Cern-accelerator-complex.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Cern-accelerator-complex.svg License:
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BlankEurope1989.png Original artist:
derivative work: NSK Nikolaos S. Karastathis (NerdyNSK (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:NerdyNSK' title='User talk:
NerdyNSK'>talk</a>)) *BlankEurope1989.png: made by Hoshie.
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Original artist: ?
File:Construction_of_LHC_at_CERN.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Construction_of_LHC_at_
CERN.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Freerk
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File:ESO_and_CERN_sign_cooperation_agreement.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/ESO_and_
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File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango!
Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Elementary_particle_interactions.svg
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Original artist: Pcharito
File:Fabiola-gianotti.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Fabiola-gianotti.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 it Contributors: www.gravita-zero.org Original artist: Claudio Pasqua / Gravit-Zero.org
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File:Flag_of_Algeria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SVG implementation of the 63-145 Algerian law "on Characteristics of the Algerian national emblem" ("Caractristiques du Drapeau
Algrien", in English). Original artist: This graphic was originaly drawn by User:SKopp.
File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Here, based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: Government of Argentina
File:Flag_of_Armenia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp
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SKopp and others
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142
File:Flag_of_Bolivia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: The ag of Bulgaria. The colors are specied at http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0034&n=
000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Chile.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
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Minestrone, Lupo, Zscout370,
<a
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:MaGa'
title='User:MaGa'>Ma</a><a
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
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commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/15px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png'
width='15'
height='15'
srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/23px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/30px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png
2x'
data-le-width='202' data-le-height='202' /></a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:MaGa' title='User talk:MaGa'>Ga</a>
(based on Decision of the Parliament)
File:Flag_of_Cuba.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:Madden Original artist: see below
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File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From
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the image at [1].
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File based on the specication given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-x-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi, User:Jeltz,
User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Finland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1978/19780380 Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
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artist: ?
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File:Flag_of_Ghana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain Contributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk)
File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public domain
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File:Flag_of_Iceland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Islandic National Flag Original artist: var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Zscout370 and others
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
7.2. IMAGES
143
File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html Original artist:
Various
File:Flag_of_Ireland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem Original artist:
The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides the ocial
specication for the design of the Israeli ag.
File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist:
?
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Latvia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Lebanon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: Traced based on the CIA World Factbook with some modication done to the colours based on information
at Vexilla mundi.
File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: SuKopp
File:Flag_of_Macedonia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Flag_of_Macedonia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Madagascar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)
Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update
File:Flag_of_Malta.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg License: CC0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006
File:Flag_of_Montenegro.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: B1mbo, Froztbyte
File:Flag_of_Morocco.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Flag of the Kingdom of Morocco
<a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://81.192.52.100/BO/AR/1915/BO_135_ar.PDF'>Moroccan royal decree (17 November
1915), BO-135-ar page 6</a>
Original artist: Denelson83, Zscout370
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Large Hadron Collider

Experiments, Technology, Theory and Future

Participation and funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Findings and discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Planned high-luminosity upgrade

Safety of particle collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of LHC experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Large Hadron Collider experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heavy-Ion Collisions at the LHC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The ALICE detectors

Upgrades and Future plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Micro black holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Data systems and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Collecting and collating the data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The LHCb detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LHC Computing Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Proton Synchrotron Booster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The LHCb detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tests and predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Supersymmetry in quantum gravity

4.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Technical aspects and mathematical formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Micro black hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Minimum mass of a black hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Stability of a micro black hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Primordial black holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Man-made micro black holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Black holes in quantum theories of gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

5.2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Theoretical possibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Natural or articial occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Debate about the strange matter hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Super Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Injector upgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Very Large Hadron Collider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

461403N 60310E / 46.23417N

The European Organization for Nuclear Research

CERNs rst president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser.

The laboratory was originally devoted to study of atomic

Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was intended