GENERAL TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURE

(COVERED UNDER THIS PRESENTATION)

-Miscellaneous Structures
-Temporary Structures used to facilitate basement construction
- Steel structures in Residential Building
-High Volume structures
-Steel structures supporting sensitive structure/finishes

MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES

GONDOLA SUPPORT

M=PxX
Grade 275
= 275 N/mm2
= M / Z
Z required
Choose member size

T = C = M/S
T < Tension capacity of bolt
Choose bolt size

-Connection on the RC
parapet? Or Brick!! ?
-Workmanship on bolt
installation (enough
embedment depth for
mechanical anchor?? )
-bolt spacing, bolt size, bolt
specification

MATERIAL PLATFORM

Bolted fixings
Prop

Counterweight

-Design span
(for both member and connection design)
-Method of installation

WALL FORMWORK SUPPORT

-Bracing fixing method

-Tie Rod installation workmanship
-Standby supervision during casting is required

TOWER CRANE TIE BACK

-F = M/H + T (Horizonal torsional force)

-Tie back member is always under tension (simpler procedure)
-F to be derived for each level of tie back.
-Need to consider both in-service and out-service condition.

In general, key criteria need to be considered for miscellaneous structures are;

- Boundary condition
- Connection / Fixing / Bracing method feasibility
- Workmanship/ Supervision /Inspection
- Structural adequacy of the connected structure

Member design can be only ultimate limit state and can consider plastic condition as the
usage period is comparatively very short.
Serviceability limit state normally not required (case by case!).

HIGH VOLUME STRUCTURE

Bridges, Towers , Dome structure, Factory, Maintenance shelter,etc

Shelter for Ship maintenance

3D Models

12m

26.3m

28m

Loading
Load cases

Load Combination

DL Dead load
LL Live load
WL Wind load
NL Notional load

Serviceability limit state

Lateral load WL, NL (both X/Y direction)

Ultimate limit state

1) 1.4DL + 1.6LL +NX
2) 1.4DL + 1.6LL +NY
3) 1.2DL + 1.2LL + 1.2WX
4) 1.2DL + 1.2LL + 1.2WY
5) 1.4DL + 1.4WX
6) 1.4DL + 1.4WY

WL Min 1% DL
NL 0.5% of (1.4DL+1.6LL)

1) 1.0DL + 1.0LL
2) 1.0DL +1.0WX
3) 1.0DL+1.0WY

Applied Loading

DL , LL

WX

NX

WY

NY

Additional Loading
(Based on local requirement)

FIRE SAFETY REQUIREMENT IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN ALL THE DEVELOPMENT IN
SINGAPORE.
THE REQUIRED RATING FOR STRUCTURAL ELEMENT IS SPECIFIED DIFFERENTLY BASED ON THE USAGE OF THE
BUILDING. (1/2 hr , 1 hr, 2 hr, etc)
FOR RC BUILDING, THE REQUIRED RATING IS NORMALLY ACHIEVED BY MEMBER SIZES AND CONCRETE
COVER.
FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL, THERE ARE A FEW TYPES OF METHODS SUCH AS;

- Fire Rated Board System

-Cementitious spray fireproofing
- Intumescent paint
Normally method of fire protection will be chosen by Architect.
But, Engineer do need to know which method of fire protection will be used as we need to consider
additional load to the structure based on the method chosen.

Design Criteria to be considered

Overall structure
-Sway Stiffness
-Drag force
Individual structure
-Bending
-Shear
-Deflection
-Lateral torsional buckling
-Web bearing
-Web buckling
-Tension
-Compression
-Axial load with moment
-Axial load with biaxial moment

Connection
-Moment connection
-Shear connection
-End plate connection
-Base plate connection
Special Requirement
-Fire Resistance
-Corrosion Resistance

Sway Stiffness

Sway mode elastic critical load factor , cr = H/ 200

cr = H/ 200 10 Non-sway mode
cr = H/ 200 < 10 Sway mode
Non-sway mode No additional consideration due to sway mode
Sway sensitive structure Additional forces due to sway mode
(P- analysis)

Drag force

If
D/H > 4 (or) D/B>4
Frictional Drag Force need to be considered in addition to the
designed wind load.
F= Cfqb (d-4h) + Cfq2h(d-4h) (If hb)
F= Cfqb (d-4b) + Cfq2h(d-4b) (If hb)
-Drag on the roof
-Drag on the wall
CP3 (Clause: 7.4)

Individual structure
-Bending

Mc = Py Z

-Shear Pv = 0.6Py Av
-Deflection

Cantilevers
Span/180
Beam carrying brittle finishes Span/360
General
Span/200

-Tension Pt = Py Ae
-Compression Pc =Ag pc

-Tension member with moment Ft/Pt + Mx/Mcx + My/Mcy 1

-Compression member with moment Fc/Pc + Mx/Mcx + My/Mcy 1
-Lateral torsional buckling Mb = pb Zx
-Web bearing Pbw = (b1 + nk) t pyw
-Web buckling Px = 25 t x Pbw / [ (b1 + nk) d]

Basic
formulae

Member Connection
-Connection and boundary condition in the analysis are related to each other
-If member to member connection detail is as shear connection, end moment can be released
for that particular beam, otherwise the joint is to be modelled as rigid joint

Connection detail should be simplified unless its really necessary to be special

detail (To avoid discrepancy between design assumption and construction)

Base plate connection

-Connection and boundary condition in the analysis are related to each other
-If base point was modelled as pinned support, base plate detail need to be designed for pure
compression or pure tension (case by case)
-If base point was modelled as fixed support, base plate detail need to be designed for bending
(couple force)

Structure

Modelling

Load cases

TEMPORARY WORK STRUCTURES

a. PLUNGE IN COLUMN IN TOP-DOWN CONSTRUCTION

b. STRUT AND WALER DESIGN FOR GBW/ERSS WORK

PLUNGE IN COLUMN IN TOP-DOWN CONSTRUCTION

Designed loading for composite column

DL: 1.4 x (0.2x24 (slab)+ 1.7 (finishes) + 2(brick wall)) + LL: 1.6 x 5.0 (Shopping centre) = 19.9 KPa
Controlled loading for temporary stage preformed column
DL: 1.4x (0.2x26 (slab casting) + LL: 1.6 x 1.5 (Construction load) = 9.68 KPa

-No construction brick wall

-No finishes to be laid
-Only concrete skeleton casting (pure slab and beam)
-Not more than two level casting at one time
-Preformed column to b e encased completely for both levels once
the construction for the basement 2 slab is done
Preformed
column

-Loading control
-Determine designed
height
-Design criteria

-Axial capacity
(Short column)

-Floor to floor height as the

slab have already been casted
-Lateral restraint at boundary

CONNECTIONS

RC RC Rigid joint

Design enough welding length for shear transfer

RC slab to steel column connection

Critical for shear failure

Steel column to Bore pile connection

Critical for bonding failure

Design enough welding length for shear transfer

In general, key criteria need to be considered for plunge-in/preformed column are;

- Construction sequence to be controlled

- Loading to be controlled
- Maximum allowable axial capacity of the preformed column to be derived based on correct
boundary condition and parameters
- Connections (main structures to preformed columns / preformed columns to foundation
piles
- Design to be carried out with ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state is normally
not required as this is under top-down construction (used to speed up the program) and
construction period is normally very short(case by case).

STRUT & WALER DESIGN FOR GBW/ERSS WORK

-Members are second hand material

-Limit the utilisation ratio to 0.5
-The other way is to downgrade the material strength to certain %
-As the member sizes are quite small, a few numbers of kingposts are required to be
provided

Approved Strut Orientation

Strut and kingpost part plan

As-built Strut Orientation

Strut to kingpost connection

In general, strut design need to be as per the criteria given in TR26;

- Design for axial load due to lateral earth pressure including minimum surcharge load of 10KPa
- Most of the strut/waler are failed due to local buckling
- Provision of lateral restraints is critical for each necessary location
- One-strut failure (alternate load case to be considered)
- Strut need to be designed for enveloped sequential force
- Consideration of Increase of strut force due to Temperature effects is compulsory
- Design for accidental load of 50KPa
-Member orientation during installation

STEEL STRUCTURES IN RESIDENTAIL BUILDINGS

Cantilever (car porch) canopy

Designers preferred carporch

Clients preferred carporch

Simply supported canopy

Pure cantilever canopy

Cantilever canopy with tie rod

Cantilever canopy with tie back

Cantilever canopy with haunched support

Serviceability states need to be conformed for all permanent structures

Section

Plan
-Member design same as simply supported
-Tie rod design need to allow for redundancy
-Either double tie rod at each point or double sized member
-Need to allocate fixing point for tie rod
-Normally terrace house has no intermediate column
-Only two points of tie rod support are available for such cases
(if the tie rod angle does not reach upper floor beam level)
Double tie rod is the only option
-Member design same as cantilever with haunched support

-Member design need to allow for redundancy (alternate load path)

bigger member
-Need to allocate fixing point for haunched support
-Normally terrace house has full height door/window for full frontage
-Haunching is limited by headroom of doorway
-Shallow haunching will not be so effective

Section

-Member design as pure cantilever and need to allow for alternate load path (redundancy)
-End moment will be transferred to connected beam as torsion
-Torsion force to the beam will result substantially wide beam , beam depth is also controlled by doorways
headroom
-Member design always controlled by deflection (may not be able to comply with codes)
-Might need to introduce pre-camber to satisfy deflection criteria
-Flushing the top level of canopy and 2nd storey slab is structurally very robust
-But, normally that will not be the case because there is the concern for the water tightness issue
-If there is no full height window, that option might be adopted with RC kerb at interface

-Member design as cantilever with tie back and need to allow for alternate load
path (redundancy)
-No torsion but additional shear as point load will be transferred to connected
beam
-Member design always controlled by deflection
-Might need to introduce pre-camber to satisfy deflection criteria
-Punching for the slab to be checked or provide full length steel plate
-This option is not available if the living room has no ceiling

Design and sizing of secondary beam/ purlin

-Running secondary on top of primary beam will result lesser designed moment and smaller section will
be required.
-The option will not be applicable if the total canopy profile thickness is greater than architect/ clients
intended thickness

In general, key criteria need to be considered for cantilever canopies are;

-Alternate load path / Redundancy

-To conform with deflection criteria and introduce pre-camber as and when required
-Design to be carried out with both ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state
-Support boundary condition to be modelled accordingly (fixed / pinned , etc)
-To consider uplift (wind load) if the canopy is happen to be at a certain height
-To consider arrangement of primary beam and secondary beam to meet the design intent
which can be either costing or architectural content

STEEL MEMBERS SUPPORT FOR SENSITIVE STRUCTURE/ FINISHES

(crane girder,glass faade, precast faade, etc)

External wall faade precast panel support

Ultimate limit state:

= M/ Z
Serviceability limit state
= PL 3 / 3EI (10 times diff:)

In general, key criteria need to be considered for steel structure supporting sensitive finishes are;

-Concept of support system

-Source of sensitivity (mostly on deflection)
-Member orientation (based on site constraint) and loading axis
-Primary load case (DL , LL , WL , Impact load, etc) (Might need to increase load factor for
impact load based on usage, eg-Crane)

GENERAL TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURE

(COVERED UNDER THIS PRESENTATION)

-Miscellaneous Structures
-Temporary Structures
-Residential Structures
-High Volume structures
-Steel structures supporting sensitive structure/finishes

GENERAL INFORMATION TO BE ACQUIRED BEFORE DETAILED DESIGN

-Available member size

-(As there are many steel section used in construction industry)
-I,RHS,SHS, CHS, Channek, Plain Channel, Lipped Channel
-Bondek, Condek ( with different profile)

To Avoid Double Job!!

Basic Structural Capacity of steel sections

-Bending

Mc = Py Z

-Shear Pv = 0.6Py Av
-Tension Pt = Py Ae
-Compression Pc =Ag pc
-Lateral torsional buckling Mb = pb Zx
-Web bearing Pbw = (b1 + nk) t pyw
-Web buckling Px = 25 t x Pbw / [ (b1 + nk) d]

There are many types of steel grade in local market;

S235 , S275, S355, S420, S460, S550, S690, etc..

Can we always adopt basic yield strength in our design as manufacturer

specified in the market?
NO BC1:Class

BC1
Design Guide on use of alternative steel material
Class 1: Designed strength = Py/1.0
Class 2: Designed strength = Py/1.1
Class 3: Designed strength = 170 N/mm2
(Class 3 steel material can only be used for non-structural purpose)

Adequacy
Assessment

Certified
material list

Non-certified
material list

Class 3

Materials
those are not
in both lists
(TESTING)

Class 2

Class 1

Reliability
Assessment

Factory
Production
Certificate
(FPC)

OR

Manufacturer
testing
certificates/Mill
cert
MTC/MC

To determine the Class of material;

Material Source need to be confirmed before detailed design stage.

To Avoid Doubled Job!!

ASSURANCE THAT ALL THE ASSUMPTION ADOPTED AT DESIGN STAGE

WILL BE MET AT CONSTRUCTION STAGE

-As steel structures comprise of multiple components, design/approved drawings are

not detailed enough for fabrication/ erection / construction.
-Its the industrial practice that shop drawings will be prepared and submitted to
Engineers for review and approval.
-Designer needs to check the shop drawings for all the detail are conforming and
complying with the Original Design Assumption, Design Concept as a part of
Procedure.

CONCLUSION

The type and the usage of steel structures can be of different and wide range.
It can be a single member structure for one day use or it can be a mega structure intend to use for
decades.
Although all the criteria and procedures have been clearly spelt out in all the respective Codes (ACI, BS,
Euro) , its the engineers justification to decide the governed criteria and extract the applicable procedure
for each particular case as it is not possible to apply full set of procedure and comply all criteria for
design in all the cases.
Engineers design to be structural integrity has to be intact and safety cannot be compromised
- contractually satisfied
(Contract between client and company , Contact between engineer and employer)