ASHRAE Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics

697
J68f
ASHRAE Continuing Education
Fundamentals of
Thernlodynamics
& Psychrometries
A Self-Directed Learning Course

For Professional Development
Prepared by
Richard R. Johnson, Ph.D.

North Carolina State University
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating

and Air-Conditioning Engineers Inc.
1791 Tullie Circle NE Atlanta, GA 30329
Copyright 1997 by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning

Engineers (ASHRAE). All rights reserved.
No part ofthis book may be reproduced without written permission from ASHRAE, except
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without written permission from ASHRAE.
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Comments, criticism and suggestions regarding the subject matter are invited. Any errors or
omissions in the data should be brought to the attention of Martin Kraft, Continuing Education Course Editor.
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x: 1
Table of Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction to HVAC
Instructions
Study Objectives of Chapter 1
1.1
Introduction
1.2
HV AC: Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning
1.3
The Major Processes of Air-Conditioning
1.4
Thermodynamics and Psychrometries
The Next Step
Summary
Bibliography
Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Systems, Properties, States and Processes
Instructions
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Closed and Open Systems in Thermodynamics
2.3
Forms of Energy
2.4
Properties of a System
2.5
Equilibrium States
2.6
Processes and Cycles
The Next Step
Summary
Chapter 3
Property Diagrams for Pure Substances
Instructions
3.1
The State Postulate
3.2
Properties
3.3
Phases and Phase Changes for Pure Substances
3.4
Property Diagrams
The Next Step
Summary
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries
Table of Contents
x: 2
Chapter 4
Thermodynamic Tables and Charts
Instructions
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Tables for Saturated Liquid and Vapor
4.3
Tables for Superheated Vapor and Compressed Liquid
4.4
Thermodynamic LiquidlVapor Charts
The Next Step

Summary
Chapter 5
Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables
Instructions
5.1
Ideal Gas and the Ideal Gas Law
5.2
The Ideal Gas Law as an Equation of State
5.3
Constant Specific Heat
5.4
Air Tables
The Next Step
Summary
Chapter 6
Heat and Work
Instructions
6.1
Introduction
6.2
Heat
6.3
Work
6.4
Flow Work
The Next Step
Summary
Table of Contents
x: 3
Chapter 7
First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Closed Systems
Instructions
7.1
Introduction to Controlled Mass Approach
7.2
The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Closed System
7.3
7.4
Conservation of Energy
First Law Applied in Example Cases
The Next Step

Summary
Chapter 8
First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Open Systems
Instructions
8.1
Introduction to the Control Volume Approach
8.2
Conservation of Mass
8.3
Conservation of Energy and the First Law for Open Systems
8.4
8.S
Steady-Flow Processes
First Law Applied in Examples of Steady-Flow Processes
The Next Step

Summary
Chapter 9
Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics
Instructions
9.1
Compressors, Turbines, Pumps and Fans
9.2
Throttling Valves and Metering Devices
9.3
Heat Exchangers, Condensers and Evaporators
The Next Step

Summary
Table of Contents
x: 4
Chapter 10
The Carnot Cycle
Instructions
10.1
The Second Law of Thennodynamics
Heat Engines, Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
10.2
Reversible and Irreversible Processes
10.3
10.4
The Camot Cycle and the Reversed Camot Cycle
The Next Step
Summary
Chapter 11
Refrigeration Cycles
Instructions
11.1
Refrigeration Equipment
11.2
The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Analysis of the Components and Cycle
11.3
Perfonnance of Ideal Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
11.4
The Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
11.5
Absorption Refrigeration System
11.6
11.7
Gas Refrigeration System
The Next Step
Summary
Chapter 12
Moist Air as a Mixture of Ideal Gases
Instructions
12.1
Introduction
12.2
Mixtures ofIdeal Gases
Mixture of Dry Air and Water Vapor
12.3
12.4
Moist Air Tables
The Next Step
Summary
Table of Contents
x: 5
Chapter 13
Properties of Moist Air
Instructions
13.1
Humidity Ratio and Relative Humidity
13.2
Dewpoint Temperature
13.3
Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures
The Next Step

Summary
Chapter 14
The Psychrometric Chart
Instructions
14.1
Introduction
14.2
Description ofthe Axes and Lines of the Chart
Finding Property Values on the Psychrometric Chart
14.3
14.4
Human Comfort and the Psychrometric Chart
The Next Step
Summary
Chapter 15
Air-Conditioning Processes on the Psychrometric Chart
Instructions
15.1
Simple Heating or Cooling at Constant Humidity Ratio
Heating with Humidification
15.2
Cooling Coil Dehumidification
15.3
Evaporative Cooling
15.4
Adiabatic Mixing
15.5
15.6
Sensible Heat Ratio
Summary
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics
Table of Contents
x: 6
Appendices
Appendix A-I
Appendix A-2
Appendix B-1
Appendix C-l
Appendix C-2
Appendix C-3
Appendix C-4
Appendix D-l
Appendix E-l
Table of Contents
Dimensions and Units Used in Air-Conditioning Applications

Unit Conversion Factors
Thermodynamic Properties of Water at Saturation
R-22 Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for R-22
R-134a Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for R-134a
Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air at 14.696 psia
ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart
1: 1
Chapter 1
Contents of Chapter 1
Instructions
1.1
1.2
Introduction
HV AC: Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning
1.3
The Major Processes of Air-Conditioning
1.4
Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics
The Next Step

Summary
Bibliography
Instructions
Read the material of Chapter 1. Re-read the parts of the chapter that are emphasized in the
summary and memorize important definitions. At the end of the chapter, complete all of the
skill development exercises without consulting the text.
Study Objectives of Chapter I

Chapter 1 is intended to introduce the processes of HVAC and provide substance to the
assertion that it is important to study thermodynamics to gain a better understanding of
HVAC. Chapter 1 concludes with a definition of thermodynamics and psychrometrics. After studying the chapter, you should be able to:
Define air-conditioning;
Name and describe seven major air-conditioning processes;
Provide a description of thermodynamics as the science of energy; and
List HVAC applications where knowledge of basic thermodynamics is essential.
Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC
1: 2
1.1
Introduction
Modem air-conditioning systems are part of our everyday life. Whether it is the comfort
enjoyed while relaxing at home, or the freedom from discomfort that allows concentration
on activities at work, we can appreciate air-conditioning for making our lives healthier,
more enjoyable and more productive. The benefits of air-conditioning are also apparent in
the wide range of high quality products that are available in the marketplace. Many products and manufacturing processes are improved by air-conditioning because many goods
can be produced better, faster and more economically in a properly controlled environment.
Air-conditioning allows for the creation of a comfortable environment indoors no matter
what the weather is like outdoors. Whether it's a sweltering hot day in August or a bitterly
cold night in January, air-conditioning can be a boon. However, there is a cost to air-conditioning, which appears in the form of energy consumption. Systems installed in the United
States prior to the energy scare of 1973 were generally designed with little attention to
energy conservation because energy was perceived to be plentiful and inexpensive. There
was less concern then of the potentially negative environmental impact of energy consumption on a wide scale.
Times have changed. Today, energy conservation is a key component in air-conditioning
design. Efficiency is the watchword. The results of energy conservation efforts have led to
some interesting shifts in the air-conditioning marketplace. There are many more system
configurations than ever before as designers try to take advantage of any opportunity to
save energy, and there are tradeoffs to be made between energy conservation and performance. This means that it is important to know and understand how to best select components for an HVAC system.
Besides the actual redesign of components such as compressors, furnaces, refrigerators and
heat exchangers for better efficiency, there has also been a dramatic expansion in the logic
and sophistication of electronic controllers used in air-conditioning systems. Properly implemented changes in system control have the potential to lead to significant improvements in
performance. Today, buildings often have an energy management system.
Besides energy conservation, the issues of health and air quality have drawn a lot of recent
attention in air-conditioning systems. For instance, there is a current controversy about the
question of ventilation rates and air quality on board large passenger airplanes. Energy
considerations call for minimizing the ratio of outside air to recirculated air. In contrast, the
ventilation need is for plenty offresh outside air to avoid the build-up of contaminant gases
such as carbon dioxide. What constitutes the right balance? There are standards and guidelines for such ventilation requirements, but they must be continually reviewed because of
new situations and revised health evidence.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries
1: 3
To study the historical record of air-conditioning is to take a fascinating trip through the
tremendous technical and scientific record of our society. There are the pioneers such as
Robert Boyle, Sadi Carnot, John Dalton, James Watt, Benjamin Franklin, John Gorrie,
Lord Kelvin, Ferdinand Carre', Willis Carrier, Thomas Midgley and many others who have
brought us to our current state. We can expect that there is further history still to be written.
Air-conditioning could not have developed the way it has were it not for all of the accomplishments of science and engineering in this century. Advances in thermodynamics, fluid
mechanics, electricity, electronics, construction, materials, medicine, controls and social
behavior are the building blocks to better engineered products of air-conditioning.
Many of these famous names are connected to the study of thermodynamics. The term
thermodynamics was first used by Lord Kelvin in 1849, and the first textbook on thermodynamics was written by William Rankine in 1859. Thermodynamics is the cornerstone to
understanding the processes of air-conditioning.
1.2
HVAC: Heating, Ventilating andAir-Conditioning
For a long time, the term air-conditioning was associated with the act of air cooling only.
This has changed and the definition of air-conditioning has been broadened to include all of
HV AC. HVAC stands for Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning (cooling). This dual
meaning of air-conditioning may seem confusing but, when air-conditioning is mentioned
by itself in this course, it will stand for both heating and cooling, and when it is used in the
context of HVAC, it will mean only cooling. The use of HV AC as a descriptive term continues because of its historical roots.
In its modem sense, air-conditioning is the control of temperature, moisture content, cleanliness, air quality and air circulation as required by occupants, a process or a product in the
space. This is a definition given by Willis Carrier (1876-1950) in the book, Father ofAirConditioning.! Imbedded in this definition of air-conditioning are many ideas that have
been shaped over time about our perceived need for air-conditioning and the changing technology that makes air-conditioning possible. This is a wide ranging definition that gives
interpretation to the idea of conditioning the air in a given space for some specific purpose.
Air-conditioning is more than an occasional luxury. It is important to our everyday comfort,
health and well-being whether we are at home, in the workplace, out shopping or travelling
from one place to another. It includes heating, cooling, humidifying, dehumidifying, ventilating and control of air quality year-round. Besides being important for humans and animals, air-conditioning is also essential to many manufacturing processes. For example, precision-engineered products are often made under closely controlled conditions that can only
be produced in an air-conditioned environment.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries
1: 4
1.3
The Major Processes ofAir-Conditioning
The seven major processes of air-conditioning are heating, cooling, humidifying, dehumidifying, cleaning, ventilating and air movement.
Heating is the process of adding thermal energy (heat) to the air in the conditioned space for the purposes of raising or maintaining the temperature of the
aIr.
Cooling is the process of removing thermal energy (heat) from the air in the
conditioned space for the purposes of lowering or maintaining the temperature
of the air.
Humidifying is the process of adding water vapor (moisture) to the air in the
conditioned space for the purposes of raising or maintaining the moisture content of the air.
Dehumidifying is the process of removing water vapor (moisture) from the air
in the conditioned space for the purposes of lowering or maintaining the moisture content of the air.
Cleaning is the process of removing particulate, chemical and biological contaminants from the air in the conditioned space for the purposes of improving or
maintaining the air quality.
Ventilating is the process of exchanging air between the outdoors and the conditioned space for the purposes of diluting the gaseous contaminants in the air
and improving or maintaining air quality, composition and freshness.
Air Movement (circulation and mixing) is the process of moving air through
conditioned spaces in the building for the purposes of achieving the proper ventilation and facilitating the thermal energy transfer, humidification (or dehumidification) and cleaning processes outlined above.
These are the seven major air-conditioning processes used in HVAC systems. Heating and
cooling are the most basic and probably the most recognized. If the space is too hot or too
cold, then the occupants are unlikely to be comfortable or productive and there is a need to
adjust the temperature by adding or removing thermal energy. Heating has been around for
a long time and may utilize a variety of heat sources such as the burning of a fuel, electricity
or chemical reaction to supply the heat. Cooling is more complicated. It requires a means
for removing energy from the air and usually involves a refrigeration cycle or evaporative
cooling technique. It takes energy work to drive the refrigeration cycle.
1: 5
The term air is used to mean a mixture of dry air and water vapor. Strictly speaking, the
term moist air should be used, but it is common in air-conditioning terminology to use air
when referring to moist air. There are several standard measures used to describe the proportions of this mixture such as relative humidity, humidity ratio and moisture content. It is
important to understand that there is only a limited range of mixture proportions that are
considered to be comfortable by humans. The range is also dependent on temperature. The
proportion of water vapor to dry air in the mixture is changed by adding water vapor
(humidification) or removing water vapor (dehumidification). The study of the properties
and processes of moist air at atmospheric pressures is known as psychrometrics and will be
discussed in later chapters.
Humidification may be accomplished by allowing the air to blow over water on a wet porous surface, by spraying small droplets into the air stream, by misting with an ultrasonic
mister, or by steam injection. On the other hand, dehumidification is mostly commonly
accomplished by cooling. Cooling removes the energy from the water vapor to convert it to
liquid water. There is a limit to the amount of water vapor that can be held by the air. This
limit is known as the saturation condition and it decreases with decreasing temperature. If
the temperature of saturated air is decreased, then the vapor condenses into water droplets
and drips (or rains) out of the mixture. The result is that the air contains less water vapor.
The change of state from water vapor to liquid water (condensation) or from liquid water to
water vapor (evaporation) involves transfer of substantial amounts of thermal energy known
as latent heat. Because heating and cooling are about the management of thermal energy to
control temperature, it is clear that the effects of humidification and dehumidification will
be interrelated with heating and cooling in air-conditioning.
There are many types of airborne pollutants. Particulates such as pollen, dust and smoke are
common items that must be removed from a typical conditioned space. Microscopic organisms such as bacteria, fungi and viruses may be important because of health reasons. Some
of these pollutants are just irritating, but others may be deadly. The removal of these pollutants is often achieved by filtering or treating the air stream. Heating and dehumidification
are powerful deterrents to many small organisms.
Air exchange between outdoors and the conditioned space is either by ventilation (intentional) or by infiltration (unintentional). It is important because the outdoor air is often used
to dilute pollutants (such as carbon dioxide) and replenish oxygen to the indoor air. Forced
ventilation provides for the best control of air exchange rate and air distribution in a building and is usually mandatory in larger buildings where a minimum air exchange rate is
required. On the other hand, natural ventilation is driven by wind pressure, indoor-outdoor
temperature differences or the opening of a window, and it is not closely controlled. Infil-
1: 6
tration refers to air that leaks in through cracks, incomplete seals and unintentional openings. Most residential homes depend on infiltration for an adequate air exchange rate. However, this has become a concern in many modem houses which are purposefully tightly
sealed as an energy conservation measure.
Air movement, circulation and mixing are all fluid mechanics processes that involve moving the air between and through the conditioned spaces and to places where the other processes of heating, cooling, humidifying, cleaning and ventilating can occur. Air movement
may be forced or free. Forced air movement as produced by fans may be carefully controlled. However, free air movement is often driven by temperature gradients in the conditioned space and occurs naturally. Mixing is an important process that occurs when outdoor
air is mixed with indoor air as part of ventilation or when newly conditioned air mixes with
air already in the conditioned space.
1.4
Thermodynamics and Psychrometries
To better understand and analyze each of the HVAC processes, it is essential to study and
develop an appreciation of thermodynamics and psychrometrics. The terms thermodynamics and psychrometries may sound quite formidable at first, but as we shall see, they are
descriptive terms for some common-sense ideas. Studying thermodynamics will provide
the tools for quantifying, analyzing and interpreting the very practical matters of HV AC.
Studying psychrometrics will provide the understanding needed for controlling humidity.
Thermodynamics may be defined as the science of energy. Everybody has some feeling for
what is generally meant by energy, but a precise definition takes some development. In the
next chapter, some specific definitions and derivations will make it clear how thermodynamics describes the relationships between the different forms of energy and the conversion of one form of energy to another. These relationships occur in almost every aspect of
our daily lives. For example, how is it possible to convert the electrical energy ofthe power
supply into a cooling effect in an air-conditioned room? How can solar energy be effectively captured and put to good use? How are the heating needs for a house calculated for
the middle of winter? These and many other questions may be answered by conducting an
energy, or thermodynamic, analysis.
You may be familiar with the conservation of energy principle. It states that, during an
interaction, energy can change from one form to another, but that the total amount of energy
remains constant. Said another way, it means that energy is neither destroyed nor created,.
but only changes from one form to another. Forms of energy include internal (such as chemical, thermal, nuclear and electrical), potential and kinetic. To effectively use this principle,
1: 7
it is essential to understand the different forms of energy, the conversion of one energy form
to another, the flow of energy across boundaries, and the ability to store energy.
Thermodynamics is about the conversion of one form of energy to another. Energy conversions are described in terms of the various properties of substances and the changes of the
properties that occur as a result of energy transformations. Thermodynamics is based on
experimental observations. The observations are then expressed in terms of some basic
laws. For example, the First Law of Thermodynamics is an expression of the conservation
of energy principle. The observation that some processes occur in one direction, but not the
reverse (for example, the flow of heat from a hot object to a cold one, or the generation of
heat by friction) is embodied in the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
On the other hand, psychrometrics is the branch of thermodynamics that deals with the
thermodynamic properties and processes of moist air. The term humidity is used in connection with the proportion of water vapor in the mixture. It is important to study psychrometrics
because, in HVAC, we are interested in controlling humidity as well as temperature. There
is a comfort envelope that is framed by temperature and humidity constraints. The study of
psychrometrics will be aided by a chart of moist air properties known as the psychrometric
chart. We will learn how to plot thermodynamic processes of moist air on the chart.
The applications for thermodynamics are numerous. In HVAC, the study of thermodynamics is particularly applied to:
Refrigerators and heat pumps
Heat exchangers
Cooling and heating coils
Radiators
Furnaces
Fans
Pumps
Water and air distribution systems
Building load calculations
Human occupation and activity levels
Both thermodynamic and psychrometric principles are applied to these processes:

Air flow over cooling and heating coils
Humidifiers and dehumidifiers
Outdoor weather conditions
Air in conditioned space (with interest in the comfort envelope)
Breathing by humans and animals
1: 8
The following chapters of this course will explain the basics of thermodynamics and
psychrometries, and then consider the practical applications to many of the areas listed
above.
The Next Step

This first chapter provided an introduction to HVAC and the importance ofthermodynamics. In the next chapter, we will begin to build an understanding of thermodynamics by
starting with the basics. In Chapter 2, we will introduce the concepts of open and closed
systems, forms of energy, equilibrium and property definition. Chapter 2 will also include
explanations of the state of a substance, and the process of state change shown on a property
diagram.
Summary
Chapter 1 has been an introductory chapter. Following an introduction and a definition of

air-conditioning, the seven main processes of HVAC were listed as heating, cooling, humidifying, dehumidifying, cleaning, ventilating and air movement. Each of these processes
involves equipment for implementation and deals in different forms of energy. The study of
thermodynamics (or the science of energy) is all about the relationship between different
forms of energy, and is essential to fully understand the processes ofHVAC. The First Law
of Thermodynamics was introduced as a statement of the conservation of energy principle.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics was said to embody the idea of irreversibility of some
naturally occurring events. Psychrometries was introduced as the science of an air and water vapor mixture. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Define air-conditioning;
Name and describe the seven major air-conditioning processes;
Provide a description of thermodynamics as the science of energy; and
List HVAC applications where knowledge of basic thermodynamics is essential.
1: 9
Bibliography
1. Carrier, W. 1990. Father ofAir-Conditioning. Louisville, KY: Fetter Printing Co.

Complete these questions by writing your answers on the worksheets at the back of this
book. Be sure to include your name and address. Send your completed questions to the
ASBRAE Education Department.
1-01. List the seven main air-conditioning processes, give a one-sentence description of
each process, and give another one-sentence reason why the process is likely to be
found in a hospital.
1-02. Define what is meant by air-conditioning.
1-03. Name five pieces of normal BVAC equipment for which the application ofthermodynamic principles is essential to predict performance.
1-04. In your own words, state what is meant by the conservation of energy principle.
1-05. Provide two examples of a process that goes in one direction but will not go in the
reverse direction without applying an external energy source.
1-06. What is the difference between dry air and moist air?
Fundamentals ofThernwdynamics and Psychrometries
2: 1
Chapter 2
Instructions
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
Forms of Energy
2.4
Properties of a System
2.5
Equilibrium States
2.6
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions

The building blocks of thermodynamics (such as system, properties, states, processes and
cycles) will be introduced in this chapter. Many new terms will be introduced and defined.
The definitions may seem far removed from the applications of interest, but this development of a terminology and logic is essential to understanding how to apply the laws of
thermodynamics.
Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes
2:2
After studying Chapter 2 you will be able to:

Define and describe open and closed systems;
Define and describe the different forms of energy;
Define and describe properties and states; and
Define and describe processes and cycles.
2: 3
2.1
Introduction
Thermodynamics is about the conversion of one form of energy to another. Energy co.nversions, in tum, are described in terms of the various properties of substances and the changes
of the properties that occur as a result of energy transformations. Thermodynamics is based
on experimental observations. The observations are then expressed in terms of basic laws.
For example, the First Law of Thermodynamics is an expression of the conservation of
energy principle. The observation that some processes occur in one direction, but not in the
reverse direction (for example, the flow of heat from a hot object to a cold one, or the
generation of heat by friction) is embodied in the Second Law of Thermodynamics. However, before we can apply these laws as analysis tools to solve practical applications, we
must develop a methodology of analysis. This methodology starts with the definitions of
systems, properties, states, processes and cycles.
The study of thermodynamics is framed around a system identified for analysis, and the
interactions between that system and its surroundings. The condition, or equilibrium state,
of a system is defined in terms of the values of the system's properties when at that condition. Properties are any characteristics of the system. The dynamics part of thermodynamics
suggests the idea of change, and so changes of state are described in terms of processes and
paths. Each of these ideas will be more fully explained.
2.2
In thermodynamics, the first step in finding a solution is identifying the system to be analyzed. The term thermodynamic system has a special meaning in this context as any quantity of matter, or any region in space, selected for study. The system is contained within an
imagined system boundary, and everything outside the boundary is known as the surroundings. Heat and work (to be defined later) can cross the boundary in a form of interaction
between the system and its surroundings, but it depends on the type of system as to whether
mass can cross the boundary. There are two types of systems: closed and open.
A closed system is one in which a quantity of matter is identified for study. A closed system
definition is often called the control mass approach. A quantity of matter means that the
mass to be studied will remain the same throughout the analysis. The matter in the system
may change form, phase or location in space, but the system is identified as that matter that
was originally targeted for study. There is an imaginary boundary drawn to contain the
matter. The location of the matter, and therefore the shape of the boundary, may change
with time; but to remain a closed system, no mass enters or leaves the system through the
Chapter:1 Systems, Properties, States and Processes
2:4
boundary. Everything outside the boundary is known as the surroundings. Although there is
no mass exchange across the boundary in closed systems, there may still be work and heat
crossing the boundary as the system interacts with its surroundings.
The other type of system is the open system. An open system is one in which a region in
space is identified for study rather than a quantity of matter. An open system definition is
often called the control volume approach. In an open system, mass can cross the imaginary
boundary between the system and its surroundings. This is important because, as we shall
see later, the mass crossing the boundary can also be a vehicle for carrying energy across
the boundary. The region in space does not have to be fixed in time, although it is often
chosen that way for convenience. In a way, the closed system is a special case of an open
system, for which there is no mass flow across the boundary.
An example of a closed system is shown in Figure 2-1. The object chosen for demonstra-
tion is a piston and cylinder combination with air in the cylinder. The air is trapped in the
cylinder and there is no way for the air to escape, or for new air to come into the cylinder.
The system is chosen to be the matter (mass of air) that is trapped in the cylinder. The
system boundary is shown by the dotted line. The surroundings are then the piston itself, the
cylinder wall, the cylinder head and everything else outside the dotted line. As weights are
added to the piston and the piston moves to reduce the volume in the cylinder, the system
(air in the cylinder) is compressed and changes shape, but it still maintains the same air that
was originally targeted as the system.
Piston
Weight
Piston
Air
System
, - - - -- -- -- --I
Ai r
1
1
:I ___________
System
1
J
After Adding Weight
Before Adding Weight

Figure 2-1. Closed System
Fundamentals ofThermotlynamies and Psychrometries
2: 5
Open systems are shown in Figures 2-2 and 2-3. Figure 2-2 shows a piston and cylinder
arrangement like before, only now there is an open valve connecting the cylinder head to a
storage tank. Once again, the system is identified as the matter (mass of air) that is in the
cylinder at any instant in time. However, with the open system, the amount of air in the
cylinder will change when a weight is placed on the piston and the piston moves. Some of
the mass initially in the system is pushed across the system boundary and into the storage
tank that is part of the surroundings. There is mass flow across the boundary. Although the
open system analysis is also called a control volume analysis, the volume does not have to
remain fixed in time or space. As can be seen in this case, the control volume changes shape
and size during the change.
Before leaving Figure 2-2, it is worthwhile to note that the case of the cylinder and the
storage tank could have been treated as a closed system if the matter in the system had
included both the air in the cylinder and the air in the storage tank. It may also be noted that
a different choice of open system could have been to draw a boundary to include the piston
and the weights in addition to the air. Which boundary is better depends on what is known,
what is sought and what processes are occurring during the change.
Piston
------------
Weight
Piston
Air
System
r- - - - - - - - - - - -,
1
1
Air
1
I
1
I
System
1
1 ______ - - - - _ ...I
------------
Storage Tank
Storage Tank
After Adding Weight

Figure 2-2. Open System
2:6
Figure 2-3 depicts another example of an open system; in this case, a reciprocating compressor. The system boundary is drawn to include both the compressor and the air inside the
compressor. Mass flows in across the boundary at the inlet, and out across the boundary at
the outlet. In this open system, the control volume remains the same in time and space.
There are many choices when it comes to selecting the system and system boundary. The
skill is in choosing a system that allows the most convenient analysis and calculation of the
unknowns. We will return to the topic of system selection once we have introduced the First
Law of Thermodynamics.
The conceptual model of system, system boundary and surroundings will be used later to
apply the laws of thermodynamics in a way that will permit calculation of practical and
useful results. There is only one set of laws, but the thermodynamic relations (equations)
that are applicable to closed and open systems are different, making it important to be able
to recognize the type of system before starting the analysis. Before applying laws (such as
the conservation of energy), we must be able to describe the condition of the system, and
define what we mean by energy.
Inlet
-i---------------+
Outlet
.. _-------------Figure 2-3. Open System Reciprocating Compressor
Chapter 2 Systems. Properties. States and Processes
2: 7
2.3
Forms ofEnergy
The different forms of energy (such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical and nuclear) add together to give the total energy of a system, E. The
total energy on a unit mass basis, e, is defined as:
e=Elm
In thermodynamic analysis, it is common to group the forms of energy into two broad
categories: macroscopic and microscopic. The macroscopic forms of energy are those that a
system possesses as a whole with respect to some outside reference frame. Kinetic and
potential energies are examples of macroscopic forms of energy because, as we shall see
later, they are defined in terms of an outside reference frame. The microscopic forms of
energy are those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of molecular
activity. Microscopic forms are independent of an outside reference frame. The sum of all
microscopic forms of energy is known as the internal energy of the system, U. On a unit
mass basis, the specific internal energy is:
u=Ulm
Internal energy is measured at the molecular level. The individual molecules of a system are
in continuous motion and the motion contributes to translational, rotational and vibrational
molecular energy. The portion of the internal energy associated with this molecular motion
is known as sensible energy. The degree of molecular activity increases with temperature;
therefore, the sensible energy is higher at higher temperatures.
The internal energy is also related to the intermolecular forces between molecules of the
system. The forces that bind molecules are strongest in solids and weakest in gases. If
sufficient energy is added to a solid or liquid, it will change phase and become a gas. The
energy added to make the change is known as latent energy. Latent energy is part of internal
energy. Sensible and latent energy changes involve no chemical change in the substance of
the system.
Chemical energy is part of internal energy. Chemical energy is associated with the chemical
bonds between different substances. In cases of chemical change (such as occur in combustion or chemical reaction), there is breaking of some bonds and formation of new bonds,
resulting in a change in chemical energy of the system.
2: 8
Within the nucleus of an atom are strong binding forces that also contribute to the internal
energy of a system. These nuclear bonds, and therefore the nuclear energy, are changed
only during fission or fusion reactions. Because thermodynamics is about change in energy
forms and because HVAC&R does not commonly include nuclear fission or fusion, nuclear
energy will not appear in the energy change relations.
The macroscopic energy that a system possesses by virtue of its elevation in a gravitational
field is called the potential energy. The potential energy, PE, and the potential energy on a
unit mass basis,pe, are:
PE=mgz
pe=gz
where g is the gravitational acceleration (g = 32.2 ftls 2 on earth at sea level), m is the mass
in Ibm' and z is the elevation of the center of gravity of a system relative to some arbitrarily
chosen reference frame, in ft. There is often a unit conversion required to express the potential energy in the common unit offtlbj known as gc' The parameter gc is a unit conversion
constant, whose value depends on what units are used for mass. When using the units of
mass as Ibm' the value is gc = 32.2 (Ibm ftls2)/lbj . The use of g and gc with apparently the
same numerical value may seem odd, but it is a result of the fact that one lbj will accelerate
one Ibm at 32.2 ftls2. To convert ft'lbj to Btu, the conversion factor is 1 Btu = 778 ftlbj .
Thermodynamics is the study of energy change rather than the study in absolute values of
energy, and the use of an arbitrary reference, or datum, is acceptable. An example can be
seen in analyzing the increase in potential energy when lifting a weight from a chair on to
the top of a table. It is only the height difference between the chair and tabletop that matters,
and not how high the table and chair are above the floor. In thermodynamics, it is change of
energy that is important and the reference level of absolute total energy is chosen at some
convenient datum level. As an example of the change of potential energy and the units of
energy, consider a mass of214 Ibm lifted 2 ft from the chair to the table:
PE increase
mgz
(214 Ibm )(32.2
ftls 2)(2
ft)/ {32.2 (Ibm ftls2)/lbj
= 428 ftlbj
= 0.55 Btu
pe Increase
= 2 ftlbj/lb m = 0.0026 Btullbm
Fundamentals ofThermot/ynamics and Psychrometries
2: 9
The macroscopic energy that a system possesses by virtue of its motion relative to some
reference frame is known as the kinetic energy. When all parts of the system move with the
same velocity, V (ft/s), then the kinetic energy, KE, and the kinetic energy on a unit mass
basis, ke, are:
The units of kinetic energy are handled similarly to those of potential energy and include
the unit conversion constant gc' and often the energy conversion factor I Btu = 778 ftlb!.
The magnetic, electric, nuclear and surface tension effects are important in some cases, but
are usually not significant in HVAC&R problems and will not be dealt with here. The total
energy, E, and the total energy per unit mass, e, may be written as the sum ofthe internal,
potential and kinetic energies:
E = U + PE + KE
= U + mgz + m V2 /2
2
e = u + pe + ke = u + gz + V /2
You must be careful about units when doing a calculation involving potential, kinetic and
internal energy so as to be sure that they are each in compatible units.
2.4
Properties ofa System
A property of a system is any observable characteristic of the system. Common properties

are mass m, temperature t, pressure p, volume V, specific volume v, density p, specific
heats Cp and C", internal energy U, enthalpy H, and entropy S. Some of the terms you will
immediately recognize, but others we will have to discuss in more detail in the next chapter
on properties.
Properties that are independent of the size of the system (such as pressure, temperature and
density) are known as intensive properties. Properties that vary with the size, or extent of
the system (such as mass, volume and total energy) are known as extensive properties.
When extensive properties are expressed per unit mass, they become intensive properties
and are known as specific properties, such as specific total energy (e = Elm), specific internal energy (u = Ulm), and specific enthalpy (h = Him).
2: 10
Common properties will be more fully defined and described in the next chapter. Properties
playa key role in conducting a thermodynamic analysis because of the following postulate:
The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent,
intensive properties. To fully understand the impact of this postulate, we must further define what is meant by a thermodynamic state, and then elaborate on properties and independent properties.
2.5
Equilibrium States
Consider a system that is not undergoing any change. It is possible to calculate all the
properties of the system. This set of properties then completely determines the condition, or
state, of the system. Said another way, the thermodynamic state is the condition of a system
in which all the properties have a fixed value. If the value of anyone property changes, then
the system will be in a different state.
The previous paragraph started with the reference to a system not undergoing change. In
thermodynamics, this is known as an equilibrium state. Equilibrium conveys a sense of
balance. For a system in an equilibrium state, there are no unbalanced driving forces within
the system. For thermal equilibrium, there are no internal temperature gradients that will
cause heat flow within the system. For mechanical equilibrium, there is no change of pressure in time to cause mass flow. The static pressure distribution does not violate equilibrium conditions because it does not induce an internal mass flow. For phase equilibrium,
there is no relative change in the mass of each phase present in the system. For chemical
equilibrium, there are no chemical reactions occurring.
The equilibrium state of a system is entirely specified by giving the property values of that
state, or conversely, the set of values of the properties is entirely set by identifying the state.
Properties are independent of the path followed by the system in coming to a given state. In
fact, a property can be defined as any quantity that depends on the state of the system and is
independent of the prior history by which the system arrived at the given state.
2: 11
2.6
A change in equilibrium state, as defined by a change in properties, is known as a process.

The series of states passed through by the system during a process is known as the path.
The description of a process involves specifying the initial and final equilibrium states, the
path, and any interactions that occur between the system and the surroundings at the system
boundaries during the process.
When a system is undergoing change, it is by definition not in equilibrium. However, when
the process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to
equilibrium state at all times, then the process is called a quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium,
process. A quasi-equilibrium process is an idealization of real processes, but it can be a very
powerful tool in helping to analyze systems. Most of the systems in HVAC&R that we want
to analyze are reasonably described by this idealization, and are adequately analyzed in this
way. A quasi-equilibrium process can be thought of as a process that proceeds slowly enough
that the system can adjust internally so that the properties in one part of the system do not
change significantly faster than the properties in another part of the system.
Figure 2-4 depicts a quasi-equilibrium process of air being compressed in a cylinder. The
piston and cylinder are shown horizontally at the bottom of the diagram. The closed system
is the air trapped in
the cylinder at any
Pressure
Final
time. The piston is
________
State
,
initially in Position
,,,
1. With the piston in
,,,
Position 1, the propp --------l.-----------~---...... G) Initial
erties of the system
,
State
(air in cylinder) are
,,I
mass m l , pressure
,,,
PI' temperature tl'
' - - - - - - - I . - : - 7 ' " - - - - - - - - - ! - : - 7 " " " - -.. Volume V
V2
volume VI' specific
,,: V1
volume vI' internal
,-------,
energy VI' specific
,,
A',r
,,
internal energy up
, System ,
,,
,,
entropy S I and spe,--------,
cific entropy S I'
These property val
CD
ues determine the
Figure 2-4. Change of State for a Closed System
initial state as State
1. The piston is
~
2: 12
slowly moved to the left. After some time, it comes to the final Position 2. The properties
have changed. We can see that the volume has changed to a new, smaller volume V2 Because this is a closed system and the mass has not changed (m2 = ml ), the specific volume
will have changed to v 2 The pressure may have increased to P2.1t is not known if the other
properties have changed values, but it is clear the system has gone to State 2 and so the
properties are labeled as (2' U2, u2, S2 and S2' Also shown in Figure 2-4 is the property
diagram of pressure plotted against volume. The Initial and Final States (1 and 2) are shown
as points on the p-V diagram. The process path is shown as the path taken in going from
State 1 to State 2.
The pressure-specific volume (p-v) diagram for an open system (axial flow fan) is shown in
Figure 2-5. The p-v diagram looks very similar to that for the closed system described
earlier, but the States 1 and 2 here refer to the inlet and outlet states of the air blowing
through the fan. Many of the practical situations we will want to analyze take the form of
the open system shown in Figure 2-5. However, there are often multiple inlets and outlets.
We will deal with them when we come to applying the mass and energy conservation laws.
Pressure
~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
- - - - +- - -- -- - -- - - ---- - ::--=-:-::-=-----0
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
:V1
Specific Volume V
I
I
Figure 2-5. Change of State for an Open System
Fundamentals ofThermotiynamics and Psychrometrics
2: 13
There are many different possible process paths depending on the nature of the interaction
between the system and its surroundings and the physical make-up of the system. For example, if a container of fixed volume is heated as shown in Figure 2-6, then the temperature
and pressure would increase, but the volume would remain constant. Or, if the constant
weight piston of Figure 2-7 is allowed to drop as the air is let out of the cylinder, then the
pressure would remain constant, even though the volume changes. There are sets of such
processes in which one of the properties remains constant that are very useful for approximating actual situations. They are:
Isobaric process:
Constant pressure process, p
Isothermal process:
Constant temperature process, t = constant
Isometric process:
Constant volume process, V = constant
Isochoric process:
Constant specific volume process, v = constant
Isentropic process:
Constant entropy process, S = constant
Adiabatic process:
No heat exchange between system and surroundings
constant
The last of the process descriptions given above, the adiabatic process, is different from the
others because it does not refer to a property, but instead refers to heat exchange between
the system and its surroundings. Heat is not a property, and we will provide a very detailed
description of what is meant by heat in a later chapter.
,------1
.------1
I
I
I
1
I
I
V2
P2
1
I
t2
lI ______
JI
I
I
I ______ JI
1
~Heating
State 1
L
State 2
Figure 2-6. Constant Volume Process
Chapter 2 Systems. Properties. States and Processes
2: 14
I weight I
piston
,------
I
r------ ..
weight
piston
I
I
V1
I
I
I
P1
I
I
I
t1
I
L
I _______
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
-------.1
Closed
Valve
State 1
Open
Valve
I weight I
piston
,-----.
V2
I
I
I
I
I
I
P2= P1
t 2
I
I
I
I
I
I
-------..1
18 Closed
Valve
State 2
Figure 2-7. Constant Pressure Process
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if, after having been through a series of processes, the final state is identical to the starting state. The initial and final states for a cycle
are identical, which means that the initial and final properties are also identical. Examples
of two-process and four-process cycles are shown on the p-V diagrams in Figure 2-8. The
four-process cycle is an idealization of the thermodynamics that occur in a gasoline engine.
2: 15
Pressure p
Volume V
Two-Process Cycle
Pressure p
0---+
---+@)
@)---+(D
0---+0
Isentropic Compression
Constant Volume
Isentropic Expansion
Constant Volume
Volume V
Four-Process Cycle
Figure 2-8. Property Diagrams for Two- and Four-Process Cycles
2: 16
The Next Step

In the next chapter, we will further develop the definition and description of the common
properties in the thermodynamics of HVAC&R. The properties to be considered are pressure, temperature, specific volume and density, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy. Also,
the idea of a pure substance and the phases of a pure substance will be introduced.
Summary
The starting point of a thermodynamic analysis is the identification of a system. The definition of a thermodynamic system and the ideas of system boundaries and the surroundings
were introduced for both open and closed systems. Total system energy was introduced as
the sum of the macroscopic and microscopic forms of energy. Macroscopic forms (such as
potential and kinetic energies) and microscopic forms of internal energy (such as thermal,
phase and chemical energies) add together to make the total energy.
A property of a system was described as an observable characteristic of the system. There
are intensive and extensive properties. Properties that are independent of the size of the
system (such as pressure, temperature and density) are known as intensive properties. Properties that vary with the size or extent of the system (such as mass, volume and total energy)
are known as extensive properties. When extensive properties are expressed per unit mass,
they become intensive properties and are known as specific properties. A set of property
values determines the condition, or state, of a system in equilibrium.
A process was defined in terms of the path by which a system changes from one state to a
different state. Several idealized processes were described. A cycle is a series of processes
linked together so that the initial state is identical to the final state. After studying Chapter
2, you should be able to:
Define and describe open and closed systems;
Define and describe the different forms of energy;
Define and describe properties and states; and
Defme and describe processes and cycles.
2: 17

ASHRAE Education Department.
2-01. Using examples, explain the main difference between open and closed systems.
2-02. Automobile engines are usually cooled by antifreeze that is circulated between the
engine and the radiator by a centrifugal pump. Air is blown over the radiator to cool
the antifreeze. Sketch the following systems and state whether they are open or
closed:
Antifreeze in the pump
Antifreeze in the radiator
Antifreeze in the pump, radiator and engine water jacket
Antifreeze in the radiator and air in the fan
2-03. Describe the differences between thermal, phase, chemical and nuclear energies.
2-04.
Give an expression for the specific total energy of a system in terms of the internal,
potential and kinetic energies.
2-05.
Sketch on a p- V diagram what happens when trapped air expands in a closed cylinder with a piston. Be sure to label the initial and final states, the path and the major
properties.
2-06.
Sketch on a p- V diagram a four-process cycle that has process 1 to 2 as an isobaric

decrease in volume, 2 to 3 as an isometric increase in pressure, 3 to 4 as an isobaric
increase in volume, and 4 to 1 as an isometric decrease in pressure.
2-07.
Sketch on a t-p diagram the following four-process cycle: 1 to 2 isothermal; 2 to 3

isobaric; 3 to 4 isothermal; and 4 to 1 isobaric.
3: 1
Chapter 3
Instructions
3.1
The State Postulate
3.2
Properties
3.3
3.4
Property Diagrams
The Next Step
Summary
Instructions

Chapter 3 begins with a description of the state postulate and then defines the properties
first introduced in the previous chapter. There are descriptions of pressure, specific volume,
temperature, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy. The solid, liquid and vapor phases of a
pure substance are introduced, including the ideas of phase equilibrium, independent properties, and saturated conditions for liquids and vapors. States and state changes are displayed on property diagrams. After studying Chapter 3, you should be able to:
Describe those properties common to analysis in thermodynamics;
Define a pure substance;
Describe the phases and phase change characteristics of pure substances; and
Explain and give examples of the value of property diagrams in describing the
state and state change of a pure substance.
Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances
3:2
3.1
The State Postulate
A property of a system is any observable characteristic of the system. Common properties

are mass m, temperature t, pressure p, volume V, specific volume v, density p, specific
heats Cp and C", internal energy U, enthalpy H, and entropy S. Properties that are independent of the size of the system (such as pressure, temperature and density) are known as
intensive properties. Properties that vary with the size or extent of the system (such as mass,
volume and total energy) are known as extensive properties. When extensive properties are
expressed per unit mass, they become intensive properties and are known as specific properties, such as specific total energy (e = Elm), specific internal energy (u = Ulm), and specific enthalpy (h = Him).
Consider a system that is not undergoing any change. It is possible to calculate all the
properties of the system. This set of properties then completely determines the condition, or
state, of the system. Said another way, the thermodynamic state is the condition of a system
in which all the properties have a fixed value. If the value of anyone property changes, then
the system will be in a different state.
The equilibrium state of a system is entirely specified by giving the property values of that
state or, conversely, the property values are entirely set by identifying the state. Properties
are independent of the path followed by the system in coming to a given state. In fact, a
property can be defined as any quantity that depends on the state of the system and is
independent of the prior history by which the system arrived at the given state.
There are many different properties of a system, but not all of the properties are independent
in value of one another. For example, consider air at a given pressure p and absolute temperature T. From the ideal gas law (to be introduced later), the specific volume v is given by
v = RT/p. R is the gas constant for air. Because of this interdependence between some
properties, it raises the question of how many properties must be specified before the state
of a system is completely specified. Fortunately, for most of the applications we want to
consider, the question is reasonably answered by the following state postulate:
The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.
There are several terms in this postulate that require careful attention. A simple compressible system is one in which there are no electrical, chemical, magnetic, gravitational or
surface tension effects. Often these effects, which are produced by external fields, are not
significant to the calculation. However, if they are, then an additional property must be
specified for each effect. For example, if gravitational effects are important, it will be necessary to specify an elevation and the two thermodynamic properties to specify the state.
3: 3
An intensive property has already been defined as a property that is independent of the size
of the system (such as pressure, temperature and density) or a property that is expressed per
unit mass, such as specific total energy (e = Elm), specific internal energy (u = Vim) and
specific enthalpy (h = Him). Intensive properties are independent if one property can be
varied while the other is held constant. We will examine more closely the question of independence when we discuss phase change in a later section.
3.2
Properties
Pressure. In solid mechanics, force per unit area is known as stress. If the direction of the
force is perpendicular to the plane of the area it acts on, it is known as a normal stress. If the
force is tangential to the plane ofthe area, it is known as shear stress. In fluids (liquids and
gases), there are similar stresses. The normal stress in a fluid is called pressure, and the
tangential stress is called shear stress. Pressure is the normal force per unit area in a fluid
and is positive when the stress is compressive. For a fluid at rest, the pressure at a given
point is equal in all directions. However, the pressure increases with depth because of the
weight of the fluid. This is known as the change in hydrostatic pressure. The variation of
pressure with depth, while being equal in all directions, is shown in Figure 3.1. When the
fluid is in motion, the pressure may vary from point to point anywhere in the fluid .
........ - . . - - - - - - -........- - - - - " - - " ' - - - - - - -.....~----- Water Level
-. ..-
j
---........--1
Figure 3-1. Hydrostatic Pressure Variation With Depth
3:4
The units of pressure are force per unit area. In the inch-pound (IP) system of units, the
pressure is usually given as pound-force per square inch (lb/in2, or psi). In the SI system of
units, the unit of pressure is a Pascal, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 Because a Pascal is a small unit,
pressure is often expressed in kilopascals (kPa = 103 Pa), or megapascals (MPa = 106 Pa).
Typical units and unit conversions are given in Appendix A.
The units of pressure are'often quoted in terms of the equivalent height of fluid that may be
supported by that pressure. In fluids at rest, the hydrostatic pressure varies as the depth
according to the relation!J.p = pg!J.z where !J.p is the pressure change corresponding to an
elevation change of!J.z. The fluid density is p. For example, consider standard atmospheric
pressure of29.921 in. mercury (Hg). The ratio ofthe density of mercury to that of water is
13.6 (known as specific gravity, SG). The density of water is 62.4 Ibm Ift3. A unit conversion
factor of 32.2 IbmftI(lbj S2) is required. The pressure difference between atmospheric and
zero pressure is then:
!J.p
pg!J.z
(13.6 )(62.4lb)ft3)(32.2 ftls 2)(29.921 in.)(ftl12 in.)/{32.2lbmftI(lbjs2)}
2,1161bj lft2
14.7 psi
Similarly, the equivalent height of fluid can be calculated for a given pressure difference.
Expressing 14.7 psi in feet of water yields:
!J.z
!J.pl(pg)
(14.7 lbj lin. 2)(144 in. 2/ft2)(32.2 IbmftI(lbj S2) )1 {(62.4 Ib)ft3)(32.2 ftls2)}
= 33.9 ft water
Absolute pressure is usually used in thermodynamics. However, the pressure is often measured by instruments that give the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. These instruments read zero when the pressure is atmospheric. To distinguish such pressure from absolute pressure, the measurement is known as gage pressure, and the units are Ibj lin. 2 gage, or
psig. Sometimes absolute pressure is given as psia to emphasize the absolute. Figure 3-2
depicts the different terms of pressure measurement to provide a picture of the relationships
between absolute, gage and vacuum measures of pressure. Pressure measurements below
atmospheric pressure are called vacuum measurements. A standard atmosphere is taken as:
1 atm = 14.696 psi = zero psig = 101.325 kPa = 29.921 in. Hg
3: 5
pressure
P gage
P atmos
--------- ------------- fo-------
P absolute
---
P vacuum
P atmos
P absolute
Figure 3-2. Terms of Pressure Measurement

Temperature. Temperature is not an easy property to define. We have a feeling for temperature because we are used to expressing whether something is hot or cold. It is perhaps easier
to define the equality of temperature as: Two bodies have equal temperatures when no
change in any observable property occurs when they are in thermal communication. This is
the same as saying that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then they
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. In the case where a thermometer is used to
measure the temperature, this may be further simplified to say that two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.
This principle is the basis for establishing a temperature scale. By examining materials that
have temperature-dependent characteristics, we can assign an arbitrary temperature scale to
the observed effect. The mercury thermometer is such a device. Mercury expands with
temperature. By observing the densities of mercury at the freezing and boiling points of
water at atmospheric pressure (known as the ice point and steam point, respectively), it is
possible to construct a temperature scale by assigning a temperature change proportional to
the density change. Two such scales are the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales.
For the Fahrenheit scale, the ice and steam points were assigned values of 32F and 212F,
respectively. On the Celsius scale, the ice and steam points were assigned values ofOC and
100C. There has been a slight revision to the Celsius scale by identifying the triple point of
water to be O.OlC rather than the ice point. The triple point is the state in which all three
phases of water coexist in equilibrium with each other.
Chapter 3 Property Diagrams for Pure Substances
3:6
A more useful scale for thermodynamics is the absolute temperature scale. For the absolute
scale, the temperature is always positive. It is based on the concept that for an ideal gas at
constant volume, the temperature is proportional to the pressure. This means that as the
pressure approaches zero, the temperature also approaches zero. On the absolute scale, temperatures are measured in degrees Rankine, R, for the IP unit system, and degrees Kelvin,
K, for the 81 unit system. Temperatures on the absolute scale are referred to with an upper
case T. The relationships between these scales can be summarized as:
t (OF)
1.8 t(OC) + 32
and
t(OC)
[t(OF) - 32]/1.8
t(OC) + 273.15
T(R)
t(OF) +459.17
and
T(K)
T(R)
1.8 T(K)
and
T(K)
= T(R)I1.8
and
~T(K) =
~T(R) = ~t(OF)
M(OC)
Temperature is an intensive property.
Specific volume. The specific volume of a substance v is the volume per unit mass. The
specific volume is an intensive property and has the unit of ft3/lbm . The inverse of the
specific volume is the density p (Ibm Ift3 ). In fluid mechanics, it is common to use density,
but in thermodynamics, it is just as common to use specific volume.
Internal energy. In thermodynamic analysis, it is common to group the forms of energy into
two broad categories: macroscopic and microscopic. The microscopic forms of energy are
those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of molecular activity.
Microscopic forms are independent of an outside reference frame. The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is known as the internal energy of the system, U. On a unit mass
basis, the specific internal energy is:
u=Ulm
Internal energy is measured at the molecular level. The individual molecules of a system are
in continuous motion and this motion contributes to translational, rotational and vibrational
molecular energy. The portion of the internal energy associated with this molecular motion
is known as sensible energy. The degree of molecular activity increases with temperature;
therefore, the sensible energy is higher at higher temperatures.
The internal energy is also related to the intermolecular forces between molecules of the
system. The forces that bind molecules are strongest in solids and weakest in gases. If
sufficient energy is added to a solid or liquid, it will change phase and become a gas. The
energy added to make the change is known as latent heat. Latent heat is part of internal
energy. Changes in sensible and latent energy involve no chemical change.
3: 7
Chemical energy is part of internal energy. Chemical energy is associated with the chemical
bonds between different substances. In cases of chemical change (such as occur in combustion or chemical reactions), there is breaking of some bonds and formation of new bonds,
resulting in a change in chemical energy of the system.
Within the nucleus of an atom are strong binding forces that also contribute to the internal
energy of a system. These nuclear bonds, and therefore the nuclear energy, are changed
only during fission or fusion reactions. Because thermodynamics is about change in energy
forms, and because HV AC&R does not commonly include nuclear fission or fusion, nuclear
energy will not appear in the energy change relations.
Enthalpy. Enthalpy is the name given to the combination of internal energy, pressure and
volume. Because it is a combination of properties, enthalpy is a property itself. It is a particularly useful combination, as will be shown when applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to open systems. The enthalpy H, and the specific enthalpy h, are given by the
following two expressions:
H=U+pV
h=u+ pv
The units of specific enthalpy are the same as those of internal energy. If common units of
psi and ft3/lb m are used for p and v, then the product pv has to be converted to produce
Btu/Ibm as shown by the following:
h
u (Btu/Ibm) + p (lbj /in. 2) v (ft3/Ib n)(144 in. 2/ft2)(Btu/(778 ftlbj
))
Enthalpy will become a very convenient property when we apply the First Law of Thermodynamics to open systems. In open systems, enthalpy is a useful descriptor for the internal
energy and flow work done by a flow of mass across the system boundary.
Entropy. Entropy is another new property that is not easily measurable or obvious. It is a
property that is linked with the Second Law of Thermodynamics. We will not derive the
basis for entropy, but we will make use of the tabulated values of entropy to describe certain
types of ideal processes.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with the fact that many processes proceed in
only one direction. For example, hot coffee left out in a cool room will cool to the temperature of the room, but the coffee will not, by itself, become hotter. In another example, when
two pieces of wood are rubbed together, there can be enough frictional heating to start a fire,
but a hot spot, by itself, will not cause the two pieces of wood to start rubbing against each
other. These processes are known as irreversible.
3: 8
In contrast, reversible processes can only be imagined (such as frictionless pistons or heat
transfer between objects at the same temperature). Although a frictionless piston does not
exist, it is useful to consider it as an ideal, and then compare real behavior to the ideal.
Similarly, in thermodynamics, it will prove to be very useful to consider ideal reversible
processes, and then compare actual, irreversible processes to the reversible idealizations.
Entropy is a convenient property for tracking ideal processes, and also for identifying the
degree of irreversibility of real processes.
The symbols for entropy and specific entropy are Sand s. The units of entropy are energy
over absolute temperature. The units of S are BtuIR, and of s are Btu/(lbm R).
3.3
A pure substance is characterized by the requirements that it be homogeneous and of invariable chemical composition. A pure substance can be a single chemical element, a compound, or a mixture of elements and compounds. Water is a pure substance because it always has the composition of H20, although it may have different phases: solid (ice), liquid
(water) or gaseous (steam or water vapor). Air in the gas phase is considered a pure substance even though it is made up of several gases. But air will not be considered as a pure
substance if it mixed with liquid air because the composition of the gaseous air and liquid
air is different when they are in equilibrium with each other. Similarly, the air of combustion is not a pure substance because it is chemically reacting with the burning fuel. We will
start our thermodynamics with the discussion of pure substances. The basic laws and principles of thermodynamics do apply to other than pure substances, but it takes more advanced study.
The three principle phases of a pure substance are solid, liquid and gas. As we study phase
change in thermodynamics, we do not deal with issues of molecular structure, but some
description of molecular structure can provide insight into the nature of the three phases.
Solids have a crystalline structure. In solids, the molecular bonds are strong and the molecules are fixed in a three-dimensional lattice. Although the molecules do not change location with respect to each other in the lattice, they continually oscillate about their equilibrium position. The oscillation intensity depends on the temperature. If the temperature is
raised high enough, the molecules develop enough oscillation energy to overcome the molecular bonds that keep them fixed in the lattice.
With additional energy, the solid melts and becomes a liquid. There are still strong intermolecular bonds and neighboring molecules exert a significant influence over each other, but
the molecules can move relative to each other. At a higher temperature, the molecules abChapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances
Fundamentals ofTI,ermot/ynamics and Psychrometries
3: 9
sorb energy, the distances between molecules increase and the molecular order breaks down.
The liquid evaporates and changes phase to become a vapor (gas phase). In the gas phase,
molecules are far apart and move around at random, colliding into each other and the container walls. Under certain circumstances, a solid may sublimate and go directly from the
solid to vapor phase when heated.
The phases and phase change processes in pure substances are important in thermodynamics. To illustrate the basics of phases and phase changes of a pure substance, we will describe the behavior of water changing from liquid to vapor. Although the example is water,
it should remembered that the same basic explanation applies to all pure substances, and
there are similar changes between solid-to-liquid and solid-to-vapor.
Consider as a system the water in a piston-cylinder arrangement shown in Figure 3-3. Imagine
that the piston has no weight so that, although the piston can travel up and down, the pressure in the system remains constant at 14.7 psia (atmospheric pressure) throughout the
series of steps described below. The water is initially all liquid at 60 oP. In this state, the
water is known as a sub-cooled, or compressed, liquid.
Piston
Vapor
Piston
Piston
Liquid
Liquid
Liquid
State 1
compressed liquid
t<1sat
State 2
saturated liquid
1 lsat
State 3
saturated
(liquid + vapor)
t lsat
Piston
Piston
Piston
Vapor
Vapor
Vapor
State 4
saturated vapor
t 1sat
State 5
superheated vapor
t> lsat
State 6
gas
11sat
Figure 3-3. Stages in the Constant Pressure Change of Phase of Water
3: 10
The water in the cylinder is then heated so that the temperature rises. The water expands
slightly as the specific volume increases, causing the piston to rise slightly (State 2). The
pressure remains constant at 14.7 psia because of the weightless piston and no constraint on
piston movement. When the temperature first reaches 212F, the water is still all liquid and
remains liquid unless further heat is added. If further heat is added, then the liquid progressively changes phase from liquid to water vapor or steam (States 3 and 4). The temperature
and pressure throughout the whole phase change process remain constant at 212F and 14.7
psia respectively, but the specific volume increases from 0.0167 ft 3/lb to 27.82 ft3/lb m
The conditions during the phase change are called saturated conditions and the temperature
and pressure are known as saturated pressure Psat and saturated temperature tsat
lll
Ifheating continues after the liquid is all converted to vapor, the temperature will rise above
tsat" In this case, imagine the temperature to be 250F and the pressure still 14.7 psia (State
5). The vapor in the system is described as superheated vapor when t> tsat" If the temperature is much greater than the saturated temperature, t >> tsat ' then the vapor is said to behave
as a gas (State 6). We will explain this in a later chapter.
When the temperature first reached 212F and the water was all liquid, but before the phase
change started to take place, the state of the water is described as saturated liquid (t = 212 of,
P = 14.7 psia, and all liquid). When the liquid had just been fully converted to vapor, the
state is known as saturated vapor (t = 212F, P = 14.7 psia, all vapor).
Between the saturated liquid and saturated vapor states, both liquid and vapor are in equilibrium with each other. The temperature and pressure are 212 OF and 14.7 psia respectively,
but to determine where we are in the phase change, we introduce a new property called the
quality. The quality, x, of a pure substance only has meaning during a phase change. The
quality during the phase change from liquid to vapor is the ratio of mass of vapor to total
mass in the system:
x
= mvapor 1m
(1- x)
= mliquid 1m
That means that x is zero when there is only saturated liquid, and 1 when there is only
saturated vapor. The quality can easily be related to the specific volumes of saturated liquid
and vapor. Let ~ be the volume and Vj be the specific volume of the saturated liquid. Let Vg
be the volume and vg be the specific volume of the saturated vapor. The volume of vapor is
V g = vg m vapor . The volume of liquid is Vj = Vj miIqUid'
Fundamentals ofTI,ermot/ynamics and Psychrometries
3: 11
The mass is made up of the sum of the liquid and vapor masses, m = m vapor + m."qUid. :
= mliquid V j + mvapor V g
=(l-x)mVj +xmVg
Divide through by m and get:
V
= (l-x)vj +XVg
This is a useful relationship because it determines the specific volume for a mixture of the
two phases. Often the difference between the specific volumes of saturated vapor and liquid
is given the designation Vjg = (Vg - Vj)' and the above expression can be rewritten as:
Again, this refers to the property called quality, which has meaning for cases where there is
a mixture of two phases of a pure substance. During phase change, we have seen that the
temperature and pressure are not independent properties. That means that if the mixture is
saturated, then setting either the pressure or temperature will fix the other. It is under these
saturated mixture conditions that quality can serve as an independent intensive property.
The above discussion used water as an example of a pure substance. All pure substances
exhibit similar behavior, but at different values of temperature and pressure. Also, there is
not only the phase change between liquid and vapor to be considered. There are also phase
changes between solid and liquid, and solid and vapor. These issues will be elaborated in
the next section, with the help of property diagrams.
Chapter 3 Properly Diagrams for Pure Substances
3: 12
3.4
Property Diagrams
A two-dimensional property diagram is a plot of one property against another. Because the
state postulate asserts that it takes only two independent, intensive properties to determine
the state of a pure substance, such diagrams are very useful for visualizing states and changes
of state. We will start in this section with a temperature versus specific volume (T-v) diagram to illustrate the constant pressure process that was described earlier for water in a
cylinder that was heated and changed from compressed liquid to superheated vapor.
The process is shown in Figure 3-4. The States 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 correspond to those first
depicted in Figure 3-3. State 2 is saturated liquid, State 4 is saturated vapor, and in between
are saturated mixtures of vapor and liquid where the state is determined by the quality.
The question arises as to what happens if we follow the same process, but at a higher pressure (we can add a weight to the piston in Figure 3-3). The answer is shown in a more
general T-v diagram in Figure 3-5. The constant pressure changes of state are shown as
dashed lines for two different pressures PI and P 2 ' for a pure substance being heated from
compressed liquid to superheated vapor. The conditions that represent the points of saturated liquid can be joined to draw the saturated liquid line that separates the compressed
liquid region from the saturated (liquid + vapor) region. Similarly, the conditions that repre-
Temperature
tOF
CD
Gas
400
Saturated
Liquid
200
Saturated
Mixture
Specific Volume V
Figure 3-4. Constant Pressure Boiling of Water on a T-v Diagram
3: 13
sent the points of saturated vapor may be joined to draw the saturated vapor line. The saturated liquid and vapor lines converge at the top of the curve at the critical point. The critical
point has special significance because it characterizes the pure substance. It also represents
a temperature/pressure combination above which the transition from liquid to vapor happens without a clear distinction between saturated liquid and vapor.
Temperature
tOF
Critical
Point
,s.0 ~"
(I:)~
~0
Compressed
Liquid
Region
/
/
Superheated
Vapor
Region
/
/
(l)
/.s
li-----------'
/
/
/
/
/
::;;,
.~
/
/ I -'
/1
/ I
I I .a
/ I
c3
Saturated
(Liquid & Vapor)
Region
Specific Volume V
Figure 3-5. The T-v Diagram
We will become very familiar with diagrams such as the T- v diagram in Figure 3-5, and the
p-v diagram in Figure 3-6. In the p-v diagram, lines of constant temperature are shown as
dashed lines for the temperatures TJ and T2 The saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines,
and the critical point, look very similar to those of the T- v diagram. Again as a reminder, the
real power of these diagrams is that the state of a system is easily represented as a point on
the diagram.
There is more to property diagrams than the two shown in Figures 3-5 and 3-6. We might
plot other property combinations. It will later be useful to plot temperature against entropy
and temperature against enthalpy. There is also the extension of the diagram to include
phase changes between solid, liquid and vapor.
3: 14
pressure
I
I
I
Compressep
Liquid I
Region I
Critical
Point
I
I
I
I
I
Superheated
Vapor
Region
'
"'"
I_~ ____ - - - - - -
.S!"
N
.a
ciJ
"
Saturated
(Liquid & Vapor)
Region
'.
' ,
-..J
1:)
~~
'lJe/"qfl '
';/"e .,.
, ,
~"
Grr~/61.
'
Q' U
fel1]~
q..oo
1"1..'IfJe
'<
e/"qfll.
~e
l:
Specific Volume V
Figure 3-6. The p-v Diagram
The p- T, or phase, diagram is shown in Figure 3-7, where three lines all converge at one
point. This point is known as the triple point because the solid, liquid and vapor phases all
co-exist in equilibrium with each other at this state. The three lines that separate the solid,
liquid and vapor regions on the diagram are known as the fusion line, vaporization line and
sublimation line. The vaporization line is also known as the condensation line, depending
on whether the change is from liquid to vapor, or vapor to liquid. The vaporization line
represents an edge view of the saturated liquid and vapor lines that were presented in the Tv and p-v diagrams. The fusion, or melting, line separates the solid and liquid regions. The
sublimation line separates the solid and vapor regions.
To fully illustrate the relationship between the properties of pressure, temperature and specific volume, it is possible to construct the p-v-T surface in a three-dimensional picture.
The picture helps to visualize the various phases.
3: 15
pressure
p
Liquid
Phase
Critical
Point
Solid
Phase
Vapor
Phase
Temperature T
Figure 3-7. Phase Diagram of a Pure Substance
3: 16
The Next Step

In the next chapter, we will discuss the properties of the common pure substance, water, in
more detail. We will examine the thermodynamic tables and charts that give values for the
properties over a wide range of conditions.
Summary
The state postulate established that the state of a simple compressible system is completely
specified by two independent, intensive properties. Descriptions were provided for pressure, temperature, volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy, including explanations of
the common units of these properties. Enthalpy was introduced as a property equal to the
sum of internal energy and the pressure-volume product. Enthalpy will be very useful when
applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to an open system. Entropy was introduced as a
property of particular significance when dealing with the Second Law of Thermodynamics,
and constructing ideal, reversible processes and cycles.
The solid, liquid and vapor phases of a pure substance were introduced, including the ideas
of phase equilibrium, independent properties and saturated conditions for liquids and vapors. The quality is introduced as an intensive, independent property relating the mass of
vapor to total mass of a system when saturated liquid and vapor exist simultaneously in
equilibrium with each other. An expression was developed relating the specific volume of a
saturated mixture of liquid and vapor to the quality and the specific volumes of the liquid
and vapor. States and state changes are displayed on the T-v and p-v property diagrams. The
diagrams are used to introduce the ideas of the saturated liquid line, saturated vapor line and
the critical point.
After studying Chapter 3, you should be able to:
Describe those properties common to analysis in thermodynamics;
Define a pure substance;
Describe the phases and phase change characteristics of pure substances; and
Explain and give examples of the value of property diagrams in describing the
state and state change of a pure substance.
3: 17

3-01.
Give the state postulate and explain what a simple compressive substance is.
3-02. Explain the differences between absolute, gage and vacuum pressures.
3-03. Give the typical units for the following properties, and indicate which properties
are intensive and which are extensive: specific enthalpy, total volume, pressure,
temperature, specific entropy, mass and quality.
3-04.
Give the temperature of212 cP in units of degrees Rankine, degrees Kelvin and cC.
3-05. Sketch a T-v diagram for a pure substance and show the saturated liquid line, the
saturated vapor line, the critical point and a constant pressure process line from
compressed liquid to superheated vapor. Also include a constant temperature line.
3-06. Sketch a p-v diagram for a pure substance and show the saturated liquid line, the
saturated vapor line, the critical point and a constant temperature process line from
compressed liquid to superheated vapor. Also include a constant pressure line.
3-07. A saturated mixture of water is at 230 cP and 103 psia. The specific volume of the
liquid is vj = 0.0178 ft3/lb11/ and the specific volume ofthe vapor is vg = 4.312 ft3/lb11/ .
If the quality is x = 0.5, what is the specific volume of the mixture?
3-08. A fixed volume container initially contains a pure substance in superheated form.
The container is cooled until there is a mixture ofliquid and vapor inside. Using T-v
and p-v diagrams, describe the changes taking place in this constant volume process
as the contents are cooled.
4: 1
Chapter 4
Instructions
4.1
Introduction
4.2
4.3
Tables for Superheated Vapor and Compressed Liquid
4.4
Thermodynamic LiquidN apor Charts
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions

In Chapter 4, you will develop the skill of looking up properties in tables and charts for
water (steam) and refrigerants. You willieam how to select the right table, interpolate between entries in the table, and understand the properties normally given in such tables.
There are tables for the different phases of a pure substance, and the table format is different
for each phase. After studying Chapter 4, you should be able to:
Understand the format and content of the different tables and charts;
Find the values of common properties in the tables;
Interpolate to determine values between the entries in the tables; and
Determine the property values of liquid-vapor mixtures.
Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts
4:2
4.1
Introduction
Tables list values of the thermodynamic properties of a pure substance. Charts are property
diagrams that have lines of constant property value mapped in on the diagram. The tables
and charts for water and refrigerant R-22 will be used in this chapter as the basis for studying how to use tables and charts. Water tables are sometimes referred to as steam tables
because of the early development of the science of thermodynamics for steam boilers and
steam engines. The tables and charts for water, refrigerants R-22 and R-134a, and moist air
are given in Appendices B, C and D at the end of this book. Extracts from these tables will
be used extensively in this chapter to illustrate the different operations involving these tables
and charts. The tables and charts of Appendices B and C, and thermodynamic tables and
charts for many other substances (including many well known refrigerants), are found in
the ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals, Chapters 6 and 17.
R-22 is a cornmon refrigerant used in many appliances, such as horne refrigerators, airconditioners and chillers. Its technical composition is chlorodifluoromethane, and it is one
of the CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). The CFCs have been the subject of extensive discussion in recent years because of the effect that they may have on the ozone layer, high in the
earth's atmosphere. The primary refrigerant of concern has been R-12, the CFC that first
achieved widespread use and, until recently, was found in applications such as automobile
air-conditioning. Production ofR-12 has been discontinued. R-22 is not as potent as R-12
with respect to the ozone question, but even so, there is a proposed agenda to phase out
R-22.
The CFCs are not naturally occurring substances. As a class of refrigerants, they have been
spectacularly successful because of their attractive thermodynamic properties. The concern
about the ozone layer has driven a search for non-CFC alternatives. The other older refrigerants (such as ammonia) have important applications, but do not have the full range of
attractive properties that were the hallmark of the CFCs. The search has produced some
new non-CFC alternatives (such as R-134a) that are very promising. However, of the new
alternatives, it is not yet clear as to which ones will be widely adopted by industry as replacements for R-22. In the meantime, R-22 is used in many existing pieces of equipment.
Chapter 4 will deal only with property values in the liquid/vapor part of the property diagrams for water and R-22. However, it should be understood that there are also similar
tables and charts for the liquid/solid and solid/vapor regions of the property diagram. Except for a short discussion about ice, the tables for solid/liquid and solid/vapor will be left
for further study.
Chapter" Thermodynamic Tables and Charts
4: 3
Recalling the introduction of property diagrams in the previous chapter, there are basically
three regions of interest for a pure substance undergoing a change from liquid to vapor.
These are the compressed liquid, the saturated mixture of liquid and vapor, and the superheated vapor regions as shown in the t-v diagram of Figure 4-1. The regions are separated
by the saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines. Each of the three regions is assigned a
different table because of the special nature of the three regions. It would seem logical to
draw a rectangular grid on the property diagram in Figure 4-1 and then tabulate the values
of all properties at each of the grid line intersections. This is what is done for the compressed liquid and superheated vapor tables, except that the grid is drawn on the p-T diagram. However, the technique is different for the mixed liquid/vapor region because the
grid is not necessary. The values everywhere in the mixture region can be determined by
knowing only the values along the saturated lines.
The discussion of tables and charts will be presented in the following order: saturated liquid/vapor tables, superheated vapor and compressed liquid tables, and charts. We will introduce the property values of most interest, and explain how the tables can be used to
obtain values for many properties when the state is known. It takes any two independent,
intensive, properties to determine the state.
Temperature
Critical
Point
Compressed
Liquid
Region
e'"
~~"
" .scv
~
, .1:!
I
"
I
I
I
I
;:,
,
I
et!O,
~,
I,. .S!
I
, Superheated
Vapor
Region
'
"0
cv
.....
EE
.a
~
Saturated
(Liquid + Vapor)
Region
Specific Volume V
Figure 4-1. Typical t-v Diagram
4:4
4.2
Along either the saturated liquid or saturated vapor lines, and for the region in between, the
pressure and temperature are not independent from one another. That means that if we
specify the pressure, then the temperature is automatically known. An example was given
earlier when we examined boiling water. If the pressure is 14.7 psia, then the water would
boil (change phase from liquid to vapor) at a temperature of212P. The 212P temperature
applies for saturated liquid, saturated vapor and any mixture of saturated liquid and vapor in
equilibrium with each other at the 14.7 psia. A similar argument applies for other pressures,
and there is a unique temperature corresponding to each pressure at which water will boil.
These are known as the saturated valuespsat and t sat. The relationship betweenpsat and t sat
can be expressed in mathematical terms by saying that, for a given pure substance, saturated
pressure is a function of temperature only:
Psat
=/
(tsat)
The question here is what is the function /? Experiments show the function is not a simple
function. Mathematical equations for the function/are available, such as those given in the
ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals (Chapter 6), but the equations are complicated. Therefore, instead of giving the function in mathematical form, the relationship between pressure
and temperature is also given in tabulated form. Selected values are taken from the water
table of Appendix B and from the R-22 table of Appendix C, and presented in Table 4-1.
Table 4-1. Saturated Pressure and Temperature for Water and R-22
Saturated Water
tsat (OF)
Psat (psia)
32
62
92
122
152
182
212
242
0.08865
0.27519
0.74394
1.79117
3.91101
7.8589
14.7096
25.9028
Saturated R-22
(OF)
Psat (psia)
-50.00
11.696
0.00
38.726
50.00
98.799
100.00
210.69
396.32
150.00
200.00
686.11
723.74c
205.06c
tsat
The values given in Table 4-1 highlight some features that are common to all saturated
property tables. There is usually an entry value and then a value to be found. In this case, the
entry value is the temperature and the value to be found is the pressure. The saturated table
is sometimes given the other way around, where the temperature is listed for set values of
pressure. Whichever way, the basic relationship is the same, and it is only a matter of convenience in which order they appear. Later we will examine the issue of when you wish to
find a value that does not correspond exactly to one of the entry values.
4: 5
The values in the table are usually given to at least five-digit accuracy. Because we are
relying on the values to describe the functional relationship, they must be accurate. Although the temperature in the water table appears to be only given to a degree, it is also
understood to be accurate to five-digit accuracy. The critical value is the last entry in the
saturated R-22 table. The critical values for R-22 are 205.06F and 723.74 psia. The critical
values are the property values where the saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines join. For
water, the critical values are 705.44F and 3,204 psia.
The values for saturated water given in Table 4-1 include the 212F, 14.7 psia combination
that we have been using as an example. What happens if we need a value between two table
entries? Actually, as can be seen from Appendices B and C, the values in the table are given
at a much smaller interval, and usually include a full range of useful values. Even so, the
question still remains as to how to compute values that are between entries. Usually it is
assumed that linear interpolation between entries in the table provides an accurate enough
value of the property. Linear interpolation means that iftwo data entries were plotted on a
graph, then a straight line joining the two points would reasonably describe the values between the two points. The closer together the data entries, the better the linear approximation. As an example of linear interpolation, consider the values in Table 4-1 and the need to
know the saturation pressure when the saturation temperature is 200.5F. The 200.5F lies
between the temperature entries 182F and 212F and between pressure values of 7.8589
psia and 14.7096 psia. These values are shown in Table 4-2 and in the graph in Figure 4-2
along with a notation of PJ'tl and P2' t2 for the known points and p, t for the desired pair.
Table 4-2. Steps to Interpolate Between Two Pressures

Saturated Water
tsat COF)
tl = 182
t= 200.5
t2 = 212
Psat (psia)
PI-7.8589
p = pI + {(t - 11)/(t2 -tl)x(P2 - pI)
= 7.8589 + {(200.5 - 182)/(212 -182)} x
(14.7096 - 7.8589)
= 12.0835
P2 -14.7096
4: 6
pressure
P2 = 14.7096 psia
p=?
P1
=7.8589 psia
t1
=182F
=200.5F
t2
=212F
Temperature
Figure 4-2. Linear Interpolation Between Two Temperatures in Saturation Table
From the graph, it can be seen that there are similar triangles in which:
This can be solved for an unknown p as in Table 4-2 as:
or for an unknown t as:
These are two useful expressions that will be applied over and over again as we find values
in tables. The linear interpolation technique will be applied to many different variables, not
only pressure and temperature.
4: 7
The value obtained for PSal at tsal = 200.5F, when using values in Table 4-1, is 12.0835
psia. If instead the values in the table given in Appendix B are used, then the linear interpolation gives a more accurate value ofpsal as:
p
= P1 + {(t - t1) / (t2 - t1)} X (P2 - PI)

= 11.5374 + {(200.5 - 200) / (201- 200)} X (11.7779 -11.5374)
= 11.6577 psia
These numbers suggest an error of e% = {(12.0835 - 11.6577)/11.6577) x 100 = 3.6% in

the linear interpolation from Table 4-1. This is just an example to demonstrate that the
closer the entries are in the table, the more accurate the linear interpolation. If the error is
deemed too large, the alternative is to use one of the mathematical equations.
For water, find the saturated temperature for a saturated pressure of 5 psia. In Table 4-3, it
can be seen that tsal = 160.28F atPsal = 5 psia.
Table 4-3. Steps to Interpolate Between Two Temperatures

Saturated Water
tsat (OF)
. t} = 152
t = t} + {(P - P/)!(P2 - Pi)} X (t2 - t])
= 152 + {(5 - 3.91101)/(7.8589 - 3.91101)}
x (182 - 152)
= 160.28
t2 = 182
Psat (psia)
p}- 3.91101
p-5
P2 -7.8589
The interpolation relations for P and t are two useful expressions that will be applied over
and over again as we look up values in tables. The linear interpolation technique will be
applied to many different variables, not only pressure and temperature.
The tabulated pressure and temperature values are exactly the same for both the saturated
liquid and saturated vapor lines. What then is the difference between the saturated liquid
and saturated vapor lines? The difference is that the saturated liquid line represents a quality
x = 0 (all liquid) and the saturated vapor line represents a quality of x = 1 (all vapor).
Quality, x, is the mass proportion of vapor in a mixture of liquid and vapor. All properties,
other than pressure and temperature, have different values for saturated liquid and saturated
vapor. It is easy to picture that there is a big difference between specific volume; the liquid
is heavy while the vapor is light. To draw the distinction between the specific volume of a
saturated liquid and the specific volume of a saturated vapor, we use the subscripts offand
g respectively (they are the first letters of the German words for liquid and vapor). There-
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometrics
4: 8
fore, the variable Vj is reserved for the specific volume of a substance that is atpsat ,{sat and
has a quality x = 0, and vg is reserved for the specific volume of a substance that is at p t' {
and has a quality of x = 1. For a quality of x, the specific volume v of a saturated mixture is
given in terms ofvj' Vg and specific volume difference, Vjg = (Vg - Vj j, (see explanation in
the previous chapter) as:
~
v=vj+XV jg
Values of v j ' Vg and Vjg are given in the saturation table for water as shown in the small
subset of Appendix B reproduced in Figure 4-3. Figure 4-3 has column headings that include temperature {sal' pressure Psal' specific volume v j ' Vg and Vjg ' specific enthalpy hj' hg'
and h jg , and specific entropy Sj' Sg and Sjg' Enthalpy is a property that will become very
useful when applying the the First Law of Thermodynamics to open systems. The enthalpy
for any saturated condition can be calculated from:
h
h j +xhjg
Table 3 Tbermodynamic: Properties of Water at Saturation,

Temp.
I, of
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
Absolute Pressure p
psi
in.Hg
9.1510 .
9.3493
9.5512
9.7567
9.9659
10.1788
10.3955
10.6160
10.8404
11.0687
11.3010
18.6316
19.0353
19.4464
19.8648
20.2907
20.7242
21.1653
21.6143
22.0712
22.5361
23.0091
Specific
SaL
Uquid
"l
0.01656
0.01657
0.01658
0.01658
0.01659
0.01659
0.01660
0.01661
0.01661
0.01662
0.01663
Volume,
Eftp.
ft 3 /1b
Sat.
Vapor
Enthllpy, Btu/lb
Sat.
Sit.
Uquid
Eftp.
Vapor
hI
"I,
"t
41.7jO
40.901
40.092
39.301
38.528
37.774
37.035
36.314
35.611
34.923
34.251
41.746
40.918
40.108
39.317
38.544
37.790
37.052
36.331
35.628
34.940
34.268
hl'
. m.07 984.32
158.07 983.71
159.08 983.10
160.08 982.48
161.09 981.87
162.09 981.25
163.10 980.63
164.10 980.02
165.11 979.40
166.11 978.78
167.12 978.16
Entropy, Btu/lb of
SaL
Sat.
Uquld
Eftp. Vapor
h,
I(
1141.39
1141.78
1142.18
1142.57
1142.95
1143.34
1143.73
1144.12
1144.51
1144.89
1145.28
0.2772
0.2787
0.2803
0.2818
0.2834
0.2849
0.2864
0.2880
0.2895
0.2910
0.2926
'l'
't
1.5174 1.7946
1.5141 1.7929
1.5109 1.7911
1.5076 1.7894
1.5043 1.7877
1.5011 1.7860
1.4979 1.7843
1.4946 1.7826
1.4914 1.7809
1.4882 1.7792
1.4850 1.7776
Figure 4-3. Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated Water
Enthalpy is an energy-type property with zero value at some chosen reference state. The
reference state can be arbitrarily chosen, so the table is often accompanied by a statement of
how the reference state was chosen. For the water table in Appendix B, the reference state is
set such that the enthalpy is zero at the triple point of water (32.018F). In most of the
thermodynamic expressions that we will be using, it is the enthalpy difference that is important and not the absolute value of enthalpy, so the choice of reference state is not critical.
However, the reference state is critical in topics such as combustion where there is a chemical reaction between components, and enthalpy values have to be brought to a common
reference state. The enthalpy difference between saturated vapor and saturated liquid, hjg =
(hg - hj ), is also known as the heat of vaporization or the latent heat.
4: 9
The tables offer a way of determining the quality if two independent properties are known.
For example, assume that saturated water at 212F has an enthalpy of h = 800 BtU/Ibm'
From the table in Appendix B, the saturation pressure is 14.7096 psia. From the same table,
hj = 180.20 and hjg = 970.03 Btu/Ibm' Solving the enthalpy equation given earlier for x gives:
= (h-hj )/ hjg
= (800 -180.20) / 970.03
=
0.6389 (or 63.89%)
The column headings from the saturation table for R-22, as given in Appendix C, are reproduced in Figure 4-4. The specific volume for liquid is replaced by the density (density is the
inverse of specific volume). The columns for specific volume, enthalpy and entropy do not
list the values of Vjg ' hjg or Sjg' but these values can be derived easily from the differences
between listed values. There are additional columns. Columns that will be of interest in a
later chapter are those of coefficient of specific heat at constant pressure, Cp , and the ratio of
specific heats, k = Cp / Cv .
Refrigerant 11 (cblorodiDuoromethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor

Delsity, \bIuIt,
EaIUlpy,
EaIlOpJ,
Specific Heat ep'
VelocIty .r Solid,
VIscosity,
1\tnuI eold, Sarface
TeIIp,* Prasart, IbIrtl
rl31U1
BIIIIII
IIIIIII'F
Ila/ll,.F
eple.
WI
1II./r...
Itl/l.. fl,F Teuioa, Temp,
9~~~~_~~~~~~~~~~~~9
-lSO.OO
107.37
-63.169 76.604 -0.2191. 0."952
0.1018 1.291.
395.
- -2S0.00
106.41
-240.00 -S6.~
n.629 -0.18786 0.42332
0.1033 1.2860
403.
- -:MO.OO
-230,00 .
105.48
- -51.569 78.669 -0.16605 0.40101
0.1048 1.2807
411.
36.7S - 230.00
-220,00 0.002 IU..58 1680S. -47.705 79.724 -0.14958 0.38211
0.1064 1.27504
419.
35.70 -220.00
-lIO.OO O.~ 103.70 6982.6 - ".426 80.796 -0.13616 0.36538
0.1080 1.2703
.27.
34.67 - lIO.OO
Figure 4-4. Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated R-22
4.3
Tablesfor Superheated Vapor and Compressed Liquid
Superheated vapor tables cover the region to the right ofthe saturated vapor line on the t-v
diagram shown in Figure 4-1. The term superheated comes from the fact that, for a given
pressure, the temperature is greater than the saturation temperature. In an example of water
at atmospheric pressure, the vapor is superheated if the temperature is greater than the saturation value of 212F. In the superheated region, the pressure and temperature are independent properties. Therefore, the superheated vapor table actually consists of a set of many
tables, each for a different pressure, in which the entries are made according to temperature.
4: 10
The compressed liquid tables cover the region to the left of the saturated liquid line on the
t-v diagram in Figure 4-1. The term compressed comes from the fact that, for a given temperature, the pressure is greater than the saturation pressure for that temperature. Pressure
and temperature are independent properties in the compressed liquid region. The compressed
liquid table is a set of tables, each for a different pressure, in which the entries are made
according to temperature. The interval in pressures between tables is usually quite large
because liquid properties vary less with pressure than do vapor properties. Liquids are often
treated as incompressible.
4.4
Thermodynamic Liquid/Vapor Charts
A chart for R-22 is given in Appendix C. A simplified version of that chart is given in
Figure 4-5. Figure 4.5 is simplified only in the sense that there are a limited number of
constant property lines shown, so that it is easier to explain the chart's complexity. Reference in the next few paragraphs will be to Figure 4-5, but it is the chart in Appendix C that
should be used to obtain values.
The chart in Figure 4-5 is a plot of pressure against enthalpy. In this case, the pressure is
given a log scale. Lines of constant pressure run horizontally across the chart. Lines of
constant enthalpy run vertically up and down the chart. The saturated liquid and saturated
vapor lines outline a fairly characteristic dome shape to the central part of the chart. The
saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines are lines of constant quality (respectively x = 0
and x = 1). Other lines of constant quality can be drawn as shown for x = 0.02 and x = O.S.
Because quality is only defined for equilibrium mixtures of saturated liquid and vapor,
these lines of constant quality do not extend outside the region bounded by the saturated
liquid and vapor lines.
The lines of constant temperature on the chart in Figure 4-5 have three distinct parts. Por
example, the line for Soop falls steeply in the compressed liquid region until it reaches the
saturated liquid line. It then extends horizontally across from the liquid to the vapor line,
following the constant pressure line ofPSOI = 15S.40 psia for tsol = SooP. After reaching the
saturated vapor line, the line for Soop once again falls very steeply. The line for 200 0 P
follows a similar path, but because it is close to the critical temperature of 205.06P, it
seems to barely enter the dome near the critical point. Lines of constant density (inverse of
specific volume) are shown for values of 1.0 Ibm /ft3, 15 Ibm /ft3 and 65 lb m /ft3. Lines of
constant entropy are shown for 0.3 Btullbm R and 0.16 Btullbm .R.
4: 11
Enthalpy (Btu/Ibm)
2000.25
50
25
125
150
u.
1000
100
oensi\.'i :;
0
GO
II
\'oJtt'
1000
400
200
2000
175
'\5
'b
/ft::::..
~r-.;
400
~O'<
~~
~
II)
-9: 100
:i?
II)
Density
:J
='I Ib
0..
.Ift3
100 -;-
....
:J
II)
II)
Q)
II)
II)
e..
40
40
10
10
....
e..
u.
o
o
~
1
-25
__
~L-
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _2 -_ _ _ _~_ _ _ _- L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ J
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
Enthalpy (Btu/Ibm)
Figure 4-5. Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for R-12
There are many alternative charts because it is choice of convenience as to which properties
are selected for the axes of the chart. The charts plotting enthalpy against either pressure or
temperature are useful in vapor-compression refrigeration because the constant enthalpy
and constant pressure processes are easily shown. Previously, when introducing property
diagrams, we found it convenient to describe the temperature-volume (t-v) and pressurevolume (P-v) charts. Another combination that is partiCUlarly convenient when studying
compressors and turbines is the temperature-entropy, or t-s, chart. The Mollier chart, widely
used in steam turbine work, is a plot of enthalpy against entropy (h-s) for water.
Charts are difficult to read on the scale that is drawn in this text. Much larger versions of
these charts are usually used to determine specific property values. A more common use of
property charts is to provide a visual map of a sequence of processes, with a clear indication
of the path and end states. Another purpose is to use the chart to determine which table is
appropriate to use: compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor.
4: 12
The Next Step

In this chapter, the emphasis was on finding the property values for substances in a range
that included the phase change from liquid to vapor. In Chapter 5, we will consider what to
do for ideal gases and for substances that act like ideal gases in the pressure and temperature
range of interest. Air at moderate temperatures and pressures is taken as an example of a
real gas approximated as an ideal gas.
Summary
In Chapter 4, we developed the understanding and skill of finding properties in the saturated
tables for water and R-12. The saturated tables are shown to provide a relationship between
P sat and tsat Values for properties in the mixed liquid and vapor region can be obtained from
the saturated values. The tables included values for pressure, temperature, specific volume,
specific enthalpy and specific entropy. The linear interpolation technique is used to determine values between the table entries. A chart ofR-22 is used as an example to demonstrate
the use of charts. After studying Chapter 4, you should be able to:
Understand the format and content of the different tables and charts;
Find the value of common properties in the tables;
Interpolate to determine values between the entries in the tables; and
Determine the property values of liquid-vapor mixtures.
4: 13

4-01. The saturated temperature of water is 100F. What is the pressure? What are the
liquid and vapor values of specific volume, specific enthalpy and specific entropy?
(Use the table in Appendix B.)
4-02. The saturated temperature of water is 100F and the quality is 50%. What is the
value of specific volume and specific enthalpy? (Use the table in Appendix B.)
4-03. The saturation pressure for R-22 is 50 psia. What is the saturation temperature?
(Use the table in Appendix C)
4-04.
The saturation temperature for water is 231.5F and the quality is 0.2. What is the
pressure and the specific enthalpy? (Use the table in Appendix B.)
4-05. The enthalpy for R-22 is 50 Btu/Ibm and the pressure is 40 psia. Is the refrigerant in
the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the quality?
(U se the chart in Appendix C)
4-06.
The enthalpy for R-22 is 50 Btu/Ibm and the temperature is 100F. Is the refrigerant
in the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the pressure
and the quality? (Use the table in Appendix C)
4-07.
The enthalpy for R-22 is 150 Btu/Ibm and the pressure is 40 psia. Is the refrigerant in
the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the value of the
density? (Use the chart in Appendix C)
5: 1
Chapter 5
Instructions
5.1
5.2
The Ideal Gas Law as an Equation of State
5.3
5.4
Air Tables
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions
summary and memorize important definitions. At the end of the chapter, complete all ofthe

The ideal gas law expresses the relationship between pressure, temperature and specific
volume for an idealized model of a gas. The study objective for Chapter 5 is to understand
how the ideal gas law may be used to determine the state properties of pure substances that
can be reasonably assumed to act as an ideal gas. Air at room temperature and pressure can
often be treated as an ideal gas. There is an introduction to the use of air tables. After
studying Chapter 5, you should be able to:
State the ideal gas law;
Express the limitations to the use of the ideal gas equation;
Describe the use of the ideal gas law in determining state properties;
Describe the coefficients of specific heat as properties; and
Determine the enthalpy for an ideal gas with constant specific heat.
Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables
5:2
5.1
An ideal gas does not exist in reality. The theoretical construction of an ideal gas is one
where the molecules that make up the gas are so far apart from each other that they have no
influence on each other. It is impossible for molecules to have no influence on each other,
but it is possible for a substance oflow enough density to behave approximately as an ideal
gas. In fact, many common substances that we describe as gases (such as oxygen, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide and air) have low enough densities at atmospheric pressures and temperatures to be reasonably described as ideal gases.
This really means they behave as ideal gases to an acceptable limit of error. This does not
imply that they will behave as ideal gases at all pressures and temperatures. To the contrary,
to be reasonably treated as an ideal gas, the state of the substance must be such that the
density is small enough so that individual molecules are far enough apart from each other
and that they seldom run into each other. The density is the inverse of the specific volume.
Therefore, an ideal gas is a substance in which the specific volume is large enough, and the
individual molecules are far enough apart, that the molecules have negligible effect on each
other.
As described earlier, the specific volume varies depending on the state of the substance.
For all pure substances, there are solid, liquid and vapor phases. A substance will not behave as an ideal gas in the solid, liquid or much of the vapor phase areas of the phase
diagram. Only in the vapor phase range at low enough pressures and high enough temperatures will the vapor behave as an ideal gas. The vapor behaves less and less like an ideal gas
the closer the state is to the critical point or the saturated vapor line.
For the theoretical ideal gas, the pressure varies proportionally to the absolute temperature
and inversely proportionally to specific volume, leading to the ideal gas law which states:
p=R(Tlv)
pv=RT
The R in this equation is the constant of proportionality in the relationship and is known as
the gas constant. It is important that the temperature in the equation is in absolute units
(Rankine or Kelvin). To draw a clear distinction of places where the temperature must be in
absolute units, we will use the upper case T. The value of the gas constantR is different for
every gas and may be determined by dividing the universal gas constant, Ru ' by the molar
mass, M, of the substance (often called molecular weight):
Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law andAir Tables
5:3
The units of molar mass are lbmoeI lIb m . The value of the universal gas constant is:
Ru
= 10.73 (psia.fe)/(lb mole .R)

= 1.98 Btu I (lb mo1e R)
= 8.314 kJ I (k mo1e .K)
The values for molar mass and gas constants for some common gases are given in Table
5-1.
The ideal gas law may be expressed in several different forms. For example, the specific
volume may be replaced by the total volume divided by the mass of the system. Another
form is to write the gas equation for a given number, N, oflbmo'es of gas rather than a mass in
lbm . The various forms are summarized below:
pv=RT
pV=mRT
pV = NRuT
Table 5-1. Gas Constants for Certain Substances

;
Gas
Carbon dioxide ,
Hydrogen
,
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Air
,
R-22
Water
Molar Mass
(lb",llb mo1e)
44.0995
2.01594
28.0134
3,1.9988
28.9645
102.92
18.01528
Gas 'Constant
(psiaxft~/(lbmXR) ,
0.2438
5.3224
0.3830
0.3353
0.3704
0.1043
,
0.5956
5:4
5.2
The Ideal Gas Law as an Equation ofState
In the previous chapter, we said that the functional relationships between properties such as
pressure, temperature and specific volume were mathematically complex enough that these
values are tabulated for water and other refrigerants. The tables are cumbersome but necessary. However, in areas where the substance behaves as an ideal gas, the ideal gas equation
provides a more convenient alternative. The simple relationship among pressure, temperature and specific volume in the ideal gas law suggests that given any two properties, we can
calculate the third. The ideal gas law is an example of an equation of state for substances
that obey the ideal gas relationship between pressure, temperature and specific volume.
In HVAC, it is fortunate that air, and the water vapor in air, can be treated as ideal gases for
typical atmospheric conditions. There will be a more careful evaluation of this statement in
the chapters on psychrometrics, but for now, consider some examples applying the ideal
gas equation of state to air. How would you determine the mass of air in a room of dimensions 10 ft x 20 ft x 8 ft, where the pressure is 14.7 psia and the temperature is 75P?
m= pV I RT
= (14.7 psia)(10 x 20 x 8 ft3) I {( 0.3704
(psia. ft3))1 (Ibm R)(75 +460 R)}
= (118.7 Ibm)
What pressure is required if air at 32P is to have a density ofO.15 Ibm/ft3 (density, p, is the
inverse of the specific volume)?
p= RTlv
=pRT
= (0.15 Ibm I ft 3){0.3704(psia. ft3) I (Ibm R)}(32 +460 R)

= 27.3 psia
The relationship between two states of an ideal gas can be seen by equating the gas constant
when the gas is at State 1 to the same gas constant when the gas is at State 2:
p\v\ II;
= P2V 2 IT;
5: 5
This relationship holds as long as the gas can be treated as an ideal gas. It does not depend
on the path by which the substance goes from State 1 to State 2. Consider a constant volume
process for which the initial pressure and temperature are PI = 14.7 psia and tl = 72F. What
is the final pressure if the substance is air, can be treated as an ideal gas and is cooled to
32F?
V2
= VI; PI = 14.7 psia; ~ = (72 +460) = 532 R;
Tz = (36+460) = 496 R
From the ideal gas law:
P2 = (VI / v2)(Tz / ~)(PI)

=(496/532)(14.7)
= 13.71 psia
It is again worth noting that when working with the ideal gas law, it is important to use
absolute temperatures. In the example above, if absolute temperatures were not used, then
the expression would have incorrectly predicted a final pressure of one-half of the initial
pressure.
5.3
The ideal gas equation of state relates pressure, temperature and specific volume, but what
about the other properties that were listed in the water and refrigerant tables given earlier?
How is the enthalpy, or the entropy, determined for an ideal gas. To answer that, we will
introduce another new property, specific heat, and we will make the observation that it is
the change of enthalpy that interests us more than the absolute value of enthalpy.
The term coefficient ofspecific heat is probably known to you from its application in physics. The coefficient of specific heat of unity for liquid water means that it takes one Btu to
heat one lbIII of water by one degree Fahrenheit. For gases, we want to apply a similar idea,
but it takes a more careful definition because there are two coefficients of specific heat.
One is the coefficient of specific heat at constant volume, cv' and the other is the coefficient
of specific heat at constant pressure, cp' Contrary to their names, they are not meant to be
used only in cases of constant volume or constant pressure. Rather, they are defined in
terms oftheir connection to either internal energy, U, or to enthalpy, h.
5:6
For an ideal gas, the coefficient of specific heat at constant volume is:
Change of internal energy = cl' times change in temperature
and, for an ideal gas, the coefficient of specific heat at constant pressure is:
Change of enthalpy = cp times change in temperature
Strictly speaking, the expressions above apply for only constant values of specific heat. It is
possible for the specific heat to vary with temperature and, in those cases, the changes have
to be taken over a small temperature range at a time. The distinction between these two
specific heats will be elaborated on later when we have developed the idea of work in
thermodynamics. For ideal gases, the specific heats do not depend on pressure. Therefore,
there is an important deduction that says:
For ideal gases, the internal energy and enthalpy are functions of temperature only_
F or the case of constant specific heat, it is straightforward to construct a table of internal

energy or enthalpy values as a function of temperature by applying the relationships given
above.
The coefficients of specific heat can be related to each other. Because enthalpy is related to
to internal energy by h = (u + pV), and because the ideal gas law is pv = RT, we can write:
(~-~)=(U2 -UI )+(P2 V 2 -
P1V I )
cAt2 - tl ) = Cv (t2 - t l ) + R(t2 - t l )
Dividing through by the temperature difference gives the relationship between the specific
heats and the gas constant as:
cp =cl' +R
5: 7
Another useful property is the ratio of specific heats, k.
Typical values of the coefficients of specific heat for air treated as an ideal gas at 80F are:
C = 0.240 Btullb .OF and C = 0.171 Btullb .oF, which result in a k value of 1.4.
p
m
v
III
To determine the values of entropy for an ideal gas (comparable to the values found in the
tables for water and refrigerants given earlier), we must have a better understanding of
entropy. We are not going to discuss entropy here, because it first takes the introduction of
the Second Law of Thermodynamics, but below are the expressions that are used to determine entropy changes for an ideal gas in the cases of constant specific heat:
(S2 -SI) = cl' In(~ 17;)+ R In(v2 Iv l )

(S2 -
SI) = cp
In(~ 17;) + R In(p2 I PI)
For ideal gases, enthalpy is a function of temperature only, but entropy depends on both
pressure and temperature.
5.4
Air Tables
The thermodynamic properties for air can be tabulated the same way as they are done for
water and refrigerants. The tabulations take into account the way specific heat changes with
temperature. The values are usually listed as a function of temperature for a given pressure.
An example of a moist air table is given in Appendix D for a pressure of 14.696 psia. The
moist air table includes dry air as one of the cases. The moist air table will be more fully
explained during the discussion of psychrometrics.
5: 8
The Next Step

Now that we have defined a number of useful properties, and learned how to find numbers
for those properties, we are ready to return to the discussion about different forms of energy. In the next chapter, we will introduce the ideas of work and heat in preparation for
describing the First Law of Thermodynamics.
Summary
The ideal gas law expresses the relationship among pressure, temperature and specific volume for an idealized model of a gas. The relationship is given by pv = RT. The use of the
equation is limited to applications where the behavior of the substance can be reasonably
approximated by that of an ideal gas. This is usually in the low pressure/high temperature
range of the superheated vapor region. Vapors do not behave like an ideal gas near the
saturated vapor line, or near the critical point.
The use of the ideal gas law as an equation of state permits the determination of the remaining value of the properties pressure, temperature or specific volume, if any two of these
properties are known. The properties of specific heat at constant volume and specific heat at
constant pressure are introduced as a means for determining internal energy and enthalpy
for an ideal gas. For many applications, air at room conditions may be treated as an ideal gas
with constant coefficients of specific heat. After studying Chapter 5, you should be able to:
State the ideal gas law;
Express the limitations to the use of the ideal gas equation;
Describe the use of the ideal gas law in determining state properties;
Describe the coefficients of specific heat as properties; and
Determine the enthalpy for an ideal gas with constant specific heat.
5: 9

5-01.
Air is often treated as an ideal gas. For the conditions of p = 14.696 psia and t =
72F, find the specific volume for dry air, va' in Appendix D, and compare the value
read in the table to the value calculated using the Ideal Gas Law. Use T= t + 459.67
to convert from of to R. Use the value of gas constant given in Table 5-1. Express
the answer as a percent error by treating the tabulated value as being correct.
5-02.
Water vapor is sometimes treated as an ideal gas. For the condition ofp = 67.0341
psia, find the specific volume for saturated vapor, vg , in Appendix B, and compare
the value read in the table to the value caclulated using the Ideal Gas Law. Use T=
t + 459.67 to convert from of to R. Use the value of gas constant given in Table 5-1.
Express the answer as a percent error by treating the tabulated value as being correct.
5-03.
Repeat Exercise 5-02 except for conditions of saturated vapor at p = 0.3628 psia.
Compare the error found with the error determined in Exercise 5-02 and comment
on the difference.
5-04. A room of dimensions 10ft x 20 ft x 8 ft at atmospheric pressure contains 120 Ibm of

air. Assume an ideal gas and estimate the temperature in the room in of.
5-05. Consider the constant pressure heating of air from 70F to 200F. If the pressure is
14.7 psia, what is the ratio of specific volumes before and after the heating?
5-06. Make a table listing the values of internal energy, enthalpy and entropy for air at
14.696 psia, with temperatures ranging from OF to lOOF in steps of lOoF, using
the coefficients of specific heat suggested for air at 80F in the text. Use reference
values of zero internal energy, zero enthalpy and zero entropy at OF.
5-07. Find the values of enthalpy for dry air in the table in Appendix D, at the same temperature entries used in the table created in Exercise 5-06 and compare calculated
and look-up values. Calculate percent error assuming the tabulated values to be
correct.
Fundamentals ofThermotlynamics and Psychrometries
6: 1
Chapter 6
Heat and Work
Instructions
6.1
Introduction
6.2
Heat
6.3
Work
6.4
Flow Work
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions
summary and memorize important definitions. At the end ofthe chapter, complete all ofthe

There are three ways in which energy can cross a system boundary. It can cross the boundary as heat, as work, or (in the case of an open system) as an item carried by mass flow. The
energy forms of heat and work are the topics of study in this chapter. Heat is an expression
of the flow of thermal energy. Work may appear as moving boundary work, shaft work,
electrical work, gravitational work, acceleration work or flow work. After studying Chapter
6, you should be able to:
Describe the concept of heat as an energy form crossing a system boundary;
Describe the concept of work as an energy form crossing a system boundary;
Describe the different types of mechanical work; and
Understand the termflow work and relate it to enthalpy.
Chapter 6 Heat and Work
6:2
6.1
Introduction
There are three important ways in which energy can be exchanged between a system and its
surroundings that warrant special description in thermodynamics. Energy can cross a system boundary as heat or work, or it can be transported by a flow of mass. Earlier, we introduced the concept of internal energy as a property of a system that could be used to help
determine the state of the system. Heat and work are different. They are forms of energy
that are not properties of the system and, therefore, do not determine the state of the system.
Heat and work can cause the state of a system to be changed (as we shall see later), but they
cannot define the state of the system.
Heat and work are associated with the mechanisms of energy exchange between the system
and its surroundings. They are known as transient forms of energy because they only have
meaning as the action of energy exchange is taking place. Another way of stating the difference is to say that although a system may contain a certain amount of energy at a given state
(internal energy, potential energy or kinetic energy), the system never contains heat or work.
The system gains or loses energy by heat and work as it changes from one state to another.
Besides the exchange of energy by work or heat, energy can also be carried in or out of an
open system when there is mass flow across the system's boundary. Mass flow at the boundary, and its resulting effect on the energy balance of the system, will be discussed when
applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to open systems.
Heat and work are both
forms of energy, but they differ in their driving mechanisms. Heat exchange occurs
because of a difference in
temperature between the system and its surroundings. In
contrast, work has several
manifestations such as
boundary work, shaft work,
electrical work, gravitational
work, acceleration work and
flow work, which generally
occur because of a difference
in forces.
Figure 6.1 shows a closed

system with energy exchange
with the surroundings in the
Surroundings
Work, W
r--------------System
Heat, Q
Figure 6-1. Closed System With
Sign Convention for Heat and Work
6: 3
form of heat, Q, and work, W. Heat and work can cross the boundary in either direction, in
or out, but the sign conventions for the two are different. Heat is positive when it is directed
into the system. Work is positive when it is directed out of the system, or when the system
is said to do work on the surroundings. The sign convention originates with the idea of a
heat engine in which heat is supplied to the system so that it can do work as an output. An
automobile is an example of a heat engine because the energy from burning fuel is converted into shaft work to tum the wheels. Heat and work are the topics of the next two
sections.
6.2
Heat
Consider a hot potato that has just been taken from the oven. With time, the potato will cool
as energy is transferred from it to the surrounding air. The temperature difference between
the potato and the air causes the exchange of energy, and when the temperature between the
potato and the air becomes negligibly small, the exchange of energy will cease. The direction of the energy exchange is always from the higher temperature body to the one at a
lower temperature.
Heat is the name given to the transitory form of energy as it crosses a boundary separating
systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a difference in temperature. For the
potato example, heat is the energy that passes from the potato to the air. This means that
some of the potato's internal energy is converted to heat as it flows across the boundary, and
then is converted back to become part of the air's internal energy.
We do not speak of either the potato or the air as containing heat. In this sense, the use of the
term heat is quite specific in thermodynamics and does not include many everyday references that actually more correctly identify internal energy rather than heat. The expressions
heat content offuel and body heat are examples of situations where it is really the internal
energy that is referred to. Why make such a strong distinction between heat and internal
energy? It is important because internal energy is a property and heat is not. Whereas properties are used to identify states, heat)~~ only help determine the process between states.
Heat has the units of energy and is usually given the symbol Q. Because heat is a transitory
energy form that often occurs as a system goes from one state to another, the states are
added to the symbol designation as JQ2, meaning the heat in going from State 1 to State 2.
The heat symbol Q is never given a single state designation, such as QJ' to emphasize that
heat is not a property associated with any particular state. The direction of flow of energy
across the boundary is important. The sign convention is that a positive value of Q means
flow of energy from the surroundings into the system. A negative value of Q means a flow
of energy out of the system.
Fundamentals ofTilermotiynamics and Psychrometries
6:4
This sign convention originates from the idea of a heat engine where heat is added to the
system to make the system do work, as with an automobile. Sometimes it is inconvenient to
keep up with the positives and negatives, and the alternative is to subscript Q with the labels
in or out to indicate the direction of energy flow, and then remember to place the appropriate sign when doing an energy balance. We shall see many examples of energy balances
when we discuss the First Law of Thermodynamics in the next chapters. The energy flow as
heat into the system is referred to as heat addition, while the energy flow as heat out of the
system is known as heat rejection.
There are two other ways in which the heat term will commonly appear in thermodynamics
equations. There is the heat per unit mass, known as q (Btu/Ibm)' and the heat per unit time,
known as
Q(Btu/h).
Consider again the potato taken from the oven (as shown in Figure 6-2). The potato is
initially at 260F and the surrounding air is at 76F. From our discussions about internal
energy and the coefficient of specific heat for solids in Chapter 5, we can estimate the
energy content of the potato at any time. Assume a reference datum for internal energy as
zero at 32F (arbitrary choice), amass ofm = 0.5 Ibm ,and a coefficient of specific heat of cp
= 1 Btu/Ibm .0F, then the internal energy when the potato is first taken from the oven (State
1), and the internal energy after a long time when the potato has come to equilibrium with
the room air (State 2), are respectively:
U\ =mcAt\ -tref )
= (0.5 lbm)(l Btu /lb m o F)(260 = 114 Btu
32 F)
U 2 =mcAt2 -tref )
= (0.5 lbm)(l Btu /lb mo F)(76 - 32 F)

=22 Btu
The heat crossing the boundary, JQ2 , is:

\Q2
=(U2 -U\)
= -92 Btu
6: 5
,'"
_.... ~
\\
>. \. ..I
Alternative
= 92 Btu
.. Qout
State 1
Process 1- 2
State 2
Figure 6-2. Potato (Closed System) Cooling From 260F to 76F
Note that this is a special form of the First Law of Thermodynamics in which the work is
zero because there is no change in volume of the potato. Descriptions of work appear in the
next section, and the First Law is in Chapter 7. The minus sign means that the heat is being
rejected. The arrow is shown in Figure 6-2 flowing into the potato, but the negative value
means that it really is in the opposite direction. Alternatively, this could be described as 92
Btu rejected from the system, and be expressed as:
IQ2 oul
= 92 Btu
The arrow pointing out of the system with the positive value of 92 Btu is shown as an
alternative (dashed) in Figure 6-2.
A process in which there is no heat is known as an adiabatic process. There are two circumstances under which a process may be adiabatic. The system may be well insulated, resulting in negligible energy flow even if there is a temperature difference, or there may be no
temperature difference between the system and its surroundings. The temperature in an
adiabatic process may, or may not, remain constant, depending on other energy flows taking place, such as work. Therefore, an adiabatic process is not the same as an isothermal
process. In an isothermal process, the temperature of the system does not change while
going from one state to the next, but there mayor may not be heat transferred.
6:6
6.3
Work
Work is the name given to the transitory fonn of energy as it crosses a boundary separating
systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a difference in pressure or force of
any kind. Like heat, work is not a property, and is only defined while the energy interchange
is occurring across the system boundary. Work has units of energy and is assigned the
symbol W. When the work occurs while going from State 1 to State 2, then the work is
specified as 1 W2 The work per unit mass is w Btu/Ibm' The rate of doing work, W Btu/h, is
also known as power, P. Power appears in many different units, and may be given as Btu/h,
ft-Ib/s, horsepower hp, or kW.
There are many different fonns of mechanical work, each in some way connected to a force
being moved over some distance. From physics, work is defined as the product of force and
displacement (in the direction of the force). We will use that basic definition and develop
the expressions for some common fonns of work.
Moving boundary work. Consider a piston-cylinder arrangement as shown in Figure 6-3.

The pressure in the cylinder is p, the piston area is A, and the volume of the air in the
cylinder is V. The piston is weightless and frictionless and it takes a force of F = pA to keep
the piston in place. If the
piston (and therefore the
system boundary) moves a
small distance f:ls, and the
system volume increases by
a small amount from V to
(V + ~V), then the small
amount of work done by the
force F moving through
distance f:ls is:
,-
, __...>1
~W
= Ff:ls
------------~--------
= (pA)f:ls
=p(Af:ls)
=p~V
Pressure p
Volume V
Figure 6-3. Boundary Work by a Piston in a Cylinder
6: 7
The work is given as the product of the pressure and the small change of volume. The small
change in volume is emphasized here because to get this result, we actually assumed that
the pressure remained constant while the volume was changing. Constant pressure represents only a special case of the more general situation where pressure can vary in a variety
of different ways with volume change. A case of air expanding in a cylinder is shown in the
p- V diagram of Figure 6-4, where the air is shown starting at State 1 and expanding to a
lower pressure at State 2. The path between States 1 and 2 is drawn as an arbitrarily shaped
curve. The expression developed above for work as p!1Vapplies for the thin slice shown in
Figure 6-4 and is the area of that slice on the p- V diagram. To find the work done in going
from State 1 to State 2, it would be necessary to add up the areas of many thin slices from
the p- V diagram:
I
= Area under the p - V diagram

=LP!1V
The symbol sigma, ~, is used to indicate the sum of all the small areas p!1V. The boundary
work is the area under the p- V curve. In evaluating moving boundary work of a closed
system, it is very useful to sketch the p- V diagram to obtain a visual picture of the work
done.
The results to the example of a piston in a cylinder can be stated more carefully and generally. Moving boundary work for the quasi-equilibrium and reversible movement of the
boundary of a closed system can be estimated from the area under the p- V diagram. Quasiequilibrium change was described in Chapter 2 as a change that proceeds in such a manner
that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times. A quasiequilibrium process is an idealization of a real process.
Reversibilty is a concept yet to be introduced and will be an important part of a later chapter. A process is said to be reversible ifboth the system and its surroundings can be restored
to their original condition. Effects such as friction, non-quasi-equlibrium or heat transfer
through a finite temperature difference render a process irreversible. Therefore, reversibility
is also an idealization of a real process because no process can actually meet all of the
requirements.
The sign convention for work is that it has a positive value when work is done by the system
on the surroundings. That is the case for the expansion shown in Figure 6-4. If the piston
moved in the opposite direction so as to decrease the volume (as in compression), then work
would be done on the system, and the sign would be negative. This is the opposite sign
convention to that applied to heat.
6: 8
Pressure
I
I
I
I
I
I ____ _
- __ 1I
I
- - - ~ - - - - -~ - - - - - - - -=--....-....-......-.~
V2
AV=AAS
Volume
AS
~
l+-
I
I
l}
I
I
I
I
Figure 6-4. Boundary Work as the Area Under the p-V Curve
There are many different paths by which the pressure can change as a system goes from
State 1 to State 2. The work done by the moving boundary (area under the p- V curve) for a
closed system is given for a list of specific processes below and shown in the p-V diagrams
in Figure 6-5:
Constant pressure process,p] = P2 ' any substance:
IT; = PI(V2 - v;) = P2(V2 - v;)

Constant volume process, ~
V2 ' any substance:
IT; = zero
Fundamentals ofThermotiynamics and Psychrometries
6: 9
Isothermal process, T] = T2 ' ideal gas only P V = constant:

1
= Pl~ In(V2 I~) = P2 V2 In(~ I~)
Isentropic process, s]
I
~ = (P2 ~ -
= S2
PI
,P V" = constant, ideal gas only, P V = mRT:
~) 1(1- k) = mR( 1; -
Polytropic process, P vn = constant, n

1
7;) 1(1 - k)
* 1, ideal gas only, P V = mRT:
~ = (P2~ - pl~)1 (1- n) = mR(1; - 7;)1 (1- n)
Pressure
Pressure
Constant Pressure
Constant Pressure
CD
Volume
Pressure
Volume
Pressure
CD
Isothermal,
Ideal Gas
Isentropic,
Ideal Gas
pV = constant
V2
Volume
V2
Volume
Figure 6-5. Work as Area Under the p-V Curve

for Closed Systems and Different Processes
6: 10
This may seem a formidable list, but you do not need to memorize all these expressions.
They are given to emphasize that the work is a path-dependent function and that the moving
boundary work may be calculated when needed. The above expressions apply to closed
systems. The derivations of the above expressions are not shown, but it can be seen that
they depend on the type of process and the substance. In the case of an isentropic process
with ideal gas, it can be shown that the process is given as p V" = constant, where k is the
ratio of specific heats. Often, it is experimentally seen that the compression or expansion
follows a process that is not quite isentropic, but where the process can be described with an
expression p V" = constant. This is called a polytropic process, and n is the polytropic exponent.
Example 6-1. A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 10 Ibm of saturated

liquid water at 212F. The fixed weight piston is not attached to a shaft. Heat is
added to the water until it is all saturated vapor. Calculate the work done by the
system.
Solution. The piston-cylinder and p-V diagram are shown in Figure 6-6. Because
of the fixed weight piston with no shaft, the pressure remains constant. The
pressure may be found for saturated water at 212F from the saturated water
tables in Appendix B-1 as 14.7096 psia. From the same table, the specific volume of saturated water is vj = v J = 0.01671 ft3/lb m and the specific volume for
saturated vapor is Vg = v2 = 26.780 ft 3/lb m The volume is the mass times the
specific volume. The rectangular area under the curve gives the work as:
I~
Pl m(v2 -VI)
= (14.7096 psia)(10 lb m )[ (26.780- 0.01671) ft3 /lb m ][ (1 Btu) I (5.404 psia ft3)]
= 728.3 Btu
The work is positive because the system does work on the surroundings.
6: 11
Pressure
p=
r- - - ---- --
14.7096 pSia
Saturated
/VaporLine
,-f,-fl-Vapor
ttttt
Liquid
Vg
Vt
ft3
=0.0167116
ft3
=26. 780 16
Specific
Volume V
Figure 6-6. p-v Diagram for Constant Pressure Process
ft3
Example 6-2. A piston-cylinder device initially contains 1.0 of air at 20 psia

in such a way that the temperature
and 76P. The air is compressed to 0.1
remains constant. Calculate the work done by the system.
ft3
Solution. The piston-cylinder andp-v diagram are shown in Figure 6-7. Assume
that air can be treated as an ideal gas, then the relationship PV = mRT = constant
applies. The area under the curve gives the work as:
IUS = PIV;
In(~ IV;)
= (20 psia)( 1.0 ft3) In( 0.1 11.0)[(1 Btu) I (5.404 psia ft3)]
= -8.52 Btu
The negative sign indicates that, for compression, work is done on the system.
6: 12
P2 = 200 psi a
P1
= 20 psia
--- -
IJ
Figure 6-7. p-VDiagram for Constant Temperature Process of Ideal Gas
In the situation given in Example 6-2, it is also possible to calculate the pressure at the end
of the process and the mass in the system. Because it is an ideal gas at constant temperature:
P2 = PI (V; IV;)
= (20 psia)[ (1.0 fe I (0.1 fe))]
= 200 psia
m = (pIV;)(R~)
= (20 psia)(1.0 fe)1 {[0.3704 (psia.fe)/(lb m. R)][(76 + 460)R]}

= 0.101 Ibm
6: 13
The moving boundary work for a closed system process is represented by the area under the
process curve on the pressure-volume diagram. The sign of the work depends on whether
the volume increases or decreases. A cycle is formed by a sequence of processes such that
the final state of the final process is the same as the initial state of the initial process. This
means that the moving boundary work of the cycle is the net area enclosed within the process curves on the p-V diagram, as shown in Figure 6-8.
Shaft work. Shaft work usually refers to the energy transmission by a rotating shaft. If the
torque on the shaft is T, and the shaft rotates through an angle q, then the shaft work is:
W=Te
s
The angle of rotation is often re-expressed in terms of the number of revolutions as 8 = 2 nN

and the work is then:
Ws = 2nNT
Pressure p
:1
1
1
1
---t-----1
1
1
---r~------------------
1
1
I
leD
I
I
"---.......1--------------.....,1--... Volume V
Figure 6-8. Boundary Work for a Cycle as the Net Area Under the p-V Curve
6: 14
The rate of doing work is:
Ws = (27tnT) / 60 ft lbf
= (27tnT) / 12.97 Btu / h

=(27tnT) /33,000 hp
=(27tnT) / 44,248 kW
where n is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute and T is the torque in ft.lbr
Often the shaft work is not given in terms of the torque and speed, but is specified either as
a desired output of an engine or the needed power input to run a compressor or chiller.
Electrical work. Electrical work appears in two forms in thermodynamics. The first form
results from the electrons flowing through a resistance element and doing work at a rate of:
We = VI = 12 R =V2 / R
The electrical current is I, the voltage across the element is V, and the resistance of the
element is R. If I is in amps, V is in volts and R is in ohms, then the units of W are watts.
The other common way of encountering electrical work is through an electrical motor,
generator or alternator. The conversion between electrical work and mechanical work is
done internally to the device and the result often shows up as shaft work.
6.4
Flow Work
F or open systems, there is also the possibility of mass flow across the boundary. That flow
carries a certain amount of internal energy with it as it crosses the boundary, but in addition,
the mass flow has to do work at the boundary to either enter or leave the system. A flow
stream entering a system has to push its way into the system. This is known as the flow
work.
The rate of flow work W can be expressed very much as boundary work because it amounts
to the boundary being pushed by a force F= pA at a velocity V The pressure,p, is constant
at the location where the flow enters the system. The flow work is usually expressed as
specific work (work per unit mass flow) so that the work can be identified with the flow
6: 15
stream entering or leaving the system. If the mass flow rate across the boundary is ~
VA/v, then the specific flow work is:
Wflow
WI m
(pA)(V)I (VA I v)
=pv
The flow work is pv. However, in most cases, the flow work is not identified in a category
by itself. It is usually taken care of by considering the enthalpy, instead of the internal
energy, that is carried into, or out of, the system by the mass flow. The enthalpy of the
system is defined as:
= u+ pv
The enthalpy is the sum of the internal energy and the flow work. The units of internal
3
energy and enthalpy are usually given as Btu/Ibm. When p is in psia and v is in ft /lb m, it is
necessary to apply the conversion factor 1 Btu = 5.404 psiaft3/lb mto the pv term. We will
see another derivation of the flow work and the enthalpy when we consider the First Law of
Thermodynamics for open systems in Chapter 8.
6: 16
The Next Step

Now the pieces are in place to discuss the First Law of Thermodynamics. In the next chapter, we will analyze the First Law as applied to closed systems.
Summary
Heat and work are transitory forms of energy that exist when energy is crossing a system
boundary. Heat is the name given to the transitory form of energy as it crosses a boundary
separating systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a difference in temperature. Work is the name given to the transitory form of energy as it crosses a boundary
separating systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a difference in pressure or
force of any kind. Heat and work have many similarities:
Heat and work are not properties; they are associated with a process and not a
state.
Heat and work are recognized only at the boundaries of the system as they cross
that boundary.
Systems contain energy, but they do not contain heat or work.
Heat and work are path functions because their values depend on the process
path as well as the end-states.
Heat and work have direction. The sign convention for heat is that energy addition is positive and the sign convention for work is that work done by the system
is positive.
Boundary, gravitational and acceleration work may be expressed as:
Boundary work for a closed system, ] W2 = Area under the P-V diagram
Constant pressure process,p] = P2' any substance:
Constant volume process, V] = V2 ' any substance:
lU;; = zero
Isothermal process, T] = T2 ' ideal gas only P V = constant:
1U;; = PI V; In(~ / V;) = P2 ~ In(~ / V;)
6: 17
Isentropic process, s 1 =
I
S2
,p JIk = constant, ideal gas only, P V = mRT:
W; = (P2 V2 - PI ~) / (1 - k) = mR(1; - I;) / (1- k)
Polytropic process, P vn = constant, nil, ideal gas only, P V = mRT:
Also important are shaft work and electrical work. For open systems where there is mass
flow into or out of the system, there is work associated with the flow called flow work.
Flow work is the product of the pressure and the specific volume and is accounted for in
open systems by adding the flow work to the internal energy that is carried across the boundary
by the flow. The combination of the internal energy and the flow work is the enthalpy:
h = u+ pv

Describe the concept of heat as an energy form crossing a system boundary;
Describe the concept of work as an energy form crossing a system boundary;
Describe the different types of mechanical work; and
Understand the termflow work and relate it to enthalpy.
6: 18

6-01.
Provide a description of heat, and describe how it is different from internal energy.
6-02. A 0.35 Ibm potato at 70F is placed in an oven at 350F. After 45 minutes, the potato
temperature is 350F. Assume the coefficient of specific heat for the potato is cp =
1.0 Btu/lbmoF. If the reference datum for internal energy is U = 0 at t = OaF, then
estimate the internal energy content of the potato at the beginning and end ofthe 45
minutes. What has been the heat during the 45 minutes and is it positive or negative?
What was the average rate of heat transfer?
6-03.
Provide a description of work in general, and then give short (one- or two-sentence)
descriptions of boundary work and shaft work.
6-04. Provide a description of flow work, and say how it is included in enthalpy.
6-05.
A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 2 Ibm ofwater at 212F and quality x =

0.4. The fixed weight piston is not attached to a shaft. Heat is added to the water
until it is all saturated vapor. Calculate the work done by the system.
6-06.
A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.2 ft3 of air at 80 psia and 76F. The air
is expanded to 0.9 ft3 in such a way that the temperature remains constant. Calculate
the work done by the system, the final pressure and the mass of air.
6-07. In the isentropic compression of air in a cylinder, the volume is reduced from 1.5 ft3
to 0.5 ft3. The ratio of specific heats for air is k = 1.4. The initial pressure is 14.7 psia
and the initial temperature is 45F. Assume the air acts as an ideal gas. Estimate the
final pressure, the final temperature and the work done.
7: 1
Chapter 7
Instructions
7.1
7.2
7.3
Conservation of Energy
7.4
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions

The objective of Chapter 7 is to develop an understanding of the First Law of Thermodynamics as applied to closed systems. So far, we have developed the ideas and definitions of
properties, states, change of states and cycles, and introduced the concepts of heat and
work. It is now time to consider the relationship between work, heat and change of energy
as we change from one state to another. The relationship is expressed as the principle of
energy conservation (or the First Law of Thermodynamics).
Initially, the First Law is applied to a closed system (a system for which no mass crosses the
system boundary) because the resulting equations are simpler than for an open system.
Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems
7:2
However, the principle to be applied is the same for closed and open systems. After studying Chapter 7, you should be able to:
Understand the First Law as an expression of the conservation of energy principle;
Write the First Law in equation form by applying an energy balance to a closed
system; and
Apply the First Law to simple cases of closed systems.
7: 3
7.1
In an earlier chapter, it was stated that the first step in finding a solution to a thermodynamics problem is to identify the system to be analyzed. A closed system is one in which a
quantity of matter is identified for study. A closed system definition is often called the
control mass approach. A quantity of matter means that the mass to be studied will remain
the same mass throughout the analysis. The matter in the system may change form, phase or
location in space, but the system is identified as that matter that originally was targeted for
study.
There is an imaginary boundary drawn to contain the matter. The location of the matter and,
therefore the shape of the boundary, may change with time, but to remain a closed system,
no mass enters or leaves the system through the boundary. Everything outside the boundary
is known as the surroundings. Although there is no mass exchange across the boundary in
closed systems, there may still be work and heat crossing the boundary as the system interacts with its surroundings.
An example of closed system is shown in Figure 7-1. The object chosen for demonstration
is a piston-and-cylinder combination with air in the cylinder. The air is trapped in the cylinder and there is no way for the air to escape, or for new air to come into the cylinder. The
system is chosen to be the matter (mass of air) that is trapped in the cylinder. The system
boundary is shown by the dotted line. The surroundings are then the piston, the cylinder
Piston
r----------------'
Weight
Piston
Closed
System
r----------------j
I
I
I
I
Closed
System
I
I
I
I
~-----------------
After Adding Weight
Figure 7-1. Closed System
7:4
wall, the cylinder head and everything else outside the dotted line. As weights are added to
the piston and the piston moves to reduce the volume in the cylinder, the system (air in the
cylinder) is compressed and changes shape, but still maintains the same air that was originally targeted as the system.
A closed system analysis is one in which the mass does not change. The analysis is known
as the controlled mass approach, and it is characterized by the absence of mass entering or
leaving the system, and no change of mass inside the system.
7.2
F or a closed system undergoing a small change of state, the increase of total energy of the
system is equal to the difference between the heat added to the system and the amount of
work done by the system on the surroundings:
11=oQ-oW
Here 11 is the increase in total energy of the system due to heat transfer into the system oQ
and work going out of the system 0 W. The 11 indicates a small change inside the system
while the 0 indicates a small flow across the system boundary. 11 and 0 are both said as
delta. A negative change in energy would indicate a decrease of energy while negative flow
of heat or work would mean they were in the opposite direction to the above conventions.
7.3
Conservation ofEnergy
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
it can only change form. In terms of the universe, this may be difficult to see, but if the
universe is divided into two parts (a closed system and its surroundings), then it is possible
to consider the implications of the First Law by examining the energy associated with the
system and the exchange of energy between the system and its surroundings. Because the
system is a well defined mass, m, we can talk about the total energy of the system E as being
made up of the sum of the microscopic energy (internal energy U) and the macroscopic
energy (potential energy PE and kinetic energy KE):
E=U+PE+KE
=m(u+ pe+ke)
Fundamentals ofTI,ermodynamics and Psychrometries
7: 5
There are two ways that energy can cross the system boundary when there is no mass exchange between the system and its surroundings. Energy can cross the boundary as heat (Q,
positive when entering system) and work (W, positive when done by the system on the
surroundings). If energy can neither be created nor destroyed, then an energy account for
system states that:
Net energy transfer to (or from) the system as heat or work =
Net increase (or decrease) in the total energy of the system
or
where
I
Q2
= net heat transfer across the system boundary in going from State 1 to State 2
= L 1Q2 in
Q2 out
~ = net heat transfer across the system boundary in going from State 1 to State 2
!:!ill = net change in total energy of system between states 1 and 2
= E2 -E)
=!::,U+ME+11KE
=m(u2 -ul )+mg(Z2 -z))+m(V;2 -Vn12

and L = the sum of all components
Therefore the First Law of Thermodynamics (or conservation of energy) for a closed system undergoing a process from State 1 to State 2 may be stated as:
For negligible change in the kinetic and potential energy terms, the equation is:
7:6
7.4
To develop an understanding of how the First Law of Thermodynamics may be applied to

closed systems, we will consider a series of simplified applications in which it will be
assumed that the changes in potential and kinetic energy are negligible. These applications
are based on two configurations: a rigid tank in which the volume remains unchanged during the process; and a piston-cylinder configuration in which the volume may change as the
piston moves. For each configuration, there will be examples of the working fluid being an
ideal gas (such as air) or a liquid-vapor combination (such as steam or a refrigerant). The
applications will include actual numbers so that the values of properties can be calculated,
or read from tables and charts as appropriate, but the solution technique will emphasize the
basic solution in symbols before substituting in for the numbers. For each application, there
will be a sketch of the configuration and a property diagram (usually p-v) to show the
process.
Application 1. A rigid tank with a volume of 3 ft3 is initially filled with air at 352.07 psia
and 140F. The air is cooled to 20F. Treat the air as an ideal gas. Apply the Ideal Gas Law
to determine the mass of air in the tank. Apply the continuity equation to determine the final
pressure in the tank. Assuming the air in the tank constitutes a closed system, apply the First
Law of Thermodynamics to determine the heat transferred during the process.
Solution. The air in the tank is taken as the system. The process is assumed to start when the
tank is already full of air at p = 352.07 psi a and t1 = 140F (State 1). The process ends when
the air in the tank is cooled to t2 = 20F,P2 =? Because no mass enters or leaves the tank
during the process, this is a closed system. Because it is a rigid tank, the volume remains
constant. The configuration is shown in Figure 7-2 along with the p-v diagram showing the
constant volume process from State 1 to State 2.
The mass in the tank may be calculated by applying the Ideal Gas Law to the air at State 1:
m= Pl~ / RT;
ForP1 = 352.07 psia; V1= 3 ft3; R = 0.3704 (psiaft3)/(lbmR) (see Table 5-1); and T1 = (140
+ 460)R, the mass is:
m = (352.07 psia)(3 fe) / ([ 0.3704(psia. ft3) / (Ibm' R)]( 600 R)}
=4.75 Ibm
The mass of a closed system remains unchanged. The Ideal Gas Law is applied to State 2 to
determine the unknown pressure:
P2
= mRT; /~
7: 7
For m = 4.75 Ibm; V2 = VI = 3 ft3 (rigid tank); and T2 = (20 + 460)R, the pressure is:
pz = (4.75 lb n,)[ 0.3704(psia. ft3) / (Ibm' R)](480 R) / (3 ft3)

= 281.7 psia
The calculation to find the final pressure could also have been done without finding the
mass. Consider equating the mass from the Ideal Gas Law applied at States 1 and 2, equating volumes, and canceling the gas constant to get:
P2
= (1; / I;)PI
= (480/600)(352.07)
= 281.7 psia
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the process from State 1 to State 2 is:
CQ2 - I Tfi)=m(u2 -u1)

There is no change of either potential energy (Z2 - zJ = 0) or kinetic energy (velocity V =0) in
this application, and the equation may be solved for the heat transferred as:
I
Q2 =1
Tfi + m(u2 -
U1)
r----------,
I
I
I
I
I
I
AIR
I
I
I
I
V=3ft'l
I
I
I
t
Pressure
CD]
PI
= 140F
= 352.07 psia
I
I
I
-----------..1
Specific Volume, v
Figure 7-2. Rigid Tank and p-v Diagram for Application 1
7:8
There is no shaft work. The boundary work is also zero because there is no change in
volume. Recall that the boundary work could be expressed as the area under the curve on
the p-V diagram. Because the curve is a vertical straight line, as shown in Figure 7-2, there
is no area under the curve and the boundary work is zero:
U;; = (constant volume process)
Q2
= m(U2 - ul )
The change of specific internal energy for an ideal gas can be expressed as the product of
the specific heat at constant volume and the change in temperature, so that:
IQ2
= mc.(t2 -tl)
Form =4.75Ibm ; cv =0.171 Btu/lbm .oF;t2 =20F;andtl =140F,theheattransferis:
IQ2 =(4.75Ib m)(O.l71 Btu/Ib moF)(20-140)o

= -97.5 Btu
The negative sign indicates that the direction of heat flow was out of the system, which
agrees with our sense that cooling the air means to remove heat.
Application 2. A rigid tank with a volume of 3 ft3 is initially filled with R-22 in a saturated
vapor state at 140F. The refrigerant is cooled to 20F. Use the refrigerant tables (in Appendix C-J) to determine the mass of refrigerant in the tank. Determine the final pressure.
Assuming the refrigerant in the tank to constitute a closed system, apply the First Law of
Thermodynamics and determine the heat transferred during the process.
Solution. The refrigerant in the tank is taken as the system. The process is assumed to start
when the tank is already full atpI = 352.07 psia and tl = 140F (State 1). The process ends
when the refrigerant in the tank is cooled to t2 = 20F, P2 = ? Because no mass enters or
leaves the tank during the process, this is a closed system. Because it is a rigid tank, the
volume remains constant. The configuration is shown in Figure 7-3 along with the p-v
diagram showing the constant volume process from State 1 to State 2.
From the refrigerant table in Appendix C-J, the properties of saturated R-22 at 140F are:
PI = 352.07 psia, VI = Vg = 0.1434 ft3/lb m ,and enthalpy hI = hg = 112.784 Btu/Ibm' The mass
IS:
m = V;
IVI
=(3 ft3)/(O.l434 ft3 /Ibm)

= 20.9 Ibm
7: 9
r----------
I
I
: REFRIGERANT
I
R-12
I
I
I
I
I
PI
= 140F
= 352.07 psia
Pressure
p
V=3ft3
Specific Volume, v
Figure 7-3. Rigid Tank and p-v Diagram for Application 2
From Figure 7-3, it can be seen that State 2 is a saturated mixture of liquid and vapor. At
20F, the properties as read from Appendix C-J are:
P2
=Pg = 57.083 psia; vg2 = 0.9343 ft3/lb m ; density ofliquid p = 81.411bm/ft3 (note
that density is the inverse of the specific volume and vfl = 0.0122 ft3/Ib m ); enthalpy of saturated vapor hg2 = 106.434 Btu/Ibm; and enthalpy of saturated liquid
hfl = 16.090 Btu/Ibm
The quality ofthe mixture (ratio of mass vapor to total mass) can be found by recognizing
that for the constant volume process v2 = VI = vfl +X/Vg2 - vfl ). Therefore, the quality is:
x2
=(V2
-v j2 )/(vg2 -v j2 )
= (0.1434 = 0.1423
0.0122) I (0.9343 - 0.0122)
With this quality, the specific enthalpy at State 2 is:
=hj2 +x2 (hg2 -hj2)

= 16.090 + 0.1423(106.434 -16.090)
= 28.946 Btu I Ibm
7: 10
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the process from State 1 to State 2 is:
CQ2 -, n;) = m(u2 -u,)

The changes in kinetic and potential energy are zero. There is no boundary work because it
is a constant volume process. The heat transfer is:
,Q2
= m(u2 -u,)
The tabulated values for internal energy are not given in Appendix C-l, but they can be
calculated from the enthalpy by remembering the relationships:
u,
= ~ - p,v,
= 112.784 -(352.07 Ib j I in.2 )(144 in? Ife)( 0.1434 fe /lb m)(Btul 778 ft lb j
= 103.4 Btu I Ibm
u2
= ~ - P2 V 2
2
=28.946-(57.803Ib j lin?)(144 in.2 /ft )(0.1434 ft3 Ilb m )(Btu/778 ft.lb j
= 27.4 Btullb m
The heat transfer is:
,Q2
= m(u2 -u,)
= 20.9 Ib m(27.4-103.4) Btullb m
= 1,588.4 Btu
As in the previous application, the negative sign is an indication of the heat removed from
the system. The large amount of heat transfer is an indication of the heat released during
change of phase from vapor to liquid (condensation).
Application 3. A piston-cylinder device contains 10 Ibm of air which is maintained at a

constant pressure of 150 psia by a floating piston of constant weight. as shown in Figure
7-4. A resistance heater within the cylinder is turned on for five minutes and supplies heat at
a rate of 1.5 kW. During those five minutes, a heat loss of 200 Btu occurs through heat
transfer to the surroundings. If the initial temperature is 20F, determine the temperature
after the five minutes.
7: 11
Solution. The air and the resistance wire are selected as the system. Even though the piston
can move, and the volume can change, there is no mass entering or leaving the closed
system.
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the process from the initial State 1 to final
State 2 is:
The changes in kinetic and potential energy are assumed to be negligibly small. Foran ideal
gas, the change in internal energy is expressed as (u 2 - u}) = cv (t2 - t}). There are two forms
of work in this problem. The boundary work for the constant pressure process is mp(v2 - v).
This may also be seen from the area under the curve on the p-v diagram shown in Figure
7-4. Because the air is treated as an ideal gas, the term pv may be replaced by Rt, so that the
boundary work is mR(t2 - t}). The electrical work is negative because it is work done on the
system and has a magnitude of the power (1.5 kW) times the time it is on (5 minutes);
}W2electrical = - (1.5 kW)(3412 BtuI(hrkW)(5 minutes)(hr/60 minutes) = 426.5 Btu. The heat
transfer ]Q2 is negative 200 Btu because it is a heat loss from the system.
The First Law equation now reads:
(IQ2 -I W;) = m(u2 -ul )
[-200-(-426.5)-mR(t2 -tl )]=mc (t 2 -tl )

V
Constant Pressure
Process
-----------1
:
I
I
I
AIR
P = 150 psi a
I
I
Pressure
CD
...
I----~I
I
I
: Electrically ~ :
I Heated
- - - - - ______ 1
Specific Volume, v
Figure 7-4. Piston-Cylinder Arrangement andp-v Diagram for Application 3
7: 12
Solving for t2 :
t2
= t, + (226.5) 1meR + c v )
Since cp = (R + c) = 0.240 Btu/(lbmoF), the final temperature is:
t2
= 20+(226.5)1 [10(0.24)]
= 114.4F
It may be noted here that the First Law was used to find one of the properties rather than the
heat transfer as in the previous two examples. It all depends on which information and
which is to be determined that dictates what is to be solved for in the First Law equation.
What is important is that it takes knowledge of the First Law along with knowledge of the
equation of state (as given by Ideal Gas Law, or as a set of values in a table or chart) and
knowledge of the type of process (constant volume, constant pressure, etc.) to solve the
problem.
Application 4. Air is compressed polytropicaUy in a piston-cylinder device, pv" = constant,
where n = 1.2. The initial temperature and pressure are 20F and 15 psia. The volume ratio
between the beginning and end of the stroke (compression ratio) is 10. Determine the work
and heat transfer per unit mass during the compression stroke.
Solution. The air is selected as the system. Even though the piston can move and the volume
can change, there is no mass entering or leaving the closed system. The piston-cylinder
arrangement is shown with the p-v diagram in Figure 7-5.
Polytropic Process
-----------1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
AIR
I
I
I
I
I
I
!....---- ______ I
Pressure
P,= 15 psia
1,
= 20F
<D
Specific Volume, v
Figure 7-5. Piston-Cylinder Arrangement and p-v Diagram for Application 4
7: 13
It was stated in a previous chapter that for a polytropic process pV' = constant. Therefore:
= PI (VI /vJn
= 15(10)1.2
= 237.7 psia
P2
For an ideal gas, the temperature ratio can be expressed in terms ofthe volume and pressure
ratios as:
I; = 7; (v, / vI)(Ps / PI)
= (20+460)(0.10)(237.7115)
=
760.7 R
= 300.7F
The work of a polytropic process was given in a previous chapter as:

Polytropic process, P Jill = constant, n:f:. 1, ideal gas only, P V = mRT
IW2
(P2 V2 - PI VI)/(l-n)= R(I; -7;)/(l-n)
[0.411 Btu/ (lbmoF) ](300.7 - 20)oF / (1-1.2)
= -576.8 Btu / Ibm

The negative sign means that work has to be done on the air during compression.
From the First Law of Thermodynamics:
CQ2 -1 n;)=m(u2 -UI )

For negligible change in kinetic or potential energy of an ideal gas, this equation becomes:
Iq2
=1
W2+C,,(t2 -t I)
= -576.8 + [0.171 Btu/ (lb moF)](300.7 = -528.8 Btu / Ibm
20) F
The negative sign means that heat is rejected from the air to the surroundings during compression.
7: 14
The Next Step

This chapter introduced the First Law of Thermodynamics as applied to closed systems. For
closed systems, there is no mass flow across the system boundary and, therefore, no need to
keep track of where the mass is going and what energy it carries with it as it crosses a
system boundary. In the next chapter, we will introduce the idea of a control volume approach for the First Law applied to open systems so as to account for mass flow. It will
include a statement of the mass and energy conservation principles, and will show how the
enthalpy is a convenient property to include both internal energy and flow work. Because
many thermodynamic problems are taken as steady state, the rate form of the First Law
equation will be introduced in the next chapter.
Summary
The First Law of Thermodynamics has been introduced as an energy conservation principle. The equation describing the First Law for closed systems is given as:
CQ2
-I
Tfi) = m(u2 -u1)+ mg(z2 -ZI)+ m(V;2 - V/)/2
[Heat Transfer In] - [Work Out] = [Increase of Energy of the System]

where,
1
Q2 = net heat transfer across the system boundary in going from State 1 to State 2
=L
1
IQ2in
-I
IQ20ut
Tfi = net heat transfer across the system boundary in going from State 1 to State 2
/)ill
= net change in total energy of system between States 1 and 2

=E2 -EI
=/).U+ME+M(E
=m(u2-ul)+mg(z2 -zl)+m(V; -Vn12

and L = the sum of all components
7: 15
From the sample applications, it can be seen that the First Law may be solved for heat
transfer, work or one of the state properties, but that it is always used in conjunction with
knowledge about the equation of state for the working fluid, and knowledge of the type of
process from State 1 to State 2.
Understand the First Law as an expression of the conservation of energy principle .
Be able to write the First Law in equation form by applying an energy balance to
a closed system.
Apply the First Law to simple cases of closed systems.
7: 16

7-01.
Give a one-page description of the heat, work and energy change terms in the First
Law equation for a closed system and describe how they relate to each other (a word
description of the conservation of energy principle).
7-02.
A rigid tank with a volume of3 ft3 is initially filled with air at 15 psi a and 20F. The
air is heated to 200F. Treat the air as an ideal gas. Apply the Ideal Gas Law to
determine the mass of air in the tank. Apply the continuity equation to determine the
final pressure in the tank. Assuming the air in the tank to constitute a closed system,
apply the First Law to determine the heat transferred during the process.
7-03. A rigid tank with a volume of 1.5 ft3 is initially filled with R-22 in a saturated vapor
state at 140F. The refrigerant is cooled until the pressure is 57.083 psia. Sketch the
process on a p-v diagram. Use the refrigerant tables (in Appendix C-l) to determine
the mass of refrigerant in the tank. Determine the final temperature. Assuming the
refrigerant in the tank to constitute a closed system, apply the First Law and determine the heat transferred during the process.
7-04.
A piston-cylinder device contains 10 Ibm of air which is maintained at a constant

pressure of 150 psia by a floating piston of constant weight. How much heat must be
added to raise the temperature from 20F to 300F?
7-05. A piston-cylinder contains 1 Ibm of saturated liquid R-22 at 20F. The refrigerant is
maintained at constant pressure by a floating piston. Determine the work and heat if
the refrigerant is heated until the quality is 50%. Sketch the process on a p-v diagram.
7-06. Describe experiments in which the First Law may be used to determine the specific
heats of an ideal gas of unknown properties placed in a rigid tank, and in a cylinder
in which the pressure is kept constant with a floating, frictionless piston.
8: 1
Chapter 8
Instructions
8.1
8.2
.8.3
Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Energy and the First Law for Open Systems
8.4
8.5
First Law Applied in Examples of Steady-Flow Processes
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions

The objective of Chapter 8 is to understand the First Law of Thermodynamics as applied to
open systems. To develop that understanding, it will be necessary to first introduce the
ideas of a control volume approach and the way to write the equation for the conservation of
mass.
Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems
8:2
The concept of flow work and enthalpy will be used in the First Law equation, especially
for steady flow problems. After studying Chapter 8, you will be able to:
Apply the conservation of mass principle to an open system;
Understand the First Law as an expression of the conservation of energy principle;
Write the First Law in equation form by applying an energy balance to an open
system; and
Use the principles of conservation of mass and energy to solve steady flow problems of open systems.
8: 3
8.1
In the last chapter on closed systems, the system boundary was defined as that boundary
that separated the designated mass from its surroundings. For an open system (where mass
can flow across the system boundary), it is convenient to define the boundary in terms of a
surface that separates a control volume from its surroundings. The control volume may vary
in time and space. Mass can enter or leave the control volume. An open system is defined as
the mass contained in a control volume at any instant in time. From one instant to another,
the mass of the open system may change. The boundary between the control volume and the
surroundings is known as the control surface.
The selection of an appropriate control volume depends on the problem to be solved. Ifit is
of interest to determine the conditions in a ventilated room, then it would be appropriate to
choose the room's interior as the control volume and examine the flow of air into and out of
the room, heat conducted through the walls, and heat and moisture generated inside the
room. If it is desired to determine the overall performance of an engine, it may be useful to
select a control volume that has air and fuel entering the control volume and exhaust gas
leaving the control volume. Alternatively, ifthe interest is the thermodynamic performance
of one of the engine cylinders, then it would be appropriate to select a control volume as the
inside of that cylinder.
The control surface that defines the control volume can either be a real physical boundary
(such as the cylinder wall) or an imaginary surface (such as a plane across the intake port to
the cylinder). The choices of control volume are infinite, but as we shall see, some choices
are more useful than others. The control volume approach of defining an open system will
prove convenient for applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to open systems.
8.2
Conservation ofMass
Mass is a conserved property. For a closed system, the conservation of mass is automatically satisfied because the system is defined in terms of a set mass. However, for an open
system, it is necessary to assert the conservation of mass principle by keeping track of
changes in mass.
Consider an arbitrarily selected control volume, defined by a control surface separating the
volume from its surroundings. The mass inside the control volume at any instant of time is
m ev ' Consider a change of mass inside the control volume (~mev) over a period of time. If
the amount of mass entering the control volume during that same time period is min and the
8:4
mass leaving is mout ' then the principle of conservation of mass applied to the system is:
(mass entering CV)
- (mass leaving CV) = (net increase in mass inside CV)
or,
This is not much different than tracking the money in your checking account by monitoring
deposits, withdrawals and the change in the account balance.
The special case where the mass leaving is just balanced by the mass entering an open
system (leading to no change of the mass inside the system) is still different from a closed
system. For an open system to be treated as closed, there must be no mass entering or
leaving the control volume.
8.3
Conservation ofEnergy and the First Law for Open Systems
The conservation of energy principle (or First Law of Thermodynamics) was introduced in
a previous chapter and applied to a closed system (a system of fixed mass). For a closed
system, it was explained how the change of energy of the system was related to the heat and
work that crosses the system boundary. For a closed system, the balance was:
(Q - W) = !1E (closed system)

However, for an open system, there are additional terms to be accounted for in the balance.
The mass flow in or out of the control volume carries with it internal, kinetic and potential
energies. Furthermore, for an open system, the work term also needs to include the flow
work term first described in Chapter 6. The differences between a closed system and an
open system in the ways that energy can be affected by flows across the boundary are
shown in Figure 8-1.
The energy balance applied to a control volume is written as:
Energy entering CV + Energy of mass - Energy of mass
as heat or work
entering CV
leaving CV
Increase of energy
inside the CV
or,
8: 5
Boundary
Work
-----------,
I
1
1
--~I~
Closed
System
Electrical 1
1
Work
:__________ I:
Boundary
Work
-----------,
--~~
Electrical
Work
Mass ----.
Flow In
a) flow in carrying
internal energy,
ke and pe
b) flow work
Heat
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
CV
'------1---: I
Heat
----.
Mass
FlowOu!
a) flow out carrying

internal energy,
ke and pe
b) flow work
Figure 8-1. Closed and Open Systems
The signs on Qand W reflect the sign convention that heat transfer is positive for heat added
to the control volume, and work is positive when work is done by the system on the surroundings. As before, the heat transfer is the energy crossing the system boundary by virtue
of a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings. The work term includes boundary work, shaft work and flow work. The energy of the mass entering or leaving the control volume may be regarded as the product of the mass entering or leaving and
the energy content per unit of mass entering or leaving (specific internal, kinetic and potential energy). The change of energy in the control volume is the difference between the final
and initial energy content of the control volume (internal, kinetic and potential energy).
8.4
Many applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics for open systems are for situations
that can be reasonably described as steady-flow processes. We will examine the First Law
for steady-flow problems in some detail before going back to the more general case, because there are several concepts that are more easily introduced under the conditions of
steady flow. Steady means unchanging in time. A steady-flow process may be described as
one in which a fluid steadily flows through a control volume such that properties within the
control volume, and the properties of the flow streams entering and leaving the control
volume, remain constant at all times. Properties may vary from point to point in the control
8:6
volume, but do not change in time. Because properties remain constant, there is no change
in the mass, energy or volume of the control volume. This simplifies the conservation of
mass and energy equations by setting f)"m ev ' Mev and the boundary work to zero.
For steady-flow processes, the flows of mass and energy are best expressed as rates. Consider the open system pictured in Figure 8-2. Mass enters the control volume at State 1 at a
steady rate of in! .Mass leaves the control volume at State 2 at a steady rate of in2' (The dot
above the variable indicates the rate of change with time of that variable.) This is a singlestream, steady-flow process. Because /).mev and Mev are zero, the conservation of mass
and energy equations may be written as:
(single-stream, steady flow)
(single-stream, steady flow)
where:
is the mass flow rate (lbm /h)
is the heat transfer rate (Btu/h)
TV
is the rate of work (same as power) (Btulh, kW, ftlbj/s, or hp)
is the rate of energy carried across the boundary by the flow of mass (BtuIh)
The energy carried across the boundary by the flow of mass may be written as the product
of the mass and the specific energy of that mass:
E =m(u+ pe+ke)
= m[u+ gz+ V2 /2]
The boundary work for a steady-flow process is zero, therefore the rate of work is a combination of shaft work and flow work:
TV = ~haft + TVjlOW
8: 7
Shaft Work
6
-+-.....,....... Velocity
V2
CV
Velocity
----~--------------------------~------------- datum
Figure 8-2. Single Stream, Steady-Flow Open System
The flow work was shown in Chapter 6 to be Wflow = ~ pv . Applying the expressions for
energy and work to both the incoming mass flow at State 1 (negative flow work) and the
outgoing flow at State 2 (positive flow work), then the conservation of energy equation may
be written as:
or, reorganizing terms:
In this equation, we can see how the flow work term (pv) and the internal energy term (u)
come together to give the enthalpy h = u + pv. After moving some terms to the right hand
side of the equation, the first law equation for a single-stream, steady-flow open system is:
Q- ~ = m(~ + pe2 + ke 2 ) - m(~ + pel + kel )

or,
(rate of heat transfer into CV) - (rate of shaft work by CV) = (rate of flow of
enthalpy, ke, pe, out of CV) - (rate of flow of enthalpy, ke, pe, into CV)
8: 8
Dividing through by
m, and setting q = QI m and Ws = WI m, the equation is often written
per unit of mass flow as:

q-ws = (~-~)+(pe2 - pel) + (ke 2 -kel )
q-ws =(~ -~)+g(Z2 -ZI)+(V;2 -V;2)/2

These expressions are very much like those for a closed system except that the enthalpy is
used in place of the internal energy, and the work is the shaft work.
For many problems, the change in potential energy and the change in kinetic energy are
negligible and the First Law equation may be simplified to:
Q-~ =m(~ -~)

(single-stream, steady-flow, negligible change in pe and ke)
q-ws =(~ -~)
(single-stream, steady-flow, negligible change inpe and ke)
The result can easily be expanded to steady-state applications with more than one flow by
considering many flow streams in and out. The conservation of mass and energy equations
are then:
(steady-flow)
(steady-flow)
where L is the summation symbol to indicate that, for more than one flow stream, the
contributions of the different streams must be added together. In later equations, we will
omit the summation sign out of simplicity, but we will understand that it is there when
needed.
8.S
First Law Applied in Examples ofSteady-Flow Processes
Many HV AC applications (such as pipe flow, duct flow, nozzles, diffusers, turbines, compressors, fans, throttling valves, heat exchangers, chillers, and heating or cooling systems)
can reasonably be assumed to be undergoing steady-flow processes. Many of these devices
8: 9
will be discussed in detail in Chapter 9. However, to introduce the application of the control
volume approach in applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to steady-flow, open systems, we will look at a few simple configurations here. As before, we will select some
applications that use air (ideal gas), and some applications that use refrigerant or steam
(property tables).
Application 1. The inlet temperature to a centrifugal flow, air compressor is 70F. The
outlet temperature is 120F. The steady mass flow rate is 0.04 Ibm/s. If the compressor is
adiabatic, estimate the rate of doing work. Neglect the kinetic and potential energies of the
flow.
Solution. The compressor is pictured in Figure 8-3. The control volume is the inside of the
compressor. The single-stream, steady-flow form of the First Law equation is:
Q-W: =m(~ -~)

The heat transfer is zero. The enthalpy change for an ideal gas with constant coefficients of
specific heat is (h2 - h J ) = Cp (t2 - tJ ). Therefore, solving for that work yields:
w: = -mCAt
2 -
tl )
= -(0.04)(lbm/ s)(3600 s/ hr)(0.24)(Btu / lb mo F)(120 -70) F

=
-1728 Btu / h
=-0.51 kW
Work done
Air Compressor
on compressor
Figure 8-3. Air Compressor of Application 1
8: 10
Application 2. The inlet condition to a centrifugal flow, R-134a compressor is saturated

vapor at 20F. The steady mass flow rate is 0.04 Ibm Is. If the heat lost from the compressor
is 1000 BtuIh and the work to run the compressor is 1.0 kW, estimate the specific enthalpy
of the refrigerant leaving the compressor. Neglect the kinetic and potential energies of the
flow.
Solution. The compressor is pictured in Figure 8-4. The First Law equation is:
The heat transfer is given as 1000 BtuIh. The work is given as -1.0 kW = -3,412 BtuIh. The
flow rate is 0.041bm Is = 144lbm Ih. The enthalpy at inlet is found from the saturated vapor
tables for R-134a in Appendix C-3 to be h J = 105.907 Btu/Ibm' Substituting into the First
Law equation and solving for h2 gIves:
~ = ~ +(Q-~)Im
= 105.907 + [-1000-(-3412)]/144
= 122.7 Btullbm
Saturated Vapor
t1 = 20F
r---_ --- ---Work
---- ----
Refrigerant 134a
Compressor
Figure 8-4. R-134a Compressor of Application 2
8: 11
Application 3. A nozzle is a device for increasing flow from low velocity to high velocity.
The entry conditions of a steady flow of air through a nozzle are 20 ftI s and 70F. If the flow
is adiabatic and the outlet temperature is observed to be 69F, estimate the velocity at exit.
Solution. The nozzle and a chosen control volume are shown in Figure 8-5. This is a singlestream, steady-flow problem. The difference in potential energy of the flow in and out is
negligible, but the change in kinetic energy is the function of the nozzle. The First Law
expressed per unit mass is:
q-ws
=(h,. _~)+(V;2 -V;2)/2
There is no shaft work. The heat transfer is zero because the flow is adiabatic. The difference in potential energy of the flow in and out is negligible. For an ideal gas, the enthalpy
change can be written as (h2 - h]) = Cp (t2 - t]). Therefore:
0= CAt2-t,)+(V;2 -V;2)/2
Solving for the outlet velocity:
V2 = {V;2 -CAt2_t,)(2)}"2
= {202( ft2 / S2)_ 0.24(Btu/lb m.oF)(778 ft .lb j

= 108 ft/ s
/Btu)(69 -70)OF(2)(32.2)(lb m. ft /lb js2)} 112
Note that it is important to develop the correct units for the kinetic energy term. The relationship between lbjand Ibm is taken from the expression that 1 lbj will accelerate 1 Ibm at
32.2 ftls2.
t1=700~
velocity 20 ft/s
Figure 8-5. Nozzle of Application 3
8: 12
Application 4. A mixing tank has two steady inflows and one steady outflow. The conditions of the first inflow is superheated steam at t1 = 400F, h1 = 1,239 Btu/Ibm' and flow rate
m1 = 20 lbmlh. The second inflow is compressed liquid at t2 = 70F, h2 = 38 Btullb . If the

rate of heat removal from the tank is 15,000 BtuIh, then estimate the inflow ofwate;needed
to result in the outflow being saturated liquid water at 212 OF. Neglect changes in kinetic and
potential energy.
Solution. The tank is pictured in Figure 8-6. There is more than single flow, therefore we
use the conservation of mass and energy conservation equations as:
(steady-flow)
(steady-flow)
For this case, the equations become:
tf
I
Superheated Vapor
t1 = 400F
h1 = 1239 Btu/lb
1 = 20 Ib/h
v-~He.at Removal
--------------., I
Compressed
Liquid
t2 =70F
h2
=38 Btu/lb
Mixing / :
Tank
I
I '-1______________ 1
Ii
Saturated
Liquid
ts = 212F
Figure 8-6. Mixing Tank of Application 4
8: 13
For first inflow hi = 1,239 Btullbm ,and flow rate mJ = 20 lbmIh. For second inflow, h2 = 38
Btu/Ibm. For outflow, the enthalpy can found in Appendix B-1 as h3 = 180.2 Btu/Ibm. There
is no shaft work shown for the tank.
-15,000 = ~(180.2)-(20)(1,239)-~(38)
Solving these two equations for ~ and ~ results in:
~ = 43.4 Ibm
~
Ih
= 63.4 Ibm Ih
The Next Step

In the next chapter, we will take a closer look at some of the devices commonly used in
HVAC applications and see how the First Law of Thermodynamics can help when estimating the performance of these devices. The applications and devices include pipe flow, duct
flow, nozzles, diffusers, turbines, compressors, fans, throttling valves, metering valves, heat
exchangers, chillers, and heating or cooling systems. Cycle analysis will not be part of
Chapter 9, but will appear in later chapters.
Summary
The control volume approach is introduced for open systems and the conservation of mass
and First Law of Thermodynamics are written as:
(Mass entering CV)
- (mass leaving CV) = (net increase in mass inside CV)
or,
8: 14
Energy entering CV + Energy of mass - Energy of mass

leaving CV
as heat or work
entering CV
Increase of energy
inside the CV
or,
Particular emphasis is placed on the rate form of the steady-flow mass and energy conservation equations. The equations for many flows be summarized as follows:
(steady-flow)
(steady-flow)
For single-flow, steady-flow the First Law equation becomes:

Rate of
heat transfer
into CV
Rate of
shaft work
byCV
Rate of flow of
enthalpy, ke, pe,
outofCV
Rate of flow of
enthalpy, ke, pe,
into CV
or,
The equation is often written per unit of mass flow as:
q-ws =(~ -~)+g(Z2 -ZI)+(V;2 -V/)/2
(single-stream, steady-flow)
For many problems, the change in potential energy and the change in kinetic energy are
negligible and the First Law equation may be simplified to:
Q- Tf: = m(~ -~)
q-
Ws
= (~ -~)
(single-stream, steady-flow, negligible change inpe and ke)
(single-stream, steady-flow, negligible change in pe and ke)
8: 15
After studying Chapter 8, you are now able to:

Apply the conservation of mass principle to an open system.
Understand the First Law as an expression of the conservation of energy principle.
Write the First Law in equation form by applying an energy balance to an open
system.
Use the principles of conservation of mass and energy to solve steady flow problems of open systems.
Fundamentals ofTI,ernwdynamics and Psychrometries
8: 16

8-01.
The inlet temperature to a centrifugal flow, 0.8 kWair compressor is 20 o P. The

steady mass flow rate is 0.04 Ibm Is. If the compressor is assumed adiabatic and the
kinetic and potential energies are assumed negligible, then estimate the outlet temperature of the compressor.
8-02.
The inlet condition to a centrifugal flow, R-134a compressor is saturated vapor at

20 o P. The steady mass flow rate is 0.08 Ibm Is. If the heat lost from the compressor is
800 BtuIh and the work to run the compressor is 3.0 kW, estimate the specific enthalpy of the refrigerant leaving the compressor. Neglect the kinetic and potential
energies of the flow.
8-03.
Air enters an adiabatic turbine at 300 0 P and with negligible velocity. The rate of
doing work is 2.0 kW. The outlet temperature is 20 o P. If the outlet velocity is 300
ft/s, then calculate the mass flow rate of air.
8-04.
A mixing tank has two steady inflows and one steady outflow. The conditions of the
first inflow are superheated steam at t1 = 350 oP, h1 = 1,140 Btu/Ibm' and flow rate
m = 30 Ibm Ih. The second inflow is compressed liquid at t2 = 70 oP, h2 = 38 Btu/Ibm'

1
If the rate of heat removal from the tank is 25,000 BtuIh, then estimate the inflow of
water needed to result in the outflow being saturated liquid water at 212 0p. Neglect
changes in kinetic and potential energy.
8-05.
Two air streams are mixed together in an adiabatic mixer to produce an output stream
of air at 95P. If the two incoming streams are at 1200 P and 35P respectively, find
the ratio of volume flow rates of the hot to cold air to produce the 95P air.
9: 1
Chapter 9
Instructions
.9.1
9.2
9.3
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions

The First Law of Thermodynamics is such an important and useful tool in analyzing problems that this chapter is devoted to the application of the law to many of the mechanical/
thermal devices commonly found in HVAC systems. The objective of Chapter 9 is to provide background to the functioning ofthese devices and insight into ways in which the First
Law may be employed to conduct practical analyses of these devices. After completing
Chapter 9, you should be able to:
Understand the functioning of many components of HVAC&R systems; and
Understand how to apply the First Law of Thermodynamics in a variety of cases.
Chapter 9 Applications ofthe First Law
9:2
9.1
Compressors, pumps and fans are devices used to increase the pressure of a fluid. Although
all three may work in similar ways, the purpose behind each is somewhat different. Compressors are used to achieve high pressures in gases and vapors. In contrast, the important
function of fans is to move air around, and the pressure rise is quite small. Pumps handle
liquids, not gases, and are used to raise the pressure and move liquids such as water and oil.
All three devices are driven by an external source, usually by a rotating shaft. Therefore, the
work for these devices is negative.
Compressors are used to raise the pressure of gases and vapors by a significant amount. For
example, air compressors are employed to provide the pressurized air often used in workshops to power tools or to operate pneumatic control systems. Refrigerant vapor compressors are an essential part of the refrigeration cycle (as will be discussed in Chapter 11).
Compressors are often described in terms of the way they work. There are reciprocating,
rotary (vane, scroll and screw), and centrifugal compressors.
In reciprocating compressors, the gas is compressed by a piston in a cylinder. The piston
goes up and down in a reciprocating motion as the gas is alternatively drawn into the cylinder on the suction stroke and compressed in the cylinder on the compression stroke. On the
compression stroke, the gas is trapped in the cylinder with both valves closed, and the
pressure and temperature increase as the volume decreases. For the compression stroke,
with the air trapped in the cylinder, it seems reasonable to conduct a closed system analysis
of the air in the cylinder.
On the other hand, if we consider the whole compressor over a longer period of time, because there are often hundreds of compression strokes a minute, it is clear that there is a
general flow of fresh gas into the compressor and a pseudo-steady delivery of gas to a high
pressure receiver. This view lends itself to an open system analysis, which is often assumed
to be steady-flow. Centrifugal and rotary compressors are also usually treated as open systems.
Turbines are the opposite of compressors and are intended to convert the energy content of
high energy fluids into work. As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is done on the
blades attached to a rotating shaft. Common applications are found in steam power stations
where high-pressure and -temperature steam is expanded, producing work to drive an electric generator, or in hydroelectric turbines in which the energy of high-head water or water
at high velocity is converted into work. Turbines used in refrigeration systems are often
called expanders.
9: 3
F or compressors, fans, pumps and turbines, there are some generalizations of the energy
terms in the steady-state First Law equation:
The shaft work term is important in all of these devices and
Tt: =I:- 0 . For com-
pressors, fans and pumps, work is done on the system to make it function; whereas
work is the output of turbines.
The heat transfer is often assumed to be negligible compared to the work,
Q= 0,
except for cases where there is a specific attempt to cool the compressor, or
when the process is isothermal or polytropic. This is not a valid assumption for
small compressors of any type.
The change of kinetic energy of the flow stream entering and leaving the device
is usually assumed to be negligible compared to the work and change of enthalpy, !l.ke = O. However, the changes in kinetic energy are important when
analyzing the internal processes of centrifugal compressors and pumps.
The change of potential energy is usually assumed to be negligible compared to
the work and change of enthalpy, !l.pe = 0, except in the case of water turbines
that are driven by gravitational head.
Application 1. Air is compressed reversibly and adiabatically (isentropically) in a compressor at a rate ofO.04Ibm /s from 83.28 psia to 400 psia. The inlet temperature is 40F. Estimate the rate of work (power) required to keep the compressor running.
Solution. The compressor is pictured in Figure 9-1 along with a p-v diagram. The region
within the compressor is chosen as the control volume and it is treated as an open system.
The work for an open system is not given as the area under the p-v curve as was used earlier
for a closed system; rather, the work is estimated from the First Law equation. In this case,
the changes in potential and kinetic energies are negligible and the equation for a singlestream can be used:
For the adiabatic process, the heat transfer rate is zero. For an ideal gas, the change in
enthalpy can be written as (h2 - hJ ) = Cp (t2 - tJ ). Therefore, it is necessary to find the outlet
temperature. This can be done by using a combination of the ideal gas equation, pv = RT,
and the isentropic process, pv" = constant:
ideal gas PJ vJ
TJ = P2
vi T2
' and isentropic PJvJ k = P2 v2 k
9:4
t1 = 40F
P1 = 83.28 psi a
Pressure
p
I
I
I
I
I
I
---_L<D
~-- ..........
-- ... -Specific Volume, v
Figure 9-1. Air Compressor of Application 1
Combining we get an important result for any ideal gas undergoing an isentropic process:
1; 17; = ( v2 I VI )
I-k
= (P2 I PI )(k-I)lk
Therefore:
1; = 7;(P2 I PIYk-I)lk
= (40 +460)(400 I 83.28i1.4- I)/1.4
=782.9 R
= 322.9F
Then the change in enthalpy is:
(~-~) = CAt2 -tI )

= (0.24 Btu Ilb m oF)(322.9 -40)( F)
= 67.9 Btullbm
The rate of doing work is:
~ =-m(~ -~)
= -(0.04 Ibm I s)(3,600 s/h)(69.22)(Btullb m )
= -9,967 Btu/h
=-2.92 kW
9: 5
Note that in applying the First Law for an open system, we need the difference in enthalpy
as (h2 - h) = Cp (t2 - t 1 ) rather than change of internal energy (u2 - u1 ) = C y (t2 - t) needed in
the closed system problems. Although the coefficients C y and Cp are the specific heats at
constant volume and constant pressure, the appropriate application for each depends more
on whether we are seeking change of internal energy or enthalpy than whether the process is
constant volume or constant pressure. In the problem just solved, both the pressure and
specific volume change through the compressor.
The relationships developed between the absolute temperature ratio, pressure ratio and volume ratio for an ideal gas undergoing an isentropic process are very useful:
1; /7;
= ( V2 / VI ) I-k = ( P2 / PI )(k-I)lk
Similarly the expressions can be developed for an ideal gas undergoing a polytropic process:
Application 2. Refrigerant R-22 is compressed isentropically in a compressor from 83.28

psia to 400 psia at a rate of 0.04 lbm/s. The refrigerant is a saturated vapor at the inlet.
Estimate the power required to keep the compressor going.
Solution. The compressor and the process on the p-h diagram are shown in Figure 9-2. The
kinetic and potential energies are negligible. The single-stream, steady-flow First Law equation is:
Saturated Vapor
p, =83.28 psia
I-I
.................
Pressure
p
I
I
I
I
I
I
:....................... -Enthalpy. h
Figure 9-2. R-22 Compressor of Application 2
9:6
For reversible isentropic flow, the heat transfer is zero. From the saturated vapor tables in
Appendix C-1 (or the p-h diagram in Appendix C-2), the enthalpy at state 1 is h] = 108.2
Btu/Ibm' To find the enthalpy at State 2, we will use the p-h diagram in Appendix C-2. First
locate State 1 as saturated vapor at 83.28 psia, 40F. Then follow the constant entropy line
(s] = S2 = 0.22 Btu/lbmoF) until it intersects P2 = 400 psia. Read from the diagram that h2 =
125 Btu/Ibm' t2 = 195F. The rate of work is then:
~=m(~-~)
= -(0.04 Ibm / s)(3,600 s/ h)(125 -108.2) Btu/ Ibm
= -2,419 Btu/ h
=-0.71 kW
9.2
A throttling valve is a flow-restricting device that causes a pressure drop without any work.
As we shall see in Chapter 11, the pressure in the refrigerant line of a vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle needs to drop from the pressure of the condenser to the pressure of the
evaporator. Common devices to achieve this are the capillary tube (a small tube with a large
frictional pressure drop) and a thermostatic expansion valve. These are sometimes called
metering devices because they also regulate the mass flow of refrigerant.
The process in a throttling valve happens too quickly to allow any heat transfer, there is no
shaft work, and the change in kinetic and potential energies are usually negligible. Considering the First Law of Thermodynamics, this means that the enthalpy does not change between the inlet and outlet of a throttling valve. Fluid passing through a throttling valve
undergoes a constant enthalpy, or isenthalpic, process.
Application 3. Refrigerant R-134a enters a capillary tube of a refrigerator as saturated liquid

at 180 psia and is throttled to a pressure of 33.11 psia. Determine the quality of the refrigerant at the final state and the temperature drop during this process.
Solution. A schematic of the capillary tube is shown in Figure 9-3. At State 1, the conditions of saturated liquid may be found from Appendix C-3. It is necessary to interpolate
between the entries at 173.11 psia and 185.84 psia as shown in Table 9-1.
Throttling is a constant enthalpy device, therefore:
~
= ~ = 51.338 Btullb m
9: 7
Table 9-1
Pressure,
psia
173.11
180.00
Temperature,
of
115.0
t= q5.0+
({I 80-173.1 1)/(185.84 - 173.11)}
x (120 - 115)
Enthalpy (sat. liquid),

Btullb
50.343
h = 50.343 +
{(l80-I73.ll)1l85.84 -I73.ll)}
x (52.181 - 50.343)
= 51.338
= 117.71
52.181
185.84
120.0
Saturated Liquid
p1 180 psia
P2=33.11 psia
Figure 9-3. Capillary Tube of Application 3
The temperature at the outlet is found in Appendix C-3. It is the saturated temperature at p 2
= 33.11 psia. We know that the condition of the refrigerant is some mixture of vapor and
liquid because the enthalpy lies between the saturated liquid and saturated vapor values (see
Table 9-2).
Table 9-2
Temperature, .
of
20.0
Pressure,
psia
33.11
The temperature at the outlet is T2

the outlet is therefore:
M
Entbalpy (sat. Iiq..id), Enthalpy (sat. vapor),

Btullb
Btullb
105.907
18.318
20.00 oP, and the temperature drop between the inlet to
= 117.71-20.00
= 97.71P
9: 8
The quality at the outlet is:

X2
= (~ - hj ) 1(hg - hj )
= (51.338 -18.318)1 (105.907 -18.318)
= 0377
=37.7%
9.3
The purpose of a heat exchanger is to transfer heat from one flow stream to another. Heat
exchangers come in many different shapes, sizes and flow configurations, but the essence
of the heat exchanger may be captured by examining a pipe within a pipe arrangement, as
shown in Figure 9-4. Flow stream A enters at State 1 and exits at State 2. Flow stream B
enters at State 3 and exits at State 4. The flow arrangement in Figure 9-4 is known as
counterflow because streams A and B flow in opposite directions. Ifflow streams A and B
were in the same direction, it would be known as parallel flow; and if the flow streams were
perpendicular to each other, it would be cross-flow.
In most heat exchangers, the flow patterns do not neatly fit into one of these categories.
However, the simple counterflow model can be used to understand the basic analysis tools
for heat exchangers. The changes in kinetic and potential energy are usually negligible for
heat exchangers, and there is no shaft work. Therefore, the important terms in the First Law
equation are the heat transfer and the enthalpy change.
There are basically three possible choices of control volume for a heat exchanger: flow
stream A, flow stream B, or the total heat exchanger. The First Law applied separately to
flow streams A and B results in:
QA =mA~ -~)
QB = mB(h4-~)
Heat exchangers are intended to exchange heat between streams but not to lose heat to the
surroundings, and they are usually insulated. Therefore, when applying the First Law to the
total heat exchanger, the net heat transfer is zero. The heat given up by the hot stream Q is
just equal to the heat taken up by the cold stream:
Q= QA =-QB
9: 9
The flow streams may be liquid, gas, vapor or involve change of phase. Shown in Figure
9-4 are the temperature profiles from one end of the exchanger to the other for the cases of
both flow streams being liquid or ideal gas in a pipe-in-pipe, counterflow heat exchanger.
The change of enthalpy can be written as the product of the coefficient of specific heat and
the temperature change from inlet to exit. In addition to being consistent with the First Law
of Thermodynamics, the heat transfer between streams depends on the thermal resistance of
the barrier separating the two streams and the effective temperature difference between the
flows. The temperature difference changes from one end ofthe heat exchanger to the other,
but it can be shown that the effective temperature difference is well represented by the Log
I~
l::t
I~
FIUidA-U
Fluid B
X=O
X=L
Fluid B
X=L
X=o
Figure 9-4. Pipe-in-Pipe Counterflow Heat Exchanger
Fundamentals ofTilermodynamics and Psycllrometrics
Cllapter 9 Applications oftile First Law
9: 10
Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD). If the one end of the heat exchanger is identified as
x = 0 and the other end as x = L, then the LMTD is:
LMTD = (!1tX=L - Mx=o) I In{!1tx=L I !1tx=o}
= {(t3 -t2)-(t4 -t1 )}lln{(t3-t2)/(t4 -t1)}
You are not expected to remember this expression, but it and the overall heat transfer coefficient, U (Btu/hft2 .oF), are important parts of the heat transfer expression:
Q=UA(LMTD)
The area, A, is the heat transfer area for the heat exchanger. The equations for a heat exchanger may be summarized as:
Q=mA~-~)
Q=mB(~ -h4 )
Q=UA(LMTD)
Application 4. Consider a pipe-in-pipe, counterflow, water-to-air heat exchanger as shown

in Figure 9-4. The water flow rate (stream B) of 0.2 Ibm Is enters at 180F and leaves at
lOOF. The air flow rate (stream A) of 1.2 Ibm Is enters at 55F. The coefficient of specific
heat of water is Cp = 1.0 Btullbm.oF, and for air is CP = 0.24 Btullbm.oF:
Determine the outlet temperature of the air
Determine the LMTD from the expression:
LMTD = (!1tx=L - !1tx=o)/ln{Mx=L IMx=o}

Determine the UA product for the heat exchanger
Solution. Applying the First Law to the water flow stream:

Qwater
= mwaterCp(t4 -t3 )
= (0.2 Ibm I s)(3,600 s/h)(l.O Btullb m oF)(lOO-180)oF
= -57,600 Btu/h
9: 11
Applying the First Law to the air, Qair
t2
= mair CAt2 - tl )
and remembering that Qair
= -Qwater
= tl + Qair 1(mairCp )
=55+(57,600)1 {L2lbm 1 s (3,600 s/h)(0.24 Btu Ilb m o F)}
= 110.5 of
LMTD = (J:::,.tX=L - Mx=o) 1In{J:::,.tx=L 1J:::,.tx=o}
= {(180-110.5) = 56.4F
(100- 55)} Iln{ (180-110.5) 1(100 - 55)}
VA = Q/(LMTD)
= 57,600156.4
= 1,021 Btu/hoF
Condensers and evaporators are special forms of heat exchangers where one of the flow
streams changes phase. The change of phase takes place at constant temperature. The temperature profiles for condensers and evaporators are shown in Figure 9-5.
t3
tc
te
t2
4
Ie
t1
x=o
Condenser
x=L
x=o
Evaporator
x=L
Figure 9-5. Temperature Profiles for Condensers and Evaporators
9: 12
Application 5. Refrigerant R-22 enters a condenser at a rate of 0.02 Ibm /s with an enthalpy
of 120 Btu/Ibm and exits as a saturated liquid at 100F. Airflows over the condenser at a rate
ofO.2lbm Is. If the air enters at 72F, what is the air exit temperature?
Solution. The condenser is shown in Figure 9-6. The First Law applied to the total heat
exchanger may be written as:
mR-22(~ -hr)=mair CAt3-t4)
From Appendix C-l, h2 = 39.538 Btu/Ibm. For Cp = 0.24 BtU/lbmoF, the result is:
t4
= t3 + mR-22 (~ - hr) / mairCp

= 72+0.02(120-39.538)/ {(0.2)(0.24)}
= 105.5F
Refrigerant
R-22
Air
Air
Air
Figure 9-6. Condenser of Application 5
9: 13'
The Next Step

In the next chapter, we will consider the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Key to understanding the Second Law are the concepts of reversibility and irreversibility. These concepts will be introduced along with models for ideal processes. The Carnot cycle will be
described and the Carnot heat engine and Carnot refrigerator analyzed.
Summary
The First Law of Thermodynamics is very useful for analyzing the performance of the
many devices commonly found in HVAC&R systems. The devices considered here included compressors, turbines, pumps, fans, throttling valves, heat exchangers, condensers
and evaporators.
Some useful expressions were developed. For an ideal gas undergoing an isentropic process
(pv" = constant), the properties at State 1 and State 2 are related by the following expressions:
1; /7; = ( v2 /
VI )
I-k
= P2 / PI
)(k-I)/k
Similarly, the expressions for an ideal gas undergoing a polytropic process (pv" = constant)
are:
1; -7;
= ( v2 / VI )
I-n
= ( P2 / PI )(n-I)/1I
For heat exchangers, the main equations are:
Q=mAhz -~)
Q=mB(~-h4)
Q=UA(LMTD)
where
Qis the rate at which heat is transferred from one stream to the other, U is the overall
heat transfer coefficient between streams, A is the area of heat transfer, and LMTD is the
Log Mean Temperature Difference between the temperatures in the two flow streams.
After completing Chapter 9, you should be able to:
Understand the functioning of many components ofHVAC&R systems.
Understand how to apply the First Law of Thermodynamics in a variety of cases.
9: 14

9-01. Determine the outlet temperature and mass flow rate of a 0.7 k W air compressor that
compresses air from 15 psia to 100 psia. The inlet temperature is 72P. Assume
isentropic compression of an ideal gas, k= 1.4, Cp = 0.24 Btu/lbmoP.
9-02. Determine the outlet temperature and mass flow rate of a 0.7 k W air compressor that
compresses air from 15 psia to 150 psia. The inlet temperature is 72P. Assume
polytropic compression of an ideal gas, n = 1.3, Cp = 0.24 Btu/lbmoP and a heat loss
rate of 0.1 KW.
9-03. The inlet condition to a R-22 compressor is saturated vapor at -40oP. If the specific
work for the isentropic compression is 30 Btu/Ibm' then calculate the specific enthalpy of the refrigerant at the compressor exit. Sketch the process on the p-h diagram and use Appendix C-2 to estimate the delivery pressure. (The diagram of Appendix C-2 is not easy to read, so an approximate value is acceptable.)
9-04. The inlet to an adiabatic steam turbine is superheated steam at 1,000oP, 400 psia and
enthalpy of 1,526 Btu/Ibm' The steam leaves the turbine at 150oP, with a quality of
0.90. Determine the specific work in Btu/Ibm of the turbine.
9-05. The inlet condition to a throttling valve in a R-134a refrigerator is saturated liquid at
110oP. Determine the outlet condition of the refrigerant (quality) if the outlet pressure is 21.162 psia.
9-06. Consider a pipe-in-pipe, counterflow, water-to-air heat exchanger. The water flow
rate ofO.1lbm Is enters at 200 0 P and leaves at 1000 P. The air flow rate ofO.9lbm Is
enters at 72P. The coefficient of specific heat of water is Cp = 1.0 Btu/lbm.op, and
for air C = 0.24 Btu/lbmoP. Por both water and air, the change in enthalpy can be
expressed as the coefficient of specific heat times the change in temperature. Complete the following:
Sketch the heat exchanger and the temperature profiles of the two streams
through the length of the heat exchanger.
Determine the outlet temperature of the air.
(MX=L - t:.tx=o)/ln{t:.tx=LIMx=o}
Determine theUA product for the heat exchanger.
LMTD
10: t
Chapter 10
The Carnot Cycle
Instructions
10.1
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
10.2
Heat Engines, Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
10.3
Reversible and Irreversible Processes
10.4
The Carnot Cycle and the Reversed Carnot Cycle
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions

In Chapter 10, we will introduce the Second Law of Thermodynamics, reversibility, irreversibility, ideal processes and the Carnot cycle. The Camot cycle is the ultimate in ideal
cycles. By applying the First Law to the Carnot cycle, we can deduce some basic expectations and limits on performance of any cycle. The reversed Carnot cycle is introduced because of its relevance to refrigeration. After studying Chapter 10, you should be able to:
Describe the concepts of reversibility and irreversibility;
Describe each of the processes that constitute a Carnot cycle; and
Analyze the performance of Carnot heat engines and Carnot refrigerators.
Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle
10:2
10.1
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Whereas the First Law of Thermodynamics is a quantitative conservation of energy law

about a system undergoing a process, the Second Law of Thermodynamics is a statement
about the quality of energy, the preferred direction of energy change, and the differences
between what is possible and not possible. There are several ways to state the Second Law
of Thermodynamics, but rather than start with a statement of the law, we will make the case
that there is a need for a Second Law if we are to describe observed behavior. The First Law
of Thermodynamics always applies, but the First Law by itself is not enough.
For example, consider a hot potato sitting on a table in a cool room. The First Law does not
assert the direction of heat flow. We know by observation that the temperature of the potato
will decrease with time, and the heat transfer is from the hot potato to its cool surroundings.
The First Law states that the energy lost from the potato is just equal to the gain in energy by
the air. Consider the reverse process in which heat flows from the cool room to the hot
potato. We know that this is not possible, but that would not be clear from the First Law
because the First Law would not be violated by a balance that states that the heat gain of the
potato is equal to the energy lost by the air.
There are many examples where a process will proceed in one direction, but not, by itself,
proceed in the reverse direction. The simple action of rubbing two sticks together to produce heat is not reversed if heat is applied to the sticks. Heat applied to a wire does not make
electricity the way that electricity passing along the wire produces heat. Combustion of
gasoline and air together releases heat, but heat applied to the products of combustion will
not produce gasoline. The First Law places no restriction on the direction of the process.
Satisfying the First Law is necessary, but it is not a sufficient condition to ensure that the
process will occur.
The Second Law is introduced to overcome the inadequacy of the First Law. It will be
shown that processes that are not possible violate the Second Law. A process will not occur
unless both the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics are satisfied. The use of the
Second Law is not limited to identifying the direction of a process. It is also used in the
concept of quality of energy, and the degradation of that quality during a process. The
formulation of the Second Law will be helped by elaboration on the concepts of thermal
energy reservoirs, heat engines, irreversibility, entropy and the Camot cycle.
10: 3
10.2 Heat Engines, Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

The conversion of work into heat is as straightforward as rubbing two sticks together. However, the conversion of heat into work is not so easy, and requires a device called a heat
engine. Without looking at the physical ways in which a heat engine may be constructed,
consider the situation in Figure 10-1 where heat is transferred from a high-temperature
energy source to a heat engine, and heat is separately transferred from the heat engine to a
low-temperature energy sink. The First Law applied to the heat engine shows that the net
work output of the heat engine is equal to the difference in magnitude between the heat flow
from the high temperature source and the heat flow to the low-temperature sink:
F or convenience, the sign convention used here regards QHand QL as positive in magnitude,
and the direction of heat flow is accounted for by the sign in the equation.
QH is the magnitude of the heat transfer between the high-temperature reservoir

and the heat engine.
QL is the magnitude of the heat transfer between the heat engine and the lowtemperature reservoir.
Wnet, out is the magnitude of the work of the heat engine.
High-Temperature
Heat Source, T H
The balance is in accordance with our sense that

heat flows from high to low
temperature.
Heat
Engine
---.~ Wnet, out
Low-Temperature
Heat Sink, T L
Figure 10-1. Heat Engine Operating Between

High- and Low-Temperature Reservoirs
10:4
A typical cycle of a heat engine may be found by examining a steam power plant cycle as
shown in Figure 10-2. There are four main components to the cycle: the steam generator,
the steam turbine, the condenser and the pump. Liquid water enters the pump at low pressure and is pumped to the high pressure, requiring some work. The water enters the steam
generator as a liquid at high pressure. Heat is added in the steam generator to convert the
liquid to superheated vapor. The heat comes from a high-temperature heat source, such as
the burning of fuel in a furnace. The superheated vapor is expanded through a steam turbine, where it does work, and then enters the condenser as a low pressure vapor. Heat is
rejected from the condenser as the vapor is converted to liquid. The heat rejection takes
place to a surrounding low-temperature heat sink, such as a lake, river or the atmosphere.
For the cycle to work, the temperature in the steam generator must be less than the temperature in the furnace, and the temperature in the condenser must be greater than the lowtemperature surroundings.
The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is measured as the fraction of heat input that is
converted to work output. For the heat engines shown in Figures 10-1 and 10-2, the thermal
efficiency is:
11th
= (Net work output) I (heat input)

=U:et,out I QH
=(QH -QL)I QH
= l-QL I QH
Steam Generator
Wpump,in
Wturbine, out
Condenser
Figure 10-2. Typical Heat Engine: Steam Power Plant Cycle
10:5
The efficiency of a heat engine cannot be greater than 100% because both QH and QL are
positive. Furthermore, the Second Law of Thermodynamics asserts that QL cannot be zero
and it is impossible for a heat engine to have a thermal efficiency of 100%. The KelvinPlanck statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics is:
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce an equivalent amount of work.
This means that the rejection of some heat to the surroundings is an essential ingredient to
any device that converts heat into work. This limitation is not imposed by friction or dissipative effects, but is fundamental to both ideal and actual cycles.
The flow of heat naturally occurs from high to low temperature. However, to transfer heat
from a low-temperature reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir takes a device known as a
refrigerator. Consider the refrigerator shown in Figure 10-3 operating between low and
high-temperature reservoirs. As before, QHis the magnitude of the heat transfer between the
refrigerator and the high-temperature reservoir, and QL is the heat transfer between the lowtemperature reservoir and the refrigerator. QH and QL are positive quantities, but in the
opposite direction from those of the heat engine. The work, Wnet,in is also in the opposite
direction to a heat engine and is regarded as the work required to make the refrigerator
function. The First Law applied to the refrigerator results in: w"et,in = QH - QL
High-Temperature
Reservoir, TH
Wnet, in ---~~
Refrigerator
Low-Temperature
Reservoir, TL
Figure 10-3. Refrigerator Transferring Heat From

Low- to High-Temperature Reservoir
10: 6
A typical example of a refrigeration device is the vapor-compression cycle shown in Figure

10-4. There are four main components to the cycle: the refrigerant compressor, condenser,
metering valve and evaporator. Refrigerant vapor is compressed in the compressor and
enters the condenser as a superheated vapor at high pressure and temperature. The condensation temperature is higher than that of the high-temperature surroundings, and heat is
rejected from the condensing refrigerant to the surroundings. The refrigerant liquid then
passes to an expansion valve where the flow is throttled from high to low pressure. The
liquid evaporates in the evaporator at a temperature that is less than that of the surroundings, thus absorbing the heat removed from the refrigerated space.
High-Temperature
Surroundings
Condenser
Expansion
Valve
--... Compressor
Wcompressor, in
Evaporator
Refrigerated
Space
Figure 10-4. Refrigeration Device: Vapor Compression Cycle
10:7
The performance measure for a refrigerator is the coefficient of performance (COPR ). The
COPR is the ratio of the cooling effect to the work required to make the cycle function:
COPR
= (Cooling Effect) I (Work Required)

=QL I w"et in
= QL I(QH-QJ
= 1I (QH I QL -1)
The coefficient of performance is positive and may be greater than unity. In other words,
the heat removed from the refrigerated space may be greater than the work done on the
compressor. Although this may at first sound like getting more than you pay for, it does not
violate the First Law. It should not be viewed as work being converted into heat, but rather
as heat being pumped from low to high temperature by consuming work. The term heat
pump is commonly used when the effect of interest is heating at the condenser. The coefficient of performance of a heat pump is:
COPHP
= (Heating Effect) I (Work Required)

=QH I w"et in
=QH1(QH-QJ
= 1I (1- QL I QH)
The coefficients of performance are related to each other as:
COPHP
= COPR + 1
As in the discussion of heat engines, the discussion of refrigerators leads to an alternative

statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, the Clausius statement:
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no
other effect than the transfer of heat from a lower temperature body to a higher
temperature body.
The Clausius statement says that external work is required to drive the cycle ifheat is to be
transferred from low to high temperature. Both the Clausius and Kelvin-Planck statements
are negative statements and therefore do not have a direct proof; but both statements are
such that violating either is the same as violating both.
Fundamentals ofTilermodynamics and Psycltrometrics
Cllapter 10 Tile Carnot Cycle
10:8
10.3 Reversible and Irreversible Processes

The Second Law of Thermodynamics asserts that no heat engine can have an efficiency of
100%. What then is the highest possible efficiency? To answer this question, we must first
examine the processes that make up a cycle and, in particular, examine the concept of
reversibility. At the beginning of the chapter when introducing the Second Law of Thermodynamics, we cited several cases where a process could be expected to occur in one direction only. A hot cup of coffee sitting on a table will cool with time and not get hotter. A
block of material will slide down, but not up, an incline. Electricity passing through a conductor will produce heat, but heat applied to the conductor will not make electricity. The
burning of gasoline releases heat and produces exhaust gases, but heating the exhaust gases
does not produce gasoline. These, and all other naturally occurring processes, are irreversible. Only idealized processes are reversible.
A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving a trace on
either the system or its surroundings. Reversible processes are the idealizations of actual
processes. Work producing devices (such as heat engines) deliver the most work if the
processes are reversible. Work consuming devices (such as refrigerators) use the least amount
of work if the processes are reversible. Why are reversible processes of interest even though
they are not achievable? Reversible processes are easier to analyze than actual processes
and it is therefore possible to establish the theoretical limits to performance. Furthermore, a
Second Law efficiency can then be established to compare how irreversible is an irreversible process. Some processes are more efficient than others.
Phenomena that contribute to the irreversibility of a process are called irreversibilities. The
main irreversibilities that we will explore further are friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing and heat transfer across a finite temperature difference.
Friction is a well-known irreversibility. The friction force between two solid bodies always
acts so as to oppose motion. That means that work is done to overcome friction in both
directions and the process is not reversible because, when the body is returned to its original
position, there has been some net heat transferred to the surroundings. Friction is also part
of fluid flow. The pressure drop along the direction of flow in a pipe because of the viscosity always acts so as to oppose the flow. It may be possible to reduce the effects of friction,
but it is never possible to eliminate friction altogether.
Non-quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression is an irreversibility. Earlier, we defined a
quasi-equilibrium process as one in which the system remains infinitesimally close to a
state of equilibrium as the change of state progresses. Quasi-equilibrium can never be fully
achieved, but it may be approached in expansion or compression processes if the process
takes place slowly.
10: 9
Heat transfer can only occur when there is a temperature difference and, by observation, we
see that heat transfer always occurs in the direction from high to low temperature. Conceptually, the only reversible heat transfer is between bodies at the same temperature, because
then the direction of heat flow would be reversible. But if there is no temperature difference, then there is no driving force for heat transfer to take place. Therefore, heat transfer is
fundamentally an irreversible process that can only approach reversibility if it takes place
isothermally between bodies of the same temperature.
10.4 The Carnot Cycle and the Reversed Carnot Cycle

The Second Law of Thermodynamics asserts that no heat engine can have an efficiency of
100%. What then is the theoretical best efficiency? The best efficiency may be expected
from a heat engine cycle that includes only ideal, or reversible, processes. The ideal heat
engine cycle is called the Carnot cycle. The Carnot cycle is made up of four reversible
processes as shown in the schematic and property diagram of Figure 10-5:
Process 1-2. Reversible Isothermal Heat Addition at Temperature TH' Heat from
the high-temperature reservoir is added to the heat engine at the isothermal temperature. Both the reservoir and inside the heat engine are at temperatureTw
The isothermal condition is necessary for reversibility. The amount of heat transferred is QH'
Process 2-3. Reversible, Adiabatic Expansion. The temperature drops from TH to
TL as the working fluid expands and the device does work. The process is assumed adiabatic because heat transfer to the surroundings would be considered
a loss. To be reversible, the expansion must be a quasi-equilibrium process at all
times. Earlier, we stated that a reversible, adiabatic process is the same as an
isentropic process.
Process 3-4. Reversible Isothermal Heat Rejection at Temperature TL Heat is
rejected from the process to the surrounding low-temperature reservoir at constant temperature TL . The amount of heat transferred is QL'
Process 4-1. Reversible, Adiabatic Compression. The temperature is raised from
TL to TH as the working fluid is compressed by the work of compression. The
reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process.
The net work of the cycle is the difference in magnitudes of the work of Process 2 to 3 and
Process 4 to 1.
10: 10
Temperature
1
2
TH -----~----~----~
----.
......._ _---1
TL -----~----4-----1
4
3
Wnet, out
Entropy S
Figure 10-5. The Carnot Cycle
F or a totally reversible heat engine, the ratio of the heat transfers at the high- and lowtemperature reservoirs may be used to define an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale
such that QHIQL = THITL. It is emphasized that this relation is not generally true for all heat
engines, but is applicable only for a reversible heat engine such as the Carnot cycle. The
thermal efficiency of a Carnot heat engine is then:
11 th,Camot
= 1- QL I QH
=I-TL ITH
This is theoretically the best efficiency of any heat engine operating between these two
absolute temperatures. Any real effect would cause the efficiency to be less than the Carnot
efficiency. For example, consider an automobile engine. The gasoline burns at a maximum
possible temperature of 1,540F, and the heat is rejected from the engine to the atmosphere
at 70F:
nth,Camot
= 1- TL I TH
= 1- (70 + 460) 1(1,540 + 460)

= 0.735
= 73.5%
10: 11
In reality, the actual thermal efficiency is much less than this because not all of the heat is
added at the highest temperature, the heat transfer is not reversible because it involves finite
temperature differences, and there is friction.
The reverse Carnot cycle is of interest because it forms the theoretical best model for the
refrigeration cycle. The Carnot refrigerator is shown in Figure 10-6. There are four components to the cycle with the following processes:
Process 1-2. Reversible Isothermal Heat Addition at Temperature TL (cooling
effect on surroundings).
Process 2-3. Reversible, Adiabatic Compression (isentropic).
Process 3-4. Reversible Isothermal Heat Rejection at Temperature TH (heating
effect on surroundings).
Process 4-1. Reversible, Adiabatic Expansion (isentropic).
Temperature
TH -----~----.-----~
----.
TL -----1-----~----4
1
2
Wnet, in
Entropy S
Figure 10-6. The Reversed Carnot Cycle
10: 12
The coefficients of performance of the Reversed Camot Cycle are:
COPR,Camot
COPHp,Camot
= 11 (QH 1QL -1)

= 11(TH 1~ - 1)
= 11 (1- QL 1QH)
= 11 (1- TL 1TH)
For example, consider a household refrigerator. If the freezer temperature is 10F and the
room temperature is 72F, then the best possible COP is:
COPR,Camot
= 11 (TH 1TL -1)

= 11{(72 + 460) 1(10 + 460) = 7.58
1}
This means that the heat removal from the refrigerated space is 7.58 times the amount of
electricity used to drive the refrigerator. An actual refrigerator has a COP of around two.
For example, consider an average house air-conditioning unit that has to provide 50,000
Btu/h of cooling at 45F. The air-conditioner rejects heat to the outdoors at 95F. Compare
the work required if it was a Camot refrigerator to the work required if it was an actual airconditioner with a COP of2.4:
COPR,camot
= 1I(TH 1TL -1)

= 11 {(95+ 460)1 (45 + 460)}
= 10.1
W;n,camot = ( Cooling Effect) 1COPR,camot
= (50,000 Btu/h)(1 kW 13,412 Btu 1h) 110.1

= 1.45 kW
W;n,Actual
= (Cooling Effect) 1COPR,Actual

= (50,000 Btu 1h)(1 kW 13,412 Btu 1h) 12.4
= 6.11 kW
The Camot cycle provides a convenient model of the ideal heat engine. The Second Law
efficiency of any other cycle is taken as the ratio of the thermal efficiency of the cycle
divided by the thermal efficiency of a Camot cycle operating between the same maximum
10: 13
and minimum temperatures. A similar idea applies to the Second Law efficiency of a refrigerator:
Second Law efficiency of a heat engine = 11 Ih /11 Ih Carnol
Second Law efficiency of a refrigerator = COPR / COPR Carnol
The Second Law efficiency does not estimate the amount of work delivered or required, but
instead it allows comparisons between different cycles about how effectively the quality of
energy is being utilized.
The clear message from the analysis of the Carnot cycle is that, to achieve the highest heat
engine efficiency, the high temperature should be as high as possible and the low temperature as low as possible. To achieve the highest COP for a refrigerator, the high temperature
should be as low as possible while the low temperature should be as high as posssible.
The Next Step

This chapter discussed the somewhat abstract conceptual models for reversible Carnot heat
engines and refrigerators. In the next chapter, we will examine the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle and the heat-driven absorption cycle and discuss the more practical aspects of performance of these important cycles used in refrigerators and chillers.
Summary
The Second Law of Thermodynamics was introduced as a needed addition to the First Law
to account for the observation that processes are in general irreversible.
The Kelvin-Planck Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics for heat engines:
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce an equivalent amount of work.
This statement may be interpreted to say that the efficiency of even the ideal heat engine
must be less than 100%.
10: 14
The Clausius Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics for refrigerators:

It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no
other effect than the transfer of heat from a lower temperature body to a higher
temperature body.
This statement may be interpreted to say that work is required to transfer heat in the direction of increasing temperature.
For a process to be possible, it must satisfy both the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics.
Thermal efficiency is a measure of performance for a heat engine and coefficients of performance are the measure of performance of refrigerators and heat pumps:
11th
= (Net work output) / (heat input)
=T..et ,out / QH
= 1-QL / QH
COPR
= (Cooling Effect) / (Work Required)

=QL /T..et in
COPHP
= (Heating Effect)/ (Work Required)

=
QH /T..et,in
The heat transfer quantities Q and the work quantities W in these relationships may also be
replaced with the heat transfer rate
Q and
the power
ffs respectively when considering a
flow problem.
The ideal heat engine cycle is the Carnot cycle and the ideal refrigeration cycle is the reversed Carnot cycle. The Carnot cycle is made up of the following four reversible processes:
1-2. Reversible, Isothermal Heat Addition
2-3. Reversible, Adiabatic Expansion (isentropic)
3-4. Reversible, Isothermal Heat Rejection
4-1. Reversible, Adiabatic Compression (isentropic)
10: 15
The thermal efficiency and coefficients of performance of the Carnot heat engine and reversed Carnot refrigerator are respectively:
11th,Carnot = 1- ~ / TH
= 1/ (TH / TL -1)
COPHP,carnot = 1/ (1- TL / TH)
COPR,Carnot
The Carnot cycle efficiency and Carnot COP represent the absolute upper limits on the
thermal efficiency and COP of any cycle. A Second Law efficiency is defined as the ratio of
cycle efficiency to Carnot cycle efficiency, or COP to Carnot COP.
Describe the concepts of reversibility and irreversibility;
Describe each of the processes that constitute a Carnot cycle; and
Analyze the performance of Carnot heat engines and Carnot refrigerators.
10: 16

10-1. A refrigerator with a coefficient of performance of 2.8 provides 120,000 Btu of

cooling. Calculate the net work required to run the refrigerator and the heat to be
rejected to the surroundings.
10.2.
Give the Clausius statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics and briefly
describe in your own words what the statement means.
10.3.
Describe the four processes of the reversed Carnot cycle and show the cycle on a T-s
diagram.
10.4.
A Carnot heat engine operates between a source at 2000 R and a sink at 440 R. If the
heat engine is supplied heat at a rate of 800 Btu/min, determine the thermal efficiency and the power output of the engine.
10.5.
A heat engine is operating on a Carnot cycle and has a thermal efficiency of 55%.
The waste heat from the engine is rejected to a nearby lake at 50 0 P at a rate of 600
Btu/min. Determine the power output of the engine and the temperature ofthe heat
source.
10.6. A refrigerator is required to remove heat from a cooled space at a rate of 200 Btu/
min to maintain a temperature of20oP. If the ambient air surrounding the refrigerator is at 72P, determine the minimum power input required for the refrigerator.
10.7.
An inventor claims to have developed a cooling system that removes heat from a
cooled region at lOoP and transfers it to surrounding air at 75P while maintaining a
COP of7.5. How do you assess the inventor's claim?
10.8.
An air-conditioning system is used to maintain a house at 72P when the temperature outside is 95P. The house is gaining heat through the walls and windows at a
rate of 50,000 Btu/h, and the heat generation rate within the house by lights and
appliances is 5,000 Btu/h. Determine the minimum power input required by the airconditioning system.
Cllapter 10 Tile Carnot Cycle
Fundamentals ofTllermot/ynamics and Psycllrometries
11: 1
Chapter 11
Instructions
11.1
Refrigeration Equipment
11.2
11.3
Analysis of the Components and Cycle
11.4
Performance of Ideal Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
11.5
11.6
Absorption Refrigeration System
11.7
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions

Chillers and refrigerators are important in many HVAC&R applications. In Chapter 11, we
will present the processes of several refrigeration cycles and describe in detail the application ofthe First Law of Thermodynamics to cycle analysis. The objectives are to understand
the working and performance evaluations ofthe vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the
absorption cycle, and the gas refrigeration cycle.
Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles
11: 2

Describe the components and processes of a vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle;
Apply the First Law to cycle analysis of a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle;
Evaluate the performance measures of refrigerators and heat pumps;
Evaluate the effect of non-ideal processes on the cycle;
Describe the absorption refrigeration cycle; and
Describe the gas refrigeration system.
CIlapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles
Fundamentals ofTIlermodynamics and Psychrometries
11: 3
11.1 Refrigeration Equipment

Refrigeration is the thermodynamic process for producing a cooling effect. There are different forms of refrigeration, but the most common is the vapor-compression cycle. It derives
its name from the use of a compressor as the primary driver of the cycle. The refrigeration
cycle has four mechanical components through which the refrigerant is circulated in a closed
loop. The refrigerant, or working fluid, is always separated from the air or water to be
chilled.
The refrigerant enters the compressor as a low pressure vapor and is compressed to a high
pressure by the work of the compressor. From the compressor, the high pressure vapor
flows to the condenser. The condenser is a heat exchanger where heat is rejected from the
refrigerant so that it is converted to a high pressure liquid. Following the condenser is the
thermal expansion valve, which lowers the pressure of the liquid refrigerant and is often
used to control the mass flow of refrigerant. After expansion, the low pressure refrigerant
enters the evaporator, which is a heat exchanger where the liquid refrigerant changes to
vapor. To make the change, the refrigerant requires heat (like a low temperature boiler). The
removal of this heat from the surroundings is the refrigeration, or cooling, effect desired.
Exiting from the evaporator, the refrigerant is again at the low pressure vapor state ready to
reenter the compressor for a repeat of the cycle. The four components in the vapor compression cycle are shown schematically in Figure 11-1.
1
q,
Condenser
Expansion
Valve
W
Evaporator
q,
Figure 11-1. Components of the Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
11: 4
The compressor is usually driven by an electric motor or other engine. There are several
different types of compressors in common use that are described by their means of compression. Reciprocating, rotating and helical rotating (screw) compressors are known as
positive displacement machines because they work by trapping a volume of vapor at inlet
and then reducing that volume and raising the pressure until delivery. In contrast, centrifugal compressors are characterized by continuous exchange of angular momentum between
a rotating impeller and a steadily flowing vapor. High rotational speed and steady flow
contribute to centrifugal compressors having a high volumetric efficiency for their physical
SIze.
The evaporator is the key component when considering cooling. The heat that is removed
from the air or water to evaporate the refrigerant in the evaporator is the cooling effect
desired in a refrigerator. For air-conditioning purposes, this heat removal must be done at a
low enough temperature to chill the water or air to the desired low temperature. Often the
temperature at the evaporator is selected to be cool enough to also remove some moisture
from the air and provide humidity control. While the evaporator cools, the condenser heats
because, during condensation, energy is released from the refrigerant. This heat rejection
takes place at a temperature above that of the surroundings. Sometimes a cooling tower is
used to help with the heat rejection.
Heat flow from high temperature to low temperature occurs naturally. With a refrigerator,
the heat flow is in the other direction. By doing work in the compressor, the heat is made to
flow from the cold side at the evaporator to the hot side at the condenser. Therefore, a
refrigerator is sometimes called a heat pump. This is especially true if the interest is to
supply a heating effect at the condenser rather than the cooling effect at the evaporator.
The efficiency with which a refrigerator or heat pump utilizes electricity to produce either
cooling or heating is known as the coefficient of performance. The cooling coefficient of
performance, COPcool ' is the cooling effect at the evaporator divided by the work done at
the compressor. The heating coefficient of performance, COPheat , is the heating effect at the
condenser divided by the work done at the compressor. The coefficients of performance are
dimensionless and typically larger than one. A dimensional version of the COP is the Energy Efficiency Ratio, EER, which is the cooling or heating effect in Btu/h divided by the
work of the compressor in watts.
The refrigerator may either cool the circulated air directly (as in most residential applications), or it may chill water for distribution to cooling coils located close to the cooled space
(as in most commercial applications). When used to chill water, the refrigerator is called a
chiller. Chiller capacity is measured in refrigeration tons. One ton of refrigeration is equivalent to a rate of cooling of 12,000 Btu/h. Furthermore, one ton of refrigeration will freeze
11:5
one physical ton of water to ice per day. This leads to an efficiency term that is commonly
used for chillers which is the work of the compressor expressed in k W over the refrigeration
effect given in tons, or kW/ton. This measure is the inverse of the coefficient of performance in different units.
11.2
The most efficient of all possible refrigeration cycles is the reversed Camot cycle, as described in the previous chapter. The cycle is made up offour reversible processes. Consider
the reversed Camot cycle shown in Figure 11-2. The T-s property diagram shows the cycle
within the saturated liquid/vapor region of the refrigerant. In this setting, it is reasonable to
imagine actual evaporators and condensers operating isothermally because of the phase
change. However, actual compressors and turbines cannot be found to closely approximate
the isentropic processes when they have to handle a liquid/vapor mixture.
An alternative is to place the cycle outside the mixed liquid/vapor region, but then it is the
isothermal heat transfer conditions that are difficult to approximate over the full range of
the condenser. The result of this discussion is that even though the reversed Camot cycle is
the most efficient of all cycles, it cannot be reasonably approximated by physical equipment, and it does not serve as a realistic model for refrigeration cycles. A more appropriate
model is the ideal vapor-compression cycle.
Figure 11-2. The Reversed Carnot Cycle on a T-s Property Diagram
11: 6
The ideal vapor-compression cycle is not as efficient as the reversed Carnot cycle but it
does match well with some idealized physical pieces of equipment. The ideal vapor-compression cycle has four components and the T-s property diagram for the four processes is
shown in Figure 11-3. The processes of an ideal vapor-compression cycle are:
1-2 - Isentropic compression of the refrigerant vapor in the compressor.
2-3 - Constant pressure heat rejection as the refrigerant goes from superheated
vapor to saturated liquid through the condenser.
3-4 - Constant enthalpy throttling in an expansion device.
4-1 - Constant pressure heat absorption as the refrigerant is evaporated in the
evaporator.
Saturated vapor at a low pressure enters the compressor at State 1 and is compressed isentropically (reversible, adiabatic) in the compressor to State 2. State 2 is a superheated refrigerant vapor that is at the highest temperature in the cycle. The constant pressure process
from State 2 to State 3 takes place in the condenser, although it includes more than just
condensing. The first part of the condenser is actually a desuperheater as the vapor is converted from its superheated state at a very high temperature to a saturated vapor condition at
the same pressure, but at the saturated vapor temperature.
Temperature
T
Condenser
Evaporator
Entropy,s
Figure 11-3. T-s Property Diagram for an Ideal Vapor-Compression Cycle
11:7
The second part of the condenser is where the condensation process occurs. Condensation
occurs at constant pressure and constant temperature because of the phase change. The
condensation temperature must be greater than the surroundings so that heat is rejected
from the condenser. At exit from the condenser, the refrigerant is a saturated liquid. The
saturated liquid at State 3 is throttled from the high condenser pressure to the low pressure
evaporator by passing through an expansion valve or capillary tube. The valve is both a
pressure reduction device and a metering device to control flow. The valve is an isenthalpic
device and the refrigerant emerges at State 4 as a liquid/vapor mixture at a temperature that
is below the temperature of the refrigerated space. Process 4-1 occurs in the evaporator as
the refrigerant liquid is converted to vapor. The heat needed to produce the phase change is
removed from the surrounding refrigerated space, thus providing the desired cooling effect.
The T-s diagram in Figure 11-3 is a logical property diagram for this cycle because it shows
the isentropic assumption of the compression process, and the isothermal nature of the
evaporation, and part of the condensation, processes. Another logical property diagram is
the p-h diagram in Figure 11-4 because it shows the constant pressure processes of the
condenser and evaporator, and the constant enthalpy process of the expansion valve. It is
the data for the p-h diagram that is given for R-22 and R-134a in Appendices C-2 and C-4.
Pressure
Condenser
Evaporator
Enthalpy, h
Figure 11-4. p-h Property Diagram for an Ideal Vapor-Compression Cycle
11: 8
11.3 Analysis ofthe Components and Cycle

First Law analysis can be applied to each of the four components of the ideal vapor-compression cycle, and then to the complete cycle. The kinetic and potential energy terms are
negligible. Therefore, the single-stream, steady-flow form of the First Law can be used on
the components. The sign convention used here is that heat transfer and work are given as
the magnitude (always positive) and the direction is taken care of by the sign in the equation. The components are shown in Figure 11-3.
Compressor: reversible, adiabatic (isentropic S2
= Sl):
Condenser: no work, constant p (p 3 = P2):

Expansion valve: no work, no heat transfer (isenthalpic):
Evaporator: no work, constant p (p 4
For the cycle:
wcompressor
=~ - ~
=~ - ~
h4 = ~
qH
= PI):
Wcompressor
= qH -
qL
11.4 Performance ofIdeal Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

The performance measure for a refrigerator is the coefficient of performance, which is defined as the cooling effect divided by the work of the compressor. The COPcoo1 for an ideal
vapor compression cycle is:
If the interest in the cycle is not the cooling effect, but the heating effect, then the vaporcompression cycle is known as a heat pump. Heat pumps have become quite popular in
residential houses because the same equipment may be used as an air-conditioner in summer and as a heat pump in winter. The coefficient of performance of a heat pump is defined
as the heating effect divided by the compressor work. For the ideal vapor-compression
cycle, the COPheal is greater than one, making the heat pump a more efficient use of electricity for residential heating than just a resistance heater.
11: 9
Example 11.1. Consider a 5-ton refrigeration system that operates on an ideal vapor-compression cycle with R-22 as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a
saturated vapor at 83.28 psia and is compressed to 396.32 psia. Find the coefficient of
performance of the refrigerator and the power of the compressor.
Solution. The property diagrams are shown schematically in Figures 11-3 and 11-4. Starting with state 1, the conditions at all states may be determined from Appendix C-l and
Appendix C-2 as:
State 1: Given saturated vapor at 83.28 psia:
Appendix C-l: tl = 40F, hI = 108.191 Btu/Ibm' SI = 0.22 Btu/lbmoF

State 2: GivenP2 = 396.32 psia, S2 = SI = 0.22Btu/lbmoF
Appendix C-2: t2 = 195F, h2 = 125 Btu/Ibm

State 3: Given saturated liquid atp3
P2 = 396.32 psia
Appendix C-l: t3 = 150F, h3 = 56.37 Btu/Ibm

State 4: GivenP4
PI = 83.28 psia, and h4 = h3 = 56.37 Btu/Ibm
Appendix C-l: x4= (h 4- hJ)/(hg - hJ) = (56.37 - 21.688)/(108.191 - 21.688) =

0.40
The coefficient of performance is:
CO~oOI
= q L 1wcompressor = (~ - h4 ) 1(~ -~)

= (108.191- 56.37) 1(125 -1 08.191)
=3.08
The power of the compressor is:
U:ompressor
= QL 1CO~ool
= (5 tons)(12,000 Btu/h.ton)(kW 13,412 Btu 1 h)1 3.08
=5.71 kW
If this had been a Carnot cycle operating between the evaporator temperature of 40F and
the heat rejection temperature of 150F, then the Carnot coefficient of performance would
have been:
COPCamo / = 11 (TH 1 TL -1)
= 11 {(150 +460) 1 (40 +460)-1}
= 4.55
11: 10
It should be noted that the Carnot coefficient of performance is usually calculated for the
surrounding temperatures rather than the refrigerant temperatures as done here. If surrounding temperatures had been used, the Carnot COP would have been higher. Remember that
the Carnot COP is the unattainable ideal.
11.5
There are several reasons why the actual performance of a refrigerator is less than the ideal.
Besides friction, there are issues of heat loss and pressure drop that are not accounted for in
the ideal cycle. Shown in Figure 11-5 is the ideal cycle (solid line) and the more realistic
actual cycle (dotted line) as they appear on a T-s and p-h diagrams.
The ideal process in the compressor is from State 1 to State 2s. The term 2s for the end of
the compression process is to indicate that the process was isentropic. The actual compression process from State 1 to State 2a is likely to deviate from isentropic because of two
effects. Heat loss from the compressor decreases the entropy. Irreversible effects, such as
friction, increase entropy. Friction always increases the work required to compress the vapor from PI to P r If there is no heat loss and the increase in entropy is only due to
irreversibilities, then the ratio of the ideal work to actual work is known as the isentropic
efficiency of the compressor:
11 isentropic
= wideal / Wactual = (~s - ~) / (~a - ~)
Figure 11-5. Property Diagrams for Vapor-Compression Cycles

With an Adiabatic Compressor
11: 11
The ideal processes from State 2 to State 3 and from State 4 back to State 1 are constant
pressure processes. For the actual processes, there is a pressure loss along the length of each
heat exchanger, resulting in the actual States 3a and 4a.
Example 11.2. Consider the same problem as in Example 11.1 but with an isentropic efficiency for the adiabatic compressor of 80%, a pressure drop in the condenser of 4.52 psi,
and a pressure drop in the evaporator of7.511 psi. The 5-ton refrigeration system operates
on an actual vapor-compression cycle with R-22 as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters
the compressor as a saturated vapor at 83.28 psia and is compressed to 396.32 psia. Find the
coefficient of performance of the refrigerator and the power of the compressor.
Solution. The property diagrams are shown schematically in Figure 11-5. Starting with
State 1, the conditions at all states may be determined from Appendix C-1 and Appendix C-2
as:
State 1: Given saturated vapor at 83.28 psia:
= 40F, h] = 108.191 Btu/Ibm's] = 0.22 Btu/lbmoF

State 2: GivenP2 = 396.32 psia, S2s = S] = 0.22 Btu/lbn/F
Appendix C-2: t2s = 190F, h2s = 125 Btu/Ibm
Appendix C-1: t]
Isentropic efficiency:
TJisentropic
wideal
1Wactual
= (~s -~) 1(~a -~)
Solving for the actual enthalpy:
~a = ~ +(~s -~)/TJisentroPic
= 108.191 +(125-108.191)1 0.8

= 129.202 Btu/lb m
State 3: Given saturated liquid at P3a = (P2 - 4.522) = (396.32 - 4.52) = 391.79
psia
Interpolating between values in Appendix C-1:
t3a
= 145.00+(150.00-145.00)(391.79 = 144F
373.71) 1(396.32 - 373.71)
~a = 54.553 + (56.370- 54.553)(391.79 - 373.71) 1(396.32 - 373.71)
= 56.00 Btu/lb m
11: 12
State 4: P4a = Pi + 7.511 = (83.28 + 7.511) = 90.791 psi a, and h4a = h3a = 56.00
Btullbm
From Appendix C-1: t4a = 45.00F
x4a = (h4a - hj ) 1(hg - hj
= (56.00 - 23.111) 1(108.600 - 23.111)
= 0.385
CO~ool = q L 1wcompressor = (~ - h4a ) 1(~a -~)
=(108.191-56.00)1 (129.202 -108.191)

=2.48
~ompressor = QL 1CO~ool
= (5 tons)(12,000 Btu/h.ton)(kW 13,412 Btu 1 h) 12.48
=7.09 kW
The power required for the actual cycle is greater than for an ideal cycle, and the coefficient
of performance is smaller.
Example 11.3. Re-work the ideal cycle of Example 11.1, except that there is heat removal in
the compressor such that the compressor outlet temperature is 175F. The 5-ton refrigeration system operates on a vapor-compression cycle with R-22 as the working fluid. The
refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at 83.28 psia and is compressed to
396.32 psia. Find the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator and the power of the
compressor.
Solution. The property diagrams are shown schematically in Figure 11-6. States 1, 3 and 4
are unchanged from Example 11.1. The only difference is in State 2. The conditions at State
2a may be determined from Appendix C-2 as:
State 2: GivenP2a = 396.32 psia, t2a = 175F

Appendix C-2: h2 = 124 Btu/Ibm
Fundamentals ofThermot/ynamics and Psychrometrics
11: 13
The chart in Appendix C-2 is not easy to read exactly. The value has to be visually interpolated to lie between the lines of temperature of 160F and 200F.
CO~ool = qL / wcompressor = (~ - h4 ) / (~a -~)

= (108.191- 56.37) / (124 -108.191)
= 3.28
Ft:ompressor
= QL / CO~ool
= (5 tons)(12,000 Btu/hton)(kW / 3,412 Btu/h)/ 3.28
=5.36kW
It is a practical matter that the COP can be improved through heat removal from the compressor. It is standard practice and is also important in multi-staging of compressors. From
a theoretical viewpoint, the process is not ideal, but that is counteracted by the fact that the
heat removed from the compressor is rejected at a lower temperature than the peak superheat temperature that occurs after isentropic compression, leading to a higher COP.
..---
.....
25
Figure 11-6. Property Diagrams for Vapor-Compression Cycle

With Heat Removal from the Compressor
11: 14
11.6 Absorption Refrigeration System

There is another form of refrigeration known as the absorption cycle. This cycle is heat
driven rather than work driven. It involves a mixture of two components that have some
attraction for each other. Common mixtures are ammonia with water, and lithium bromide
with water. For discussion purposes, we will use the water/lithium bromide mixture shown
in Figure 11-7 to describe how the cycle works.
Lithium bromide is a salt that dissolves in water. The water and lithium bromide are in
solution in the generator as heat qgenerator is applied. The heat provides energy to break the
bonds of mixing and the heat of vaporization to boil off some of the water. The lithium
bromide-rich solution left behind goes to the absorber while the water vapor goes to a condenser where it is converted to liquid at the high pressure. The water is considered the
refrigerant and is passed through a metering valve to enter the evaporator at a low pressure.
The water evaporates in the evaporator, providing the cooling effect qcool on the surroundings as described before for refrigeration. The vapor leaving the evaporator is at low pressure but needs to be returned to the generator as a high pressure liquid.
High Pressure
Water Vapor
~ndenser
Condenser
Generator
~en.ra1Dr
High Pressure
Water Liquid
Metering
Device
Throttle
Valve
Weak
Solution
(Lithium Bromide)
Strong Solution
(Lithium Bromide)
Evaporator
Absorber
Pump
~absorber
Low Pressure
Water Liquid
Low
Pressure
Water
Vapor
~OOI
Figure 11-7. Components of the Absorption Refrigeration System
11: 15
In the vapor-compression cycle, this is achieved with a compressor; whereas in absorption

refrigeration, this is achieved by mixing the low pressure water vapor with the lithium
bromide solution in the absorber. The lithium bromide has a strong attraction for the water
vapor and will convert it to liquid upon mixing. (You can understand this effect if you set
out some dry salt on the counter on a humid day; you will see that the salt is able to pull the
moisture out of the air to convert it into a wet drop on the counter.)
During this process, the condensing water vapor will give up heat in the absorber which
must be rejected from the absorber. The low-pressure mixture of water and lithium bromide
is then pumped up to the generator pressure to start the cycle over. The coefficient of performance is given as the ratio of the cooling effect to the heat used to drive the cycle, qcooI /
qgenerator . At face value, the COP for the absorption cycle is less than that of the vaporcompression cycle, but it uses heat instead of work to drive the cycle and therefore avoids a
heat engine to first convert the heat into work.
11. 7
Another refrigeration cycle is shown in Figure 11-8. The gas refrigeration system operates
on the principle of compressing a gas, removing heat, and then expanding the gas to a low
temperature. A gas, like air, enters the compressor and is compressed isentropically to a
high pressure and temperature. Heat is removed from the gas in a heat exchanger that follows a line of constant pressure. The air enters the turbine at high pressure but at moderate
temperature. Through the turbine, the gas is expanded to a low pressure and low tempera-
Figure 11-8. Components of the Gas Refrigeration System
11: 16
ture as energy is removed in the form of work. It is the low temperature gas that provides the
cooling effect in the second heat exchanger. The open cycle form of gas refrigeration is
commonly used on aircraft because of the light weight. The more efficient closed cycle gas
refrigeration cycle includes regeneration whereby some of the warm gas leaving the high
pressure heat exchanger preheats the cold gas entering the compressor.
The Next Step

The past chapters have used the thermodynamic properties of single pure substances. The
next step is to explore the thermodynamics of mixtures. In particular, we will be interested
in the mixture of air and moisture vapor, but to build up to that understanding we must first
understand the rules for a mixture of ideal gases. The topic of the thermodynamics of moist
air is known as psychrometrics.
Summary
The ideal vapor-compression cycle is not as efficient as the reversed Carnot cycle, but it
does match well with some idealized physical pieces of equipment. The ideal vapor-compression cycle has four components: compressor, condenser, expansion valve and evaporator. The processes of an ideal vapor-compression cycle are:
1-2 - Isentropic compression of the refrigerant vapor in the compressor.
2-3 - Constant pressure heat rejection as the refrigerant goes from superheated
vapor to saturated liquid through the condenser.
3-4 - Constant enthalpy throttling in an expansion device.
4-1 - Constant pressure heat absorption as the refrigerant is evaporated in the
evaporator.
The performance measure for a refrigerator is the coefficient of performance, defined as the
cooling effect divided by the work of the compressor. The COPcool for an ideal vapor compression cycle is:
CO~ool
qL / wcompressor
(~ - h4 ) / (~ -~)
If the interest in the cycle is not the cooling effect, but the heating effect, then the vaporcompression cycle is known as a heat pump. Heat pumps have become quite popular in
residential houses because the same equipment may be used as an air-conditioner in sum-
11: 17
mer and a heat pump in winter. The coefficient of performance of a heat pump is defined as
the heating effect divided by the compressor work. For the ideal vapor-compression cycle,
the COPheat is greater than one, making the heat pump a more efficient use of electricity for
residential heating than just a resistance heater:
COp"eat
= qH / wcompressor = (~ -~)/ (~ -~)
The actual vapor-compression cycle includes irreversible effects such as friction and pressure drop. The isentropic efficiency of an adiabatic compressor is:
11 isentropic
= wideal / Wactual = (~s - ~) / (~a - ~)
The performance of a vapor-compression refrigerator can be improved through heat removal during the compression process. The heat removal reduces the amount of work required in the compressor.
The absorption refrigeration cycle is a heat-driven cycle that depends on a mixture of two
substances that have an affinity for each other. The condenser, expansion valve and evaporator are similar to the vapor-compression cycle, but the compressor is replaced by a generator-absorber combination. The COP for the absorption cycle is typically much lower
than for a vapor-compression cycle, but is useful in places where there is a heat source to
drive the cycle.
The gas refrigeration cycle operates on the principle of compressing a gas, removing heat
and then expanding the gas to a low temperature. The refrigerant is the gas. Open cycle gas
refrigeration is commonly used on aircraft because of the light weight. The more efficient
closed loop gas refrigeration cycle includes internal regeneration within the cycle.
Describe the components and processes of a vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle.
Apply the First Law to cycle analysis of a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
Evaluate the performance measures of refrigerators and heat pumps.
Evaluate the effect of non-ideal processes on the cycle.
Describe the absorption refrigeration cycle.
Describe the gas refrigeration system.
11: 18

11-01. Sketch the basic elements of the vapor-compression cycle: compressor, condenser,
expansion valve and evaporator and describe the basic function of each.
11-02. Sketch the T-s and p-h property diagrams of an ideal vapor-compression cycle and
describe the thermodynamic processes of the cycle.
11-03. A 3-ton refrigeration system operates on an ideal vapor-compression cycle with

R-134a as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated
vapor at 8.577 psia and is compressed to 199.25 psia. Find the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator and the power of the compressor. Compare the coefficient
of performance with that of a Carnot cycle operating between -35F and 125F.
11-04. A 3-ton refrigeration system operates on an actual vapor-compression cycle with

R-134a as the working fluid. The isentropic efficiency of the adiabatic compressor
is 85%. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at 8.577 psia and
is compressed to 199.25 psia. The pressure drop in the condenser is 13 Al psi. The
pressure drop in the evaporator is 2.72 psi. Find the coefficient of performance of
the refrigerator and the power of the compressor.
11-05. A 5 kW compressor drives an ideal vapor-compression cycle heat pump with R-22
as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at
83.28 psia and is compressed to 396.32 psia. Find the heating capability ofthe heat
pump and the coefficient of performance.
11: 19
11-06. An ice-making machine operates on a vapor-compression cycle using R-22. The

refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at 10F and leaves the compressor with an enthalpy of 120 Btu/Ibm. The condenser pressure is 210.69 psia.
Water enters the ice-machine at 55F and leaves as ice at 25F. For an ice production rate of 10 Ibm Ih, estimate the power input to the refrigerator. The heat removed
to convert 55F water to ice at 25F is 169 Btu/lbm .
11-07. Sketch and describe the operation of an absorption refrigeration cycle that uses a
mixture of ammonia and water. Ammonia serves as the refrigerant.
11-08. Sketch and describe the operation of an open cycle gas refrigeration system.
12: 1
Chapter 12
Instructions
12.1
Introduction
12.2
Mixtures ofldeal Gases
12.3
Mixture of Dry Air and Water Vapor
12.4
Moist Air Tables
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions

The objective of Chapter 12 is to develop a thermodynamic understanding of the behavior
of mixtures of ideal gases. The topic is important because it serves as the basis upon which
we will idealize the behavior of the mixture of dry air and water vapor as found in many
HV AC applications. The mixture properties will be described in terms of the mass and
mole fractions of the components. The conceptual models of Dalton and Amagat will be
introduced and used to develop the idea of partial pressure. Moist air will be considered as
a example of a mixture of ideal gases. The property expressions and moist air tables will be
explained.
Chapter 12 MoistAir
12:2

Understand the Dalton and Amagat models as they apply to the basic description
of a mixture of ideal gases, including the concepts of partial pressure and partial
volume;
Calculate mixture properties given the constituent properties and the composition of the mixture;
Describe why the model of a mixture of ideal gases is applicable to moist air; and
Calculate the properties of moist air as a function of temperature.
Chapter 12 MoistAir
12: 3
12.1 Introduction
Understanding the thermodynamics of mixtures is very important for many practical applications. Air is a mixture of many gases. Until now, we have been able to treat air as a pure
substance, even though it is a mixture, because we have not needed to consider the change
in the proportions of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and other gases that make up air.
However, what happens in thermodynamic calculations in which the moisture content of
the moist air changes from one state to another? Are the components affected differently,
and ifthey are, how is each component to be treated? Air and water are known as a nonreacting
gas mixture. As a different example, consider the reactive process of combustion. During
combustion, a chemical reaction occurs between the fuel and air. How can thermodynamics
be applied to find the heat released and the makeup of the resultant exhaust gases? Combustion is an example of a reactive mixture. In this chapter, we will restrict our studies to the
non-reactive mixture of ideal gases only.
The general study of the thermodynamics of mixtures can be quite complicated, but we can
gain insight by looking at the basics and studying a mixture of only ideal gases. The ideal
gas model will serve well to describe the thermodynamics of a mixture of air and moisture,
because at the typical room temperatures, and because of the small amount of moisture in
the air, both the air and water vapor can reasonably be approximated as ideal gases.
12.2 Mixtures ofIdeal Gases

Ideal gases are special. The kinetic model for an ideal gas is such that the individual molecules that make up the gas are dispersed so far apart from each other that the number of
direct collisions between molecules is negligible as the molecules move around in some
common space. Descriptively, we can say that any particular molecule in an ideal gas does
not know that it shares common space with any of the other molecules and it behaves as
though it were alone in that space.
Consider the molecules of an ideal gas contained within a container of volume V. The
molecules will collide with the walls of the container. The frequency and intensity of the
collisions depend on the type of molecule, number of molecules in the container and the
kinetic energy of each molecule. The kinetic energy of the molecules is a function of the gas
temperature such that the higher the temperature, the more active the molecules. The pressure in the vessel is a manifestation of the collisions with the container wall.
Chapter 12 MoistAir
12:4
Keeping in mind that an ideal gas is one in which the molecules are spread far enough apart
so that individual molecules do not collide with each other, consider the following two
ways of how a mixture of ideal gases of volume V, pressure p, and temperature Tmay have
arisen. (Whenever there is no subscript on the symbol, then the symbol represents a property of the mixture.)
The Dalton model is shown in Figure 12-1. Here, a volume V of ideal gas A at pressure PA
and temperature T is mixed with a volume V of ideal gas B at pressure PB and temperature T
and placed in a container of the same volume Vat the same temperature T. Each molecule
of gas in the mixture, A or B, behaves as though it alone occupies the volume V. The result
is that the pressure of the mixture, or total pressure, is the sum of the pressures PA and PB
because there is a simple additive effect of the molecule collisions with the container walls.
The pressuresPA andpB are known as the partial pressures.
Dalton's law of additive pressures is:
The pressure of an ideal gas mixture is equal to the sum of the pressures each gas
would exert if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and volume.
Gas A
Pressure
Volume
Mass
Moles
PA
V
rnA
NA
GasB
Pressure
Volume
Mass
Moles
Pe
V
me
NB
-----+-
Mixture
Pressure (PA+Pe)
Volume
V
(rnA+rn e)
Mass
Moles
(NA+N B)
Figure 12-1. Dalton's Law of Additive Pressures
The Amagat model is shown in Figure 12-2. Here, a volume VA of ideal gas A at pressure P
and temperature T is mixed with a volume VB of ideal gas B at the same pressure P and
temperature T and placed in a container of volume Vat the same pressure P and temperature
T. Each molecule of gas in the mixture, A or B, behaves as though it alone contributes to
pressure p. The result is that the volume of the mixture, or total volume, is the sum of the
volumes VA and VB because there is a simple additive effect of the space occupied. The
volumes VA and VB are known as the partial volumes.
Amagat's law of additive volumes is:
The volume of an ideal gas mixture is equal to the sum of the volumes each gas
would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and pressure.
Chapter 12 MoistAir
12: 5
Gas A
Pressure
Volume
Mass
Moles
P
VA
rnA
NA
GasB
Pressure
Volume
Mass
Moles
P
VB
mB
NB
----...
Mixture
Pressure p
Volume
lYA+VB)
Mass
(rnA+rn B)
Moles
(NA+Ne)
Figure 12-2. Amagat's Law of Additive Volumes
This means that when looking at a mixture of ideal gases, regardless of how the mixture was
made, the mixture can be described as a volume V in which the pressure p is made up of the
sum of partial pressures, or as a mixture at pressure p for which the volume V is made up of
the sum of the partial volumes. The description using the partial pressures will be more
convenient when we come to considering the mixture of air and water vapor.
There are some other useful measures that can be developed from a mixture of ideal gases
by considering the models given in Figures 12-1 and 12-2. The properties of a gas mixture
depend on the properties of the individual components and the composition of the mixture.
There are two ways of specifying the composition:
If the composition is given as the number of moles of each component in the
mixture, it is known as a molar analysis.
If the composition is given as the mass of each component, it is known as a
gravimetric analysis.
For a mixture of ideal gases, the mass is:
The mass fractions are:

mfA = mAl m and
mfB =mB1m
For a mixture of ideal gases, the number of moles is:
Chapter 12 MoistAir
12:6
(Note that for reacting mixtures, this would be different because one mole reacted with
another mole produces one mole of product, but here we are only considering nomeacting
ideal gases.)
The mole fractions are therefore:
YA=NAIN and
YB = NB IN
The mole and mass fractions are useful in determining the properties of a mixture. For
example, consider the specific enthalpy of the mixture:
h = mfAhA + mfBhB
h
= y}iA + YBhB
The overbar indicates per unit mole. The molar mass of a substance is the mass divided by
the number of moles. Therefore, the molecular weight of the mixture is:
M=mIN
=mAI N+mBI N
=NAMAIN+NBMBIN
=YAMA+YBMB
F or ideal gases, there is a relationship between the partial pressure and the mole fraction.
The ideal gas law applied to each of the three boxes in the Dalton model shown in Figure
12-1 is:
For gas A:
=NA Ru T
For gas B:
=NR
T
B u
For mixture:
=NRu T
The universal gas constant, Ru = 1986 Btu/(lbmo/R) = 10.73 psia.ft3/(lbmo/R)

Dividing the equations for gas A and gas B by the equation for the mixture results in:
PAl p=NAI N=YA

PBlp=NBIN=YB
A similar argument for the Amagat model in Figure 12-2 leads to:
VA I V = N A I N =Y A
VB IV = NB IN = YB
Chapter 12 MoistAir
12: 7
The partial pressure only changes if there is a change of composition or a change in total
pressure. In words, the result may be expressed as:
Partial pressure = mole fraction x total pressure = volume fraction x total pressure
The above expressions are all derived for just two ideal gases in a mixture. The results can
be easily extended to mixtures of any number of ideal gases. On the other hand, real gases
do not always behave as ideal gases. The conceptual models derived above are applicable to
real gases, but adjustments must be made to the detailed results.
12.3 Mixture ofDry Air and Water Vapor

For the following discussion, we need to be specific about the use of the term air. Moist air
as used here is to be considered as a mixture of dry air (itself a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen
and some other gases) and water vapor (sometimes referred to as moisture).
Dry air may be accurately treated as an ideal gas with constant specific heat at atmospheric
pressure and at the temperatures commonly encountered in HVAC applications. The value
of the specific heat for dry air is Cpa = 0.240 BtuI(lbn/F). Therefore, the enthalpy (with a
reference value of 0 at OF) and change in enthalpy for dry air may be calculated as:
ha
!::.ha
Cpa t = 0.240 t Btullbdryatr.
= Cpa !::. t = 0.240 /).t Btullbdryatr.
with temperature t in OF
with temperature change in OF or R
Water vapor may also be accurately treated as an ideal gas under the right conditions. For
common HV AC conditions, the total pressure of the dry air and water vapor mixture is
atmospheric and the temperature is in the range ofOF to 125F. The saturation pressure of
water vapor at 125F is only 2 psia (see Appendix B-1). At and below this low pressure,
water vapor may be treated as an ideal gas with negligible error (under 0.2%) even when it
is in a saturated condition. If water vapor is treated as an ideal gas, then the enthalpy depends only on temperature, and the enthalpy can be taken to be equal to the saturated vapor
value at the appropriate temperature. Saturated values for water vapor are given in Appendix B-1. Over the range of temperatures commonly encountered in HV AC, the enthalpy of
saturated water may be reasonably calculated as:
hg =
1061.5 + 0.435 t
Btullbvapor
Therefore, both the dry air and water vapor components of moist air behave as ideal gases
and may be analyzed as though each alone occupied the space. Therefore, the pressure of
Chapter 12 MoistAir
12: 8
the air (usually atmospheric) is the sum of the partial pressures of dry air and water vapor:
The subscripts a and v refer to dry air and water vapor, respectively. The partial pressure of
water vapor is often also referred to as the vapor pressure. The vapor pressure is the pressure
the water vapor would exert if it alone occupied the space at the temperature and volume of
the mixture.
There is an upper limit as to how much water vapor can be present in moist air. That limit
depends on the temperature. Consider a mixture of given composition and at a specified
total pressure. As the mixture is cooled, the temperature will fall until it reaches a value
when the saturation pressure of the water vapor (Pg) is just equal to the partial pressure of
the vapor in the mixture (p J. Any cooling below this saturated temperature will cause some
of the water vapor to condense to saturated liquid. At the saturation temperature, the moist
air is said to be saturated and incapable of holding any more water vapor.
12.4 MoistAir Tables

The properties of moist air are tabulated in the table on thermodynamic properties of moist
air at standard pressure in Appendix D-1. A sample of that table is shown in Figure 12-3. As
can be seen from the column headings, the properties for all but the condensed water are
given per Ibm of dry air, and not per Ibm of mixture. As we shall see later, this is a convenient
form for the application of the equations of First Law of Thermodynamics.
The entries in the table are listed according to temperature. The humidity ratio is defined as
the mass ratio of water vapor to dry air in the mixture. The value given in the table is the
value at the saturation condition. For example, that means at 70F, the humidity ratio could
be anywhere between 0 and a maximum ofO.015832lbjlbda (Ibm water vapor to Ibm dry
air). The specific volume, enthalpy and entropy are all given at both the conditions of zero
humidity ratio (dry air) and maximum humidity ratio (saturated air) with the possibility of
linearly interpolating between those extremes according to humidity ratio. The vapor pressure given under the heading of condensed water is actually the saturated pressure of water
at the specified temperature. The units of pressure are given as inches of mercury because it
is easy to compare with the standard atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury. For calculation purposes, it is just as convenient to find the saturation pressure in psia from the tables
for water (see Appendix B-1).
Chapter 12 MoistAir
12: 9
Condensed Water
Temp. Humidity
t,
Ratio,
of Ib.,JIbda Ws
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
Enthalpy,
Btullb dry air
Volume,
ft311b dry air
Entropy,
Btul(lb dry air) of
hga
Vapor
Enthalpy, Entropy, Press.,
Btullb Btullb' of in.Hg
vG
vllg
va
g
hG
0.010692
0.011087
0.011496
0.011919
0.012355
0.012805
0.013270
0.013750
0.014246
0.014758
0.015286
13.071
13.096
13.122
13.147
13.172
13.198
13.223
13.248
13.273
13.299
13.324
0.224
0.233
0.242
0.251
0.261
0.271
0.281
0.292
0.303
0.315
0.326
13.295
13.329
13.364
13.398
13.433
13.468
13.504
13.540
13.577
13.613
13.650
14.174
14.415
14.655
14.895
15.135
15.376
15.616
15.856
16.097
16.337
16.577
11.618
12.052
12.502
12.966
13.446
13.942
14.454
14.983
15.530
16.094
16.677
25.792
26.467
27.157
27.862
28.582
29.318
30.071
30.840
31.626
32.431
33.254
0.02901
0.02947
0.02994
0.03040
0.03086
0.03132
0.03178
0.03223
0.03269
0.03315
0.03360
0.02358
0.02442
0.02528
0.02617
0.02709
0.02804
0.02902
0.03003
0.03107
0.03214
0.03325
0.05259
0.05389
0.05522
0.05657
0.05795
0.05936
0.06080
0.06226
0.06376
0.06529
0.06685
27.11
28.11
29.12
30.11
31.11
32.11
33.11
34.11
35.11
36.11
37.11
0.015832
0.016395
0.016976
0.017575
0.018194
0.018833
0.019491
0.020170
0.020871
0.021594
13.349
13.375
13.400
13.425
13.450
13.476
13.501
13.526
13.551
13.577
0.339
0.351
0.365
0.378
0.392
0.407
0.422
0.437
0.453
0.470
13.688
13.726
13.764
13.803
13.843
13.882
13.923
13.963
14.005
14.046
16.818
17.058
17.299
17.539
17.779
18.020
18.260
18.500
18.741
18.981
17.279
17.901
18.543
19.204
19.889
20.595
21.323
22.075
22.851
23.652
34.097
34.959
35.841
36.743
37.668
38.615
39.583
40.576
41.592
42.633
0.Q3406
0.03451
0.03496
0.03541
0.03586
0.03631
0.03676
0.03721
0.03766
0.03811
0.03438
0.03556
0.03677
0.03801
0.03930
0.04062
0.04199
0.04339
0.04484
0.04633
0.06844
0.07007
0.07173
0.07343
0.07516
0.07694
0.07875
0.08060
0.08250
0.08444
38.11
39.11
40.11
41.11
42.11
43.11
44.10
45.10
46.10
47.10
haga
SG
Saga
sa
g
hw
Temp.,
p/
0.0536
0.0555
0.0575
0.0594
0.0613
0.0632
0.0651
0.0670
0.0689
0.0708
0.0727
0.50363
0.52193
0.54082
0.56032
0.58041
0.60113
0.62252
0.64454
0.66725
0.69065
0.71479
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
67
68
69
0.0746
0.0765
0.0783
0.0802
0.0821
0.0840
0.0858
0.0877
0.0896
0.0914
0.73966
0.76567
0.79167
0.81882
0.84684
0.87567
0.90533
0.93589
0.96733
0.99970
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
S..
66
Figure 12.3 Example of Moist Air Table
Example 12.1 - Consider moist, atmospheric air at 70 0 P and determine from Appendix D-1
the humidity ratio and enthalpy in the following cases:
Saturated air
Humidity ratio ofO.01lbw Ilbda
Solution -
Saturated air: Humidity ratio = 0.015832 lb w Ilbda , enthalpy = 34.097 Btu/lb a

Interpolation
Table 12-1
Humidity Ratio,
IbJlb da
0.0
0.01
0.015832
Enthalpy,
Btullba
16.818
h -16.818 +
(0.01/0.015832)(17.279)
= 27.73
34.097
Chapter 12 MoistAir
12: 10
The Next Step

Having formulated the basics about treating moist air as a mixture of ideal gases, we are
now ready to see how these basics can apply to the terms and calculations of processes such
as cooling, dehumidification and comfort that involve moist air. In Chapter 13, we will
define the terms for relative humidity, dewpoint and wet-bulb temperature, and develop
expressions for the application of the First Law of Thermodynamics to moist air.
Summary
In this chapter, we laid the groundwork for the study of moist air or psychrometrics. The
basis of the analysis was that moist air could be treated as a mixture of ideal gases. The
Dalton and Amagat laws for ideal gases are:
Dalton's law of additive pressures: The pressure of an ideal gas mixture is equal
to the sum of the pressures each gas would exert if it existed alone at the mixture
temperature and volume.
Amagat's law of additive volumes: The volume of an ideal gas mixture is equal
to the sum of the volumes each gas would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and pressure.
The Dalton and Amagat models applied to the mixture of two ideal gases, gas A and gas B,
led to the following expressions of partial pressure ratio, volume fraction and mole fraction:
P A / P = VA / V = N A / N = Y A
PB / P = VB / V = N B / N = Y B
The mass and mole fractions are useful in determining the properties of a mixture. For
example, the specific enthalpy of the mixture of ideal gases is:
The molecular weight of the mixture is:
M=YAMA +YBMB
Chapter 12 MoistAir
12: 11
The enthalpy of dry air at pressures and temperatures commonly encountered in HVAC
applications may be accurately calculated as:
ha
= Cpa
llha
with temperature t in OF
0.24 t Btullbdryair
Cpa II t = 0.24 II t Btullbdrymr.
with temperature change in of or R
The enthalpy of water vapor at partial pressures and temperatures commonly encountered
in HVAC applications may be accurately calculated as:
hg
1061.5 + 0.435 t Btullbvapor
with t in of, and
-20F < t < 125F
Dry air and water vapor may be treated as ideal gases when combined as moist air at the
temperatures and pressures commonly encountered in HVAC applications. For moist air,
the total pressure is the sum of the dry air and vapor pressures:
Pa + Pv
The partial pressure of water vapor is often also referred to as the vapor pressure. It is the
pressure the water vapor would exert if it alone occupied the space at the temperature and
volume of the mixture.
There is an upper limit as to how much water vapor can be present in moist air. That limit
depends on the temperature and is known as the saturated air condition. It occurs when the
vapor pressure is equal to the saturated vapor pressure at that temperature, p v = Pg
Moist air tables shown in Appendix D-llist the property values of moist air by temperature
for both dry air (zero humidity ratio) and saturated conditions. The tabulated values are
given per unit mass of dry air.
After studying Chapter 12, you are able to:
Understand the Dalton and Amagat models as they apply to the basic description
of a mixture of ideal gases, including the concepts of partial pressure and partial
volume.
Calculate mixture properties given the constituent properties and the composition of the mixture.
Describe why the model of a mixture of ideal gases is applicable to moist air.
Calculate the properties of moist air as a function of temperature.
Chapter 12 MoistAir
12: 12
Skill Development Exercisesfor Chapter 12

12-01. State Dalton's law of additive pressures, and then sketch and explain how this model
may result from the addition of two gases of equal volume and temperature.
12-02. Calculate the mass fractions and mole fractions when 2 Ibm nitrogen (molecular
weight MN2 = 28.013 Ibmllbmo/J is mixed with 6 Ibm hydrogen (molecular weight
MH2 = 2.016Ib /lb J What is the molecular weight of the mixture? What are the
m mo/
partial volume fractions and the partial pressure fractions?
12-03. 2lbm dry air (molecular weight MAlr, = 28.97 lbm lIbmoeI) is mixed with 0.1 lbm water
vapor (molecular weight MH20 = 18.015Ibm/lbmo/J. What is the molecular weight of
the mixture? What is the partial pressure of the water vapor if the total pressure is
atmospheric (14.97 psi a)? Compare the partial pressure with the saturated pressure
at 100F and say whether this mixture is possible at this temperature.
12-04. Find the humidity ratio, specific volume (per Ibm of dry air) and specific enthalpy
(per Ibm of dry air) of saturated moist air at standard atmospheric pressure and 120F.
12-05. Find the specific enthalpy (per Ibm of dry air) of moist air at standard atmospheric
pressure and 120F if the humidity ratio is 0.05.
12-06. 2lbm dry air is mixed with 0.11bm water vapor at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 120F. Calculate the enthalpy of the mixture (per Ibm of dry air) from: the
moist air tables; and the expressions given for the enthalpy of dry air and water
vapor in the text.
Chapter 12 MoistAir
13: 1
Chapter 13
Instructions
13.1
Humidity Ratio and Relative Humidity
13.2
Dewpoint Temperature
13.3
Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions

The topics of Chapter 13 are the terms and parameters useful in common air-conditioning
applications involving moist air. Because ofthe moderate temperatures and low vapor pressure of the water vapor in moist air, the water vapor may reasonably be idealized as behaving as an ideal gas. The objectives of Chapter 13 are to develop an understanding of the
following terms: humidity ratio, relative humidity, dewpoint temperature, adiabatic saturation temperature and wet-bulb temperature.
Understand and calculate humidity ratio and relative humidity;
Understand the basis for determining the dewpoint, adiabatic saturation and wetbulb temperatures; and
Apply the First law of Thermodynamics to problems involving moist air.
Chapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air
13:2
13.1 Humidity Ratio and Relative Humidity

The amount of water vapor in the moist air can be specified in various ways. One way
already introduced in the previous chapter is the humidity ratio. The humidity ratio is the
mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air. The humidity ratio is sometimes called specific humidity and is denoted by W (not to be confused with work which is also denoted W).
The subscripts v and a refer to water vapor and dry air, respectively:
Ibm vapor /lb m dry air
With the assumption that the dry air and water vapor can be treated as ideal gases, a relationship can be developed between the humidity ratio and the vapor pressure by using the
ideal gas equation, P V = mRT.
W=ml'lma
=(PI'V I RI'T) I (PaV I RaT)

=(Ra I Rv)(Pv I Pa)
=
0.622 (PI' I Pa) Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air
The gas constants are Rv = 0.1102 Btu/(lbmvaporR) and Ra = 0.06855 BtuI(lbmairR) and
therefore Ra IR v = 0.6221bm vaporperlbm dry air. Therefore, the units of humidity ratio are
also Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air. The total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures, P = P a +
PI'. Solving for Paand substituting into the equation for humidity ratio results in the following expression:
W = 0.622 PI' I (p - PI') Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air
The total pressure P is often atmospheric pressure when dealing with many of the problems
in air-conditioning. We will see later why this is such a useful relationship.
Another measure of the moisture content of moist air is the relative humidity,~. Relative
humidity is the ratio of the mass of vapor in the moist air compared to the maximum moisture that moist air can hold at that temperature. To explain relative humidity, first consider
dry air. Dry air has a humidity ratio of zero. Imagine that water vapor is added to the dry air,
thereby increasing the humidity ratio. The more moisture that is added, the higher the humidity ratio, until the air can no longer hold any more moisture. The moist air is then saturated. Any further moisture added to saturated air will cause condensation of the vapor to
liquid water. The maximum amount of water vapor in the moist air is at the saturated condition and can be found by setting PI' equal to the saturation pressure Pg in the expression for
13: 3
humidity ratio and in the ideal gas equation. Therefore, the relative humidity is:
~
=ml' /mg
= (Pl'v / RvT)/(pgV / RT)
= PI' / Pg
where P g = PSal at temperature t. Relative humidity is dimensionless.

Combining the relationship for relative humidity with the relationship for humidity ratio by
eliminatingp" yields the following two useful expressions:
~ = W(p/ Pg)/(O.622+W)
W
= O.622~ P g / (p-~ pg )
The relative humidity ranges from zero for dry air to a value of one for the saturated condition. The relative humidity depends on the temperature because the maximum moisture that
the air can hold depends on its temperature. In contrast, the humidity ratio depends on
composition and not on temperature except at the saturated condition. Therefore, the relative humidity may change with temperature even when the humidity ratio is constant. The
relative humidity ratio is important because the comfort level depends more on relative
humidity than on humidity ratio. The humidity ratio is the quantity that is most useful when
doing analysis and applying the First Law of Thermodynamics.
The total enthalpy of moist air includes both the enthalpies of the dry air and of the water
vapor:
H= ha +Hv
= maha +mvhv
The specific enthalpy of moist air is commonly written per unit mass of dry air because the
amount of dry air is usually fixed while the amount of moisture varies. Dividing through by
the mass of dry air gives the specific enthalpy as:
h = ha +(mv / ma)h"
=ha + Whv
Btu/Ibm dry air
(hI' is in Btu/Ibm vapor)
Because it is treated as an ideal gas, hI' can be approximated by hg at the same temperature.
13:4
Example 1. The conditions on a hot summer day are given as 95F and a relative humidity
of 65%. Calculate the humidity ratio.
Solution. From Appendix B-1, the saturated pressure at 95F is p g
0.81625 psia.
With ~ = 0.65, the humidity ratio is:

W
= 0.622~ Pg I(p-~ pg)

= 0.622(0.65)(0.81625) 1{ 14.696 - (0.65)(0.81625)}
= 0.0238 Ibm vapor perlbmdry air
Note that the units of Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air are contained in the term 0.622 because it
came from the ratio of gas constants of vapor and dry air.
Example 2. If the temperature of Example 1 drops from 95F down to 85F while the humidity ratio remains at 0.0238 Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air, estimate the relative humidity at the
new temperature.
Solution. From Appendix B-1, the saturated pressure at 85F is p g
0.59647 psia.
With W = 0.0238 Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air:
~ = W(pl pg)/(0.622+W)
= 0.0238 (14.696/0.59647)/(0.622 + 0.0238)

= 0.908
The relative humidity is 90.8% and the day will feel closer to rain.
13.2 Dewpoint Temperature

Consider what happens when moist air at constant total pressure is steadily cooled: the
temperature will decrease. Initially, the humidity ratio remains constant because there is no
change in composition of the moist air. However, the relative humidity will increase, as
shown in an earlier example. When the relative humidity becomes 100%, the air reaches its
saturated condition. The temperature at which this occurs is the dewpoint temperature. Any
further cooling means that the air cannot hold all the vapor and the vapor condenses as a
liquid.
13: 5
This process is shown on the t-s diagram in Figure 13-1. The diagram shows only the water
vapor behavior and not the dry air behavior. State 1 represents the state of the water vapor at
vapor pressure of P. and a relative humidity of less than one. As the moist air is cooled at
constant pressure, it follows the line of constant p. until it meets the saturated vapor curve.
State 2 is the saturated condition at the intersection of the constant pressure line and the
saturation curve. The conditions at State 2 are p g = p.' ~ = 1, and the temperature is the
dewpoint temperature:
The dewpoint temperature is defined as the temperature at which condensation begins if the
moist air is cooled at constant vapor pressure.
If the moist air is cooled below the dewpoint temperature, then there is condensation of
some of the vapor to liquid. This can be traced on the t-s diagram in Figure 13-1. The liquid
that forms will be at the condition on the saturated liquid curve between States 2f and 3f.
The vapor that remains in the moist air will follow the saturated vapor curve from State 2 to
State 3g. For the process from State 2 to State 3g, the relative humidity remains constant at
100%, but the humidity ratio steadily decreases.
Temperature
t
Entropy,s
Figure 13-1. Dewpoint Temperature on the t-s Diagram for Water Vapor
13:6
The dewpoint temperature can be measured by chilling a surface until dew is first observed
and measuring the temperature of the surface. The dewpoint temperature can then be used
to determine the vapor pressure. With the vapor pressure, it is then possible to calculate the
relative humidity from ~ = p v /pg. Although this is a straightforward procedure, it is cumbersome and not that convenient.
13.3 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures

The relative humidity and humidity ratio are both useful parameters in calculations, but
there are no direct measures for these quantities. The dewpoint temperature measurement
can lead to the relative humidity as explained earlier, but it is not a convenient measurement. The most common way of determining the relative humidity and humidity ratio is to
measure something known as the wet-bulb temperature and use that in a calculation. However, before describing the wet-bulb temperature and how it is used, it is informative to first
consider another temperature known as the adiabatic saturation temperature that results
from the adiabatic saturation process.
Consider the apparatus shown in Figure 13-2. A steady flow of moist air, with unknown
humidity ratio WJ and relative humidity ~ J ' enters the long insulated channel at State 1. The
channel contains a pool of water. As the air flows through the channel, some of the water
evaporates and mixes with the stream of moist air. As a result, the humidity ratio changes
along the length of the channel. If the channel is long enough, the moist air will emerge
from the channel at State 2 in a saturated condition, ~2 = 100%. The process for the water
vapor change in the moist air is shown as Process 1 to 2 on the t-s diagram of Figure 13-3.
The temperature of the moist air changes along the length of the channel because the air has
. . . 92.,.CI=====~~~=====~~~=~I ~ ~aturated
Moist Air
Humidity Ratio
w1
Temperature
~
Relative Humidity cj>1
Enthalpy
h1
[l
I~
[f
Air
Humidity Ratio
Temperature
Relative Humidity
Enthalpy
w2
t2
cj>2
h2
Saturated Water
Temperature
Enthalpy
hf
Figure 13-2. The Adiabatic Saturator
Fundamentals ofThermody"amics and Psychrometries
13: 7
Temperature
t
Adiabatic
Saturation
Temperature
Entropy,s
Figure 13-3. The Adiabatic Saturation Process

to provide the heat of evaporation of the moisture added to the air stream. The temperature
at State 2 is known as the adiabatic saturation temperature because it comes at the end ofthe
adiabatic (insulated channel) saturation (water vapor picked up along the channel) process.
The adiabatic saturation temperature is different from the dewpoint temperature, as can be
seen from Figure 13-3. The moist air composition and humidity ratio change along the
channel and, therefore, the saturation process is not a constant vapor pressure process as
described for dewpoint temperature.
The adiabatic saturation temperature can be related to the unknown inlet humidity ratio and
relative humidity by applying the conservation of mass and steady-flow form of the First
Law of Thermodynamics to the adiabatic saturation process. The subscript a refers to dry
air, v refers to vapor, g refers to saturated vapor, and Ito saturated liquid water. It is helpful
to think of the moist air to be made up of two streams: the dry air stream and the water vapor
stream. For the conservation of mass, this means two equations, one for each stream. But
for the First Law of Thermodynamics, there is only one energy balance with both streams in
the same equation.
13: 8
Conservation of mass (air stream):
Conservation of mass (water vapor stream):
The humidity ratios are ~ = mvl / rna and ~ = m1'2 / rna . Solving for mvl and m1'2 and substituting into the equation above, the conservation of mass of the water vapor stream becomes:
Reorganizing terms and solving for

ml3
ml3
= (~ - ~)ma
First Law of Thermodynamics (no work and no heat transfer):
Substitute for mvl and mv2 as before. Then using the expression for ml3 from the mass
balance in the energy balance, and dividing through by rna leads to:
hal + ~hvl +(~ - ~)hl3
Solving for humidity ratio
= ~ + ~h1'2
~:
In this equation, the air and the water vapor are treated as ideal gases. The enthalpy change
of the air can be replaced by ha2 - haJ = C/t2 - tl ). Also the enthalpy of the vapor can be
found as the saturated vapor value at the appropriate temperature because, for an ideal gas,
the enthalpy depends only on temperature. Furthermore, the difference between the vapor
and liquid enthalpy can be written as h1'2 - hf3 = hlg2 for the liquid water at t 2. With all these
substitutions, the energy equation may be written as:
=
=
{Cp (t2- tJ ) + W2 hlg2 }/ (h gl - hj2)
O.622pg2 . /(p - p g2)
13: 9
After a long derivation, this is a result that can be used to determine the humidity ratio by
measurement of two temperatures and the total pressure. The temperatures are the moist air
temperature t] and the adiabatic saturation temperature t2. Knowing t2 , the values of hjg2 ,
hp and Pg2 can be found in the water tables. Knowing t] , the value of hg] can be found in
the water tables.
The adiabatic saturator provides the measurements to calculate the humidity ratio, but it is
a cumbersome piece of equipment. Fortunately, there is another device - the wet-bulb thermometer - that gives temperatures very similar to the adiabatic saturation temperatures
even though the way it functions is quite different. The wet-bulb temperature is measured
by a thermometer whose bulb is covered with a water saturated cotton wick. As the unsaturated air blows over the wet wick, some of the water in the wick evaporates, thus cooling the
thermometer to a lower temperature. The temperature that results when there is a balance
between the heat needed for evaporation and the heat transfer to the air stream is the wetbulb temperature.
In general, the wet-bulb temperature and the adiabatic saturation temperature are not the
same but, for moist air at atmospheric pressure, they have almost identical values. Therefore, the wet-bulb temperature can be used in place of the adiabatic saturation temperature
in the equations developed earlier. Sometimes, the usual temperature measured by just a
plain unwrapped thermometer is called the dry-bulb temperature.
Wet-bulb temperatures are sometimes measured with a sling psychrometer. The psychrometer has a wick-covered thermometer that is kept wet and is mounted on a handle so that it
can be made to rapidly swing through the air. This brings the wet-bulb temperature to quick
equilibrium. The sling psychrometer is handy for a single measurement but, for continuous
measurement of wet-bulb temperature, it is more common to use a wick-covered thermocouple.
Example 13.3. On a 82F day, the wet-bulb temperature is measured as 65F. Calculate the
humidity ratio and the relative humidity.
Solution. The expression for humidity ratio is:
w;. = {cAt2 -
tl ) + ~hjg2} / (h gl - hj2 )
Ibm vapor / Ibm dry air
From the water tables in Appendix B-1, the property values at t2 = 65F and t] = 82F are:
hjg2
= 1056.5 Btullbmvapor,
hj2
= 33.07 Btullbmvapor
andpg 2
= 0.30574 psia
hgl = 1096.95 Btu / Ibm vapor
13: 10
The saturated humidity ratio at the wet-bulb temperature is:
~ = 0.622 Pg2 / (p - P g2 )
= (0.622 Ibm vapor Ilb m dry air )(0.30574 psia)/ {(14.696- 0.30574) psia}
= 0.0132 Ibm vapor / Ibm dry air
Therefore, the humidity ratio of the moist air is:
~ = {CAt2 -tl)+~hfg2}/(hgl-hf2)
= {0.24(65- 82) + 0.0132(1056.5)} Btullb m dry air / {(1096.5- 33.07) Btullbm vapor}
= 0.0087 Ibm vapor / Ibm dry air
The relative humidity is:
cj>
= W(p/ Pg)/(0.622+W)
= 0.0087(14.696/0.30574) / (0.622 + 0.0087)

=0.663
= 66.3%
Example 13.4. Atmospheric air at 95F and 50% relative humidity is cooled to 80F or
60F. In each case, calculate the final relative humidity.
Solution.
W = 0.622 cj> Pg /(p-cj> p g) Ibm vapor Ilb m dry air

cj>
= W(p/ Pg)/(0.622+W)
At 95F, the saturated pressure is found in Appendix B-1 as Pg = 0.81625 psia. Therefore,
the humidity ratio is:
~ =0.622 cj>Pg/(p-cj>Pg)
= 0.622(0.5)(0.81625) / {14.696 - (0.5)(0.81625)}
= 0.0178 Ibm vapor Ilb m dry air
13: 11
The humidity ratio will remain unchanged if there is no condensation. To check if there is
condensation, first find the dewpoint temperature. If the final temperature is above the
dewpoint temperature, then W2 = WI ; if the final temperature is less than the dewpoint
temperature, then ~ 2 = 1:
= t sat @ Pv
~ = Pv / Pg
tdp
Pv =~ Pg
= 0.5(0.81625)
= 0.40813 psia
From the water table in Appendix B-1, the dewpoint temperature may be interpolated as
shown in Table 13-1:
Table 13-1
= 73 + (74 - 73)(0.40813 - 0.40217)1
Pressure,
psia
0.40217
0.40813
(0.41592 - 0.40217)
t= 73.44
74
0.41592
Temperature,
of
73
t
Cooled to t2 = 80F. Because t 2 > tdp' the humidity ratio is unchanged and W2 =
WI = 0.0178 Ibm vapor/ Ibm dry air. From the saturated water tables in Appendix
B-1, the saturation pressure at 80F is 0.50736 psia. The relative humidity can
be calculated as:
~ =W(p/ Pg)/(0.622+W)
= 0.0178(14.696/0.50763) / (0.622 + 0.0178)
= 0.805
= 80.5%
Cooled to t2 = 60F. Because t2 < t dp ' the final condition is saturated. Therefore:
~2
= 100%
13: 12
The Next Step

In the next chapter, we will introduce the psychrometric chart. The chart contains the values
of the parameters introduced in this chapter as well as the other moist air data in a very
compact and easy-to-use format.
Summary
For moist air, the humidity ratio is the mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air:
W = 0.622 Pv / (p - Pv)
Another measure of the moisture content of moist air is the relative humidity, ~. Relative
humidity is the ratio of the mass of vapor in the moist air compared to the maximum moisture that the air can hold at that temperature. The relative humidity is:
~
=mv /mg
=
Pv / Pg
where Pg = PSal at temperature t. Relative humidity is dimensionless.

Combining the relationship for relative humidity with the relationship for humidity ratio
yields the following two useful expressions:
~ = W(p/ Pg)/(0.622+W)
W=
0.622~ P g /(p-~ p g ) Ibm vapor/ Ibm dry air
The relative humidity ranges from zero for dry air to a value of one for the saturated condition. Relative humidity depends on the temperature as well as the amount of vapor in the
au.
The specific enthalpy of moist air is commonly written per unit mass of dry air:
Cltapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air
Fundamentals ofTltermodynamics and Psycltrometrics
13: 13
The dewpoint temperature is defined as the temperature at which condensation begins if the
moist air is cooled at constant vapor pressure:
The relative humidity and humidity ratio are both useful parameters in calculations, but
there are no direct measures for these quantities. The dewpoint temperature measurement
can lead to the relative humidity as explained earlier, but it is not a convenient measurement. The most common way of determining the relative humidity and humidity ratio is to
measure the wet-bulb temperature and use that in a calculation. The wet-bulb temperature
temperature is measured by a thermometer whose bulb is covered with a water-saturated
cotton wick. The calculation is based on the First Law of Thermodynamics applied to an
adiabatic saturation process. For moist air at atmospheric pressure, the wet-bulb temperature replaces the adiabatic saturation temperature in the expression:
W; = {cAt2 - t l ) + ~hjg2} / (h gl - hj2 )
where:
W2
0.622 Pg2 /(p - Pg2 )
t2
= the wet-bulb temperature
tJ
= the dry-bulb temperature
hjg2 ,hj2 and Pg2 are found in the saturated water tables at t2
hg]
is found in the saturated water tables at t]
Cp
the coefficient of specific heat for dry air, Cp = 0.24 Btu/(lbmdry airR)
Chapter 13 Properties ofMoistAir
13: 14

13-01. Give a short description of humidity ratio and relative humidity.

13-02. Using the definitions of humidity ratio, relative humidity and the Ideal Gas Law,
show that the relationship between humidity ratio and relative humidity can be written as:
~ = W(p/ Pg)/(0.622+W)
W = 0.622~ Pg / (p-~ pg ) Ibm vapor/ Ibm dry air
13-03. Consider moist air at 72P and atmospheric pressure. Answer the following questions:
What is the humidity ratio and relative humidity if the air is saturated?
What is the humidity ratio if the relative humidity is 60%?
What is the relative humidity ifthe humidity ratio is 0.015 Ibm vapor/ Ibm dry air?
13-04. Explain the term dewpoint temperature. Calculate the dewpoint temperature for 72P
atmospheric air with a relative humidity of 60%.
13-05. On a 72P day, the wet-bulb temperature is measured as 55P. Calculate the humidity ratio and the relative humidity.
13-06. Atmospheric air at 90 0 P and 60% relative humidity is cooled to 80 0 P or 60 o P. In
each case, calculate the final relative humidity.
13-07. Moist air at 95P, atmospheric pressure and relative humidity of 60% is cooled at
constant pressure to saturation conditions at a rate of 2,000 Ibm dry air per hour.
Estimate the rate of heat removal.
14: 1
Chapter 14
Instructions
14.1
Introduction
14.2
Description of the Axes and Lines of the Chart
14.3
14.4
Human Comfort and the Psychrometric Chart
The Next Step

Summary
Instructions
Read the material of Chapter 14. Re-read the parts ofthe chapter that are emphasized in the

The psychrometric chart is a comprehensive property chart for moist air. For a given total
pressure, the chart covers a range of dry- and wet-bulb temperatures commonly found in
HV AC applications. The objective of Chapter 14 is to understand the layout and how to
find property values on the chart. After studying Chapter 14, you should be able to:
Fully describe the psychrometric chart;
Look up states on the chart; and
Identify the ASHRAE comfort zone on the chart.
Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart
14:2
14.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we introduced humidity ratio, relative humidity, moist air enthalpy,
dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature and dewpoint temperature. It was also shown
that given any two of these properties, the other properties could be calculated by using the
expressions that relate different properties, the moist air tables and the saturated water tables.
However, the calculations are cumbersome and repetitive. They are more conveniently done
by using a plot of the properties on the psychrometric chart. The chart is used extensively in
air-conditioning calculations because it is good for finding properties and because many of
the processes of air-conditioning are easy to map out on it.
The ASHRAE psychrometric chart is shown in Appendix E-l. (It is suggested that you
make a few photocopies of the chart that you can use for practice and for developing a
familiarity with the many aspects of the chart). The chart includes a wealth of infonnation,
but the first thing is to learn the basics of the chart. The properties represented on the chart
are:
Dry-bulb temperature, tdb: The temperature ofthe moist air.
Wet-bulb temperature, twb: The equilibrium temperature measured when a thermometer covered in a wet wick is exposed to moist air at tdb'
Dewpoint temperature, tdp : The saturation temperature at a saturation pressure
equal to the vapor pressure in the moist air (tsat at Pv = Pg ). In more practical
tenns, it is the temperature at which condensation first appears if moist air is
cooled at constant vapor pressure.
Humidity ratio, W: The mass ratio of moisture to dry air in the moist air (mass
basis).
Relative humidity, ~: The ratio of moisture in the moist air to the amount of
moisture in the moist air if it was saturated at the same temperature.
Specific volume, v: The specific volume of the moist air (mixture of dry air and
water vapor) in ft3 per Ibm dry air.
Specific enthalpy, h: The specific enthalpy of moist air in Btu per Ibm dry air. The
enthalpy includes the contributions of both dry air and water vapor, h = ha + Whg
There is a second drawing on the same chart in the left-hand top comer that looks like
protractor and includes the ratios of sensible heat to total heat and enthalpy change to humidity ratio change. Unlike the main chart which is used for properties and processes, the
protractor only applies to processes, and will be explained further in the next chapter.
14: 3
14.2 Description ofthe Axes and Lines ofthe Chart

The basic features of the chart are shown in Figure 14-1. Along the horizontal axis is the
dry-bulb temperature. Along the vertical axis on the right side of the chart is the humidity
ratio. On the left boundary of the chart, there are two lines, neither of them a vertical axis.
There is a straight sloped line that serves as the axis for values of enthalpy. There is also a
sloped curve that is the saturation line. The saturated moist air states are located along the
saturation line. The saturation line corresponds to a line of constant relative humidity of
100%.
The lines of constant property are shown in Figure 14-2. The dry-bulb temperature and
humidity ratio form the basis of the chart, with lines of constant humidity running horizontally and the lines of constant dry-bulb temperature running up and down. Lines of constant
huinidity ratio are lines of constant dewpoint temperature. The lines of constant enthalpy
and constant wet-bulb temperature are straight and slope down and to the right on the chart.
They have very nearly the same slope, but not quite. The lines of constant wet-bulb temperature are not drawn as boldly as the lines of constant enthalpy so as to distinguish them
from each other. To read a value of enthalpy that lies between two enthalpy lines, draw a
Dew-point temperature
-<0%l"~
6r:::
C'
CD
3
16
~~
~~
~&
~@
Dry-Bulb Temperature
Figure 14-1. Basic Features of the Psychrometric Chart
14:4
Constant Humidity Ratio, W
Figure 14-2. Lines of Constant Property Value
Dew-point temperature, 70F
70F
Figure 14-3. Dry-Bulb, Wet-Bulb and Dewpoint

Temperatures and the Saturation Line
14:5
line parallel to the enthalpy line and read the result where this intersects the enthalpy axis.
The lines for constant specific volume are also straight lines that slope down to the right of
the chart, but they are steeper than enthalpy or wet-bulb temperature. Lines of constant
relative humidity are curved up and to the right of the chart and are shaped similarly to the
saturated line.
At any point on the saturation line, the wet-bulb temperature, dry-bulb temperature and
dewpoint temperature are the same as shown in Figure 14-3. For non-saturated conditions,
the line of constant dewpoint temperature is a horizontal straight line.
The lines of constant property will be shown to be important in the next chapter when we
look at applications of the psychrometric chart to air-conditioning processes. Often, processes such as simple heating and cooling involving no humidification are equivalent to
lines of constant humidity ratio. The chart is good for visualizing the processes of airconditioning. The general direction of increasing property values is shown in Figure 14-4.
Figure 14-4. Direction of Increasing Property Values
14:6
14.3
The methodology using two known property values to find any other property value for
moist air on the psychrometric chart is best shown in the following series of examples. In
each case, two of the seven properties will be known. The seven properties are:
Dry-bulb temperature, tdb
Wet-bulb temperature, twb
Dewpoint temperature, tdp
Humidity ratio, W
Relative humidity, ~
Specific volume, v
Specific enthalpy, h
Example 14.1. Atmospheric moist air has a dry-bulb temperature of SOF and a humidity
ratio of 0.012 Ibm moisture per Ibm dry air. Find the other five properties.
Solution. Looking at Figure 14.4 and consulting the psychrometric chart in Appendix E-1 at
tdb = SOF and W = 0.012, the other properties are:
twb
tdp
6S0F (read from the faint dotted line for constant wet-bulb temperature)
62F (read from extending a horizontal line until it intersects the saturation line)
55% (interpolated between the lines of 50% and 60%)
13.S7 ft3 per Ibm dry air (interpolated between lines of 13.S and 13.9)
32.2 Btu per Ibm dry air (read from the intersection of the enthalpy axis
and a straight line drawn through the state point with a slope like that of
the lines of constant enthalpy)
Example 14.2. Atmospheric moist air has a dry-bulb temperature of SOF and a wet-bulb
temperature of 64F. Find the other five properties.
Solution. Consulting the psychrometric chart in Appendix E-1 at tdb = SOF and twb = 64F,
the other properties are:
tdp
54.6F (read from extending a horizontal line until it intersects the

saturation line)
0.00921bm moisture per lbm dry air
42% (interpolated between the lines of 40% and 50%)
13.S0 ft3 per Ibm dry air
14: 7
29.1 Btu per Ibm dry air (read from the intersection ofthe enthalpy axis
and a straight line drawn through the state point with a slope like that of
the lines of constant enthalpy)
Example 14.3. Atmospheric moist air has a relative humidity of 40% and a specific enthalpyof 38.6 Btu per Ibm dry air. Find the other five properties.
Solution. Consulting the psychrometric chart in Appendix E-1 at ~ = 40 % and h = 29.1 Btu
per Ibm dry air, the other properties are:
tdb
twb
tdp
W =
V
95F
75.1F
66.8F (read from extending a horizontal line until it intersects the
saturation line)
0.01421bm moisture per lbm dry air
14.3
ft3
perlbmdry air
The accuracy is limited by the ability to read and interpolate on the chart. Fortunately, there
are only linear scales and it is not necessary to interpolate on a log scale, as may be found in
heat transfer or fluid mechanics. The only combination that is not easy to pinpoint with
accuracy on the chart is when wet-bulb temperature and enthalpy are known. These lines
are almost parallel, making the task of finding the intersection point difficult. Fortunately,
the known wet-bulb temperature and enthalpy combination are not commonly encountered.
So far, we have only described the psychrometric chart for standard atmospheric pressure.
There are other psychrometric charts, with similar information, for moist air at pressures
slightly above and below that of standard sea-level pressure. Also, many manufacturers of
air-conditioning equipment have developed their own psychrometric charts. These vary in
the details about scales, units and line drawing techniques, but they are basically the same
as the ASHRAE psychrometric chart.
The values represented on the charts may now be conveniently, and more accurately, determined by using ASHRAE software that has programmed the calculations in just the same
way that the chart was constructed. However, there is still a big value to the charts, as will
be seen in the next chapter, because they help us visualize the processes of air-conditioning.
Plotting out the change of state on the chart gives a perspective that is very useful in design.
As time goes on, we can anticipate that even more of the visual aspects will be programmed
for the computer.
14: 8
14.4 Human Comfort and the Psychrometric Chart

The psychrometric chart covers a range of temperatures and humidities that include those
most likely to be encountered under ordinary conditions. However, there is only a smaller
range of conditions for which people say they feel comfortable. Comfort means different
things to different people, but in the context of environmental conditions of temperature
and humidity, surveys have tried to establish a consensus on the range of values considered
comfortable. The ASHRAE envelope is such a range that is said to satisfy better than a 10%
dissatisfaction criterion.
The ASHRAE comfort envelope is specified in ASHRAE Standard 55-1992. It includes two
overlapping regions: one appropriate for people in light summer clothing and the other
appropriate for people in the slightly heavier indoor clothing that is worn in winter. The
comfort envelope is shown in Figure 14-5. The envelope is given as an area on a chart in
which the horizontal axis is the operative temperature (aT) and the vertical axis is either the
humidity ratio or the dewpoint temperature. Because the heat balance on the human body
includes both convection and radiation heat transfer, the operative temperature is the average of the mean radiant
temperature and the dry
bulb temperature.
70
On the chart, there are lines
of constant relative humidity. The boundaries to the
comfort zone are lines of
constant relative humidity
and lines of constant effective temperature (ET*).
The effective temperature
is an empirical index that
includes the effects of both
operative temperature and
evaporative cooling. It is
the temperature of an environment at 50% relative
humidity that results in the
same total heat loss from
the skin as in the actual environment. The effective
temperature depends on
the clothing worn and on
C/,apter 14 The Psychrometric Chart
65
60
:::l
~
Q)
55
c.
E
~ 50
'0
c.
45
40~----+---~~~~~~~r--+----~ 5
35
30
25
20
68Er"
10
o
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
Operative Temperature, OF
Figure 14-5. The ASHRAE Comfort Zone
Fundamentals ofT/,ermodynamics and Psychrometries
14: 9
the skin wettedness as well as on the surrounding conditions. This means that the effective
temperatures for two different people in the same space could be different.
The comfort region shown in Figure 14-5 is appropriate for people engaged in light office
work 1.2 met). The range is based on a 10% dissatisfaction criterion. The comfort zone
may also be shown on the psychrometric chart as in Figure 14-6 if it is assumed that the
surrounding radiative temperature is the same as the air temperature and the operative temperature is then just the dry-bulb temperature. Air-conditioning systems often try to maintain the environmental conditions depicted within the comfort zone if there are human occupants in the conditioned space.
Besides effective temperature, several other factors contribute to comfort or discomfort.
p or example, air velocity that is too high or asymmetric radiation due to certain heat sources
in the room can cause discomfort. A vertical temperature gradient can also be a problem,
and the temperature at head level should never be more that sop different from that at feet
level. Another comfort factor is floor temperature. In environments where shoes are worn,
the floor and air temperatures should be the same. However, when barefoot, the preferred
temperature range depends on the floorcovering; for bare concrete, it is from 79P to 83 0p.
Figure 14..;6. The ASHRAE Comfort Zone on the Psychrometric Chart
14: 10
The Next Step

Whereas this chapter described the structure of the psychrometric chart and how to find
property values on the chart, the next chapter will discuss using the chart for common airconditioning processes. The processes to be considered are heating, cooling, humidification,
dehumidification and mixing.
Summary
The psychrometric chart is a very useful tool for determining the values of moist air properties. There are seven properties plotted on the chart:
Dry-bulb temperature,
tdb
Wet-bulb temperature, twb

Dewpoint temperature, tdp
Humidity ratio, W
Relative humidity,
Specific volume, v
Specific enthalpy, h
The basic features of the chart include the dry-bulb temperature on the horizontal axis and
the humidity ratio on the vertical axis. On the left boundary of the chart, there are two lines.
There is a straight sloped line that serves as the axis for values of enthalpy. There is also a
sloped curve that is the saturation line. The saturated moist air states are located along the
saturation line. At any point on the saturation line, the wet-bulb temperature, dry-bulb temperature and the dewpoint temperature are the same.
A basic rectangular grid is formed with the lines of constant humidity running horizontally
and the lines of constant dry-bulb temperature running vertically. The lines of constant
enthalpy and constant wet-bulb temperature are straight and slope down and to the right on
the chart. They have very nearly the same slope, but not quite. The lines for constant specific volume are also straight lines that slope down to the right of the chart, but they are
steeper than enthalpy or wet-bulb temperature. Lines of constant relative humidity are curved
up and to the right of the chart and are shaped similarly to the saturated line.
The psychrometric chart covers a range of temperatures and humidities that include those
most likely to be encountered under ordinary conditions. However, there is only a smaller
14: 11
range of conditions for which people say they feel comfortable. Comfort means different
things to different people, but in the context of environmental conditions of temperature
and humidity, surveys have tried to establish a consensus on the range of values considered
comfortable. The ASHRAE envelope is such a range that is said to satisfy better than a 10%
dissatisfaction criterion.
Fully describe the psychrometric chart.
Look up states on the chart.
Identify the ASHRAE comfort zone on the chart.
Fundamentals ofTllermodynamics and Psycllrometrics
Cllapter 14 Tile Psycllrometric Cllart
14: 12

14-01. Sketch the outline of the psychrometric chart showing typical lines of constant value
of dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, humidity ratio, relative humidity,
specific enthalpy and specific volume.
14-02. List the seven properties that are represented on the psychrometric chart.
The following five problems are to be solved by looking up the properties of moist air on
the psychrometric chart for standard atmospheric pressure (sea-level). Given two properties, you must look up the other five properties.
14-03. Dry-bulb temperature of 90F and a wet-bulb temperature of 75F.
14-04. Humidity ratio of 0.008 Ibm moisture per Ibm dry air and relative humidity of 80%.
14-05. Humidity ratio of 0.020 Ibm moisture per Ibm dry air and dry-bulb temperature of
80F.
14-06. Enthalpy of25 Btu per Ibm dry air and relative humidity of20%.
14-07. Saturated moist air at a dry-bulb temperature of 72F.
Fundamentals ofTI,ermodynamics and Psychrometries
15: 1
Chapter 15
Instructions
15.1
15.2
Heating with Humidification
15.3
Cooling Coil Dehumidification
15.4
Evaporative Cooling
15.5
Adiabatic Mixing
15.6
Sensible Heat Ratio
Summary
Instructions
summary and memorize important definitions. At the end ofthe chapter, complete all ofthe

The objectives of Chapter 15 are to develop an understanding of how to use the psychrometric chart to analyze the processes of air-conditioning. After studying Chapter 15, you
should be able to use the chart and the First Law of Thermodynamics to solve problems
involving:
Simple heating and cooling processes;
Heating processes with humidification;
Cooling processes with dehumidification;
Evaporative cooling processes; and
Processes with a constant sensible heat ratio.
Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes
15:2
15.1
Simple heating or cooling processes do not involve any moisture addition or removal, or
any flow mixing. They appear on the psychrometric chart as straight horizontal lines. Simple
heating (as found with an electric heating system, a heat pump or a heating coil with no
moisture addition) is shown as a constant humidity ratio process 1 to 2 on the chart in
Figure 15-1. Simple cooling is similarly a straight horizontal line, but towards decreasing
temperature to the left rather than to the right. The humidity ratio does not change with
simple heating or cooling but the relative humidity does. The relative humidity decreases
with simple heating and increases with simple cooling.
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to simple heating or cooling is:
The enthalpy of the moist air includes both that of dry air and water vapor, h
The sign of the value of heat transfer
ha + Wh g
'
Q depends on whether there is heating (positive) or
cooling (negative).
CD.
t1
"1 :
AIR c::> :
w1
h1
1 .'
..
Cooling'.
"
,""
._.I
~.
'Q"
2 .'
Heati~p.'':
tl
Figure 15-1. Simple Heating or Cooling
15: 3
15.2 Heating with Humidification

As observed earlier, the relative humidity decreases during heating. The decrease is quite
noticeable in winter, when outdoor air with a low relative humidity is heated and becomes
uncomfortably dry in the conditioned space. The situation can be remedied by adding moisture. The process of adding moisture is known as humidification.
Consider the case of a heater followed by a humidifier as shown in Figure 15-2. Through
the heating section from State 1 to State 2, the dry-bulb temperature increases while the
humidity ratio remains the same. Through the humidification system from State 2 to State
3, the humidity ratio increases, but the dry-bulb temperature may increase or decrease depending on the way in which humidification is accomplished. If the moisture is added by
evaporation from a pool of water (as in the adiabatic saturator described in an earlier chapter or by water spray), then the dry-bulb temperature will decrease slightly because the air
stream needs to provide the energy for evaporation. However, ifthe moisture is introduced
as steam as shown in Figure 15-2, then the dry-bulb temperature could be expected to
increase slightly because of the high energy content of the steam.
1,
til,
AIR
c::> :
1a
tIIs
: C::>AIR
w,
h,
Heater
Steam
Humidifier
Figure 15-2. Heating With Humidification
Example 15.1. 2,000 cfm of outdoor air at 35F and 30% relative humidity is to be heated
and humidified to a final condition of 80F and 50% relative humidity with a heater followed by a steam humidifier. The temperature after the heater is 74F. Find the following:
The heat added in the heater section;

The mass flow rate of steam; and
The enthalpy of the steam.
15:4
Solution. The process can be mapped onto the psychrometric chart as shown in Figure 15-2,
and the appropriate properties determined at States 1, 2 and 3 as needed.
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the heater is:
The mass flow rate can be calculated by knowing the volume flow rate and reading from the
chart that the specific volume is VI = 12.48 ft3 per Ibm dry air.
ma = V IVI
= (2,000 ft3 I min) I (12.48 ft3 /lb mdry air)
= 160.3 Ibm dry air per minute
From the chart, the enthalpies are hI = 9.2, hi = 19.0 Btu per Ibm dry air. Therefore, the heat
added in the heater is:
Q=ma(~ -~)
= (160.3 Ibm dry air per minute)(19.0- 9.2) Btu per Ibm dry air
= 1,570 Btu I min
=
94,231 Btu I h
The mass flow of steam can be found by considering the conservation of mass in the humidifier:
= msteam + mV3
msteam = mV3 - m v2
m v2
From the chart, W2 = WI
msteam
0.0008 and W3
0.011 Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air:
= (0.011- 0.0008)(lb mvapor I Ibm dry air)(160J Ibm dry air I minute)
= 1.64 Ib steam per minute
15: 5
The enthalpy of the steam can be calculated by applying the First Law of Thermodynamics
to the adiabatic humidifier:
From the chart, the enthalpies are h2 = 19.0 and h3 = 31.4 Btu per Ibm dry air:
hsteam
= (160.3 / 1.64)(31.4 -19.0)
= 1,212 Btu per Ibm steam

15.3 Cooling Coil Dehumidification
Consider the cooling of moist air shown on the psychrometric chart in Figure 15-3. Initially, there is simple cooling at a constant humidity ratio from State 1 to State 2 as the
relative humidity increases. When the air becomes saturated at a relative humidity of 100%,
any further cooling has to follow the saturated line from State 2 to State 3 as water vapor is
condensed to liquid and the humidity ratio decreases.
Applications usually call for a final moist air condition that is in the comfort zone and not
on the saturation line. Therefore, the overall cooling path includes a final process during
which the relative humidity is reduced from 100% to the desired leveL The final process
may be one of simple heating or by mixing the saturated air with warmer, non-saturated air.
The overall process may be thought of as one in which there is both temperature control
through heat removal and relative humidity control through heating.
..,
'Q"
.1
AIR c::> :
I
WI
I
I
hI
.-_----I w" =
.
'Q-":AF--....-r-......
I
Condensate
Drain
fa
t2
W3
tl
Figure 15-3. Cooling Coil With Dehumidification
15:6
Example 15.2. Outdoor air at 95F and 60% relative humidity is to be cooled to a final
condition of 80F and 50% relative humidity using a cooling coil and a simple heater. Find
the intermediate temperature between the cooling coil and the heater, the specific heat removed in the cooling coil, and the specific heat added in the heater.
Solution. The solution is best found by drawing all four processes on the psychrometric
chart as shown in Figure 15-3. Start with the initial condition and draw a horizontal line
across to the saturation line to describe the cooling process 1 to 2. Next draw a horizontal
straight line across from the desired final condition to the saturation line. This is the final
heating process from State 3 to State 4. The intermediate temperature can be read as t3 =
60F. It is worth noting that this is also the dewpoint temperature of the final condition.
From the chart, the enthalpies are: hI = 46.3, h3 = 26.4, and h4 = 31.4 Btu per Ibm dry air.
The heat transfer may be found by applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to the cooling coil and heater:
qcoil
=~-~
= 26.4-46.3
= -19.9 Btu per Ibm dry air (negative means cooling)
qheater
= h4 -
= 31.4-26.4
= 5.0 Btu per Ibm dry air (positive means heating)

In actual cooling coils, the process does not usually follow the idealized process path of
constant humidity ratio from 1 to 2, along the saturation line from 2 to 3, and simple heating
from 3 to 4. The more practical path is similar to the dotted line shown in Figure 15-3. In the
air stream, only the air closest to the coils or fins is cooled to saturation. The state leaving
the coil is not on the saturation line because it is a mixture of the parts of the air stream that
reach saturation and parts that do not. A reasonable rule of thumb is to assume 90% relative
humidity. The air stream is then heated or mixed with another stream to achieve the desired
final state.
Fundamentals ofTllermodynamics and Psychrometries
15: 7
15.4 Evaporative Cooling

Evaporative cooling is the process that occurs when water is sprayed into an air stream or
when air blows over a wet surface. The energy required to evaporate the water must come
from somewhere, and if the process is adiabatic, then that energy is taken out of the air
stream. It is the same process that was described earlier as happening in an adiabatic saturator. It is a practical cooling method if the air is initially quite dry (low relative humidity) as
is often the case in semi-arid areas. It can be used for space cooling provided the final state
is not too humid.
Conservation of mass applied to the evaporative cooling process is:
mv1 = mw +mv2
mw =mv2 -mv1
Therefore the mass ratio is:
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the adiabatic evaporative cooling process is:
ma~
= mwhw + ma~
hw = (ma I mw)(~ -~)
=(~ -~)/(n;
-ffn
=l:!.hll:!.W
That means that evaporative cooling is a process in which the ratio of the enthalpy change
to humidity change is constant and equal to the enthalpy of the water being sprayed into the
air stream. On the psychrometric chart, the evaporative cooling process is represented by a
straight line with its slope determined from the protractor as shown in Figure 15-4. The
protractor can be seen to have I:!.hll:!. W printed as a scale around its perimeter. The line drawn
by connecting the center of the protractor to the point on the perimeter corresponding to the
value of hw has the same slope as a line drawn on the psychrometric chart itself that goes
from State 1 to State 2. The slope of the line is fixed by the enthalpy ofthe added water, and
the actual location of State 2 along that line is determined by the mass flow rate of added
water. There is an upper limit to the evaporative cooling effect when the outlet condition
reaches the adiabatic saturation temperature.
15: 8
Water spray
hwaler
~ ...
M1 = hwater
tlw
'Q'lf
,
'0'
_____ ___
2~':::" ~
#'
o.
fiII'It
-:'.....
,',
!It
,. ;1'"-..""""-tjfl11e/
,.
W
2
w,
~i
Figure 15-4. Evaporative Cooling With Water Spray
15.5 Adiabatic Mixing

Mixing of two air streams is a common situation in HVAC systems. The air-conditioning of
buildings requires a certain amount of mixing of conditioned air with fresh outdoor ventilated air. The physical means of mixing may be brought about in many different ways, but
the case of two air streams merging into one is shown in Figure 15-5. There are three states
involved: the flow streams are at States I and 2 respectively, and the mixture state is State 3.
It is common to assume that mixing is an adiabatic process.
The conservation of mass equation can be applied to the dry air and to the water vapor:
mal + ma2 = ma3

W;mal + ~ma2 = W; ma3
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the mixing process is:
After substituting for
ma3 from the first equation into each of the other two equations and
then dividing through by
ma2 and solving for mal I ma2 the result is:
mal Ima2 =(~ -W;)/(W; -W;)

=(~ -~)/(~ -~)
15:9
The geometrical interpretation of this result is shown on the psychrometric chart in Figure
15-5. State 3 lies on a straight line connecting States 1 and 2, such that the relative distances
between the mixed state and each ofthe original unmixed states are proportional to the ratio
of the air stream flow rates. Although not exact because there is a slight change in specific
heat with humidity ratio, the flow ratio can be reasonably estimated from the rule of
proportionalities applied to the dry-bulb temperature differences:
= (t2 -t3)1 (t3 -tl )
mall ma2
Example 15.3. Saturated air leaving the cooling section of an air-conditioning system at
55F at a rate of 200 Ibm per minute is mixed with outside air at 95F and 40% relative
humidity at a rate of 100 Ibm per minute. Determine the temperature and relative humidity of
the mixture.
Solution. The mixed State 3 is most easily located by drawing a straight line between air
stream States 1 and 2 and using the dry-bulb temperature calculated from proportionality to
locate State 3 on the straight line. From proportionality:
mal Ima2 =(t2 -t3)/(t2 -tl )
2001100 = (95 - t3) 1(t3 - 55)
Solving for the temperature results in a mixed temperature of t3
relative humidity is ~ = 63%.
75F. From the chart, the
\').
>
,,
,
~').~\
~').
'(\').
..
').
.. .. ..
..
1I
-- ~ ~ Wi
I
Figure 15-5. Adiabatic Mixing of Two Streams of Moist Air
15: 10
15.6 Sensible Heat Ratio

In air-conditioning applications, the object is to maintain the temperature and humidity of
the conditioned space within certain comfort limits. To maintain steady conditions means
removing the heat load due to people, appliances, conduction through walls, solar gain and
other various heat and moisture sources. Because both temperature and humidity are important, it is sometimes useful to think of the total load as being made up of two components:
the sensible load and the latent load. The sensible load is the heat to be removed to maintain
the dry-bulb temperature without changing the humidity ratio. The latent load is the heat to
be removed to change the humidity ratio without changing the dry-bulb temperature. The
ratio of the sensible heat to total heat (sensible plus latent) is known as the sensible heat
ratio (SHR).
This idea can also be related to the psychrometric chart. Consider the change of state shown
in Figure 15-6. The line may be thought of as a line of constant SHR. By looking at the
protractor, it can be seen
that the slope of the line on
the psychrometric chart is
the same as a line drawn
from the center of the protractor to a point on the
perimeter corresponding
to a value of the SHR.
In practice, the idea of the
SHR may be useful when
approached from the perspective that typical values
for SHR may be known
Figure 15-6. Sensible Heat Ratio
from the desired design
conditions. With the
known value of SHR and
using the slope from a line on the protractor, a line can be drawn through the desired setpoint
on the psychrometric chart. Any air delivered to the conditioned space with conditions
along this lirie will remove heat in the right ratio of sensible to latent change.
Example 15.5. The sensible heat load ratio for a cooling problem is known to be SHR =
+2.0. The setpoint condition for the conditioned space is 72F and 50% relative humidity.
Find the relative humidity of the 60F cooling air if the correct ratio of sensible to latent
heat is to be removed from the conditioned space.
15: 11
Solution. The positive sign on SHR means that the sensible enthalpy change and the total
enthalpy change have the same sign. On the protractor, draw a line from the center to the
value of SHR = 2.0 on the perimeter. Draw a parallel line on the psychrometric chart that
goes through the state point tdb = 72F, ~ = 50%. Read the relative humidity for a point on
this line at a dry-bulb temperature of 60F. The relative humidity of the supply air should be
~ = 87%.
Summary
Simple heating or cooling at constant humidity ratio is a horizontal straight line on the
psychrometric chart for which the heat transfer is given as:
Cooling coil operation with dehumidification is idealized as a two-step process. First there
is simple cooling at constant humidity ratio from State 1 to State 2 as the relative humidity
increases to 100%, followed by a path along the saturation line from State 2 to State 3 as
water vapor is condensed to liquid and the humidity ratio decreases. Applications usually
call for a final moist air condition that is in the comfort zone and not on the saturation line.
Therefore, the overall cooling path includes a final process during which the relative humidity is reduced to the desired level either by heating or by mixing the saturated air with
warmer, non-saturated air.
In actual cooling coils, a more practical process path does not reach the saturated condition
because there is a mixture of the parts of the air stream that reach saturation and the parts
that do not. A reasonable rule of thumb is to assume 90% relative humidity.
Evaporative cooling is the process that occurs when water is sprayed into an air stream or
when air blows over a wet surface. Adiabatic evaporative cooling is characterized on the
psychrometric chart by:
hw = (~-~)/(Wz -~)
=I:1h / I:1W
This means that evaporative cooling is a process in which the ratio ofthe enthalpy change to
humidity change is constant and equal to the enthalpy ofthe water being sprayed into the air
stream. On the psychrometric chart, the evaporative cooling process is represented by a
straight line with its slope determined from the protractor.
15: 12
Mixing of two air streams is a common situation in HVAC systems. If the flow streams are
at States 1 and 2, respectively, and the mixture is at State 3, then for adiabatic mixing, the
mass ratio may be expressed as:
mal Ima2
=(W; -U;;)/(U;; -~)

=(hz-~)/(~-~)
=(t2 - t3) I (t3 - t l )

The geometrical interpretation of this result on the psychrometric chart is that State 3 lies on
a straight line connecting States 1 and 2, such that the relative distances between the mixed
state and each of the original unmixed states are proportional to the ratio of the air stream
flow rates.
In air-conditioning applications, the object is to maintain the temperature and humidity of
the conditioned space within certain comfort limits. To maintain that relatively steady state
means removing the heat load due to people, appliances, conduction through walls, solar
gain and other heat and moisture sources.
The total load may be considered as being the sensible load plus the latent load. The sensible load is the heat to be removed to maintain the dry-bulb temperature without changing
the humidity ratio. The latent load is the heat to be removed to change the humidity ratio
without changing the dry-bulb temperature. The ratio of the sensible heat to total heat (sensible plus latent) is known as the sensible heat ratio (SHR). With a known value ofSHR and
using the slope from a line on the protractor, a line can be drawn through the desired setpoint
on the psychrometric chart. Any air delivered to the conditioned space with conditions
along this line will remove heat in the right ratio of sensible to latent change to satisfy the
load.
15: 13 .

15-01. Moist air is cooled from 80F, 50% relative humidity to 70F with no moisture
added or removed. What is the final relative humidity and the heat removed perlbm
of dry air?
15-02. Moist air is cooled from 80F, 50% relative humidity to 50F. What is the final
relative humidity, humidity ratio and change of enthalpy?
15-03. 1,000 cfm of outdoor air at 40F and 20% relative humidity is to be heated and
humidified to a final condition of 72F and 50% relative humidity with a heater
followed by a steam humidifier. The temperature after the heater is 64F. Find the
following: the heat added in the heater section; the mass flow rate of steam; and the
enthalpy of the steam.
15-04. Outdoor air at 95F and 50% relative humidity is to be cooled to a final condition of
72F and 50% relative humidity using a cooling coil and a simple heater. Find the
intermediate temperature between the cooling coil and the heater, the specific heat
removed in the cooling coil, and the specific heat added in the heater.
15-05. Outdoor air at 95F and 20% relative humidity is cooled in an evaporative cooler by
spraying with saturated liquid water at 70F. What is the final temperature if the
final relative humidity is 60%? (Hint: use the protractor to get the slope of the process line.) How much water will it take per Ibm of dry air? (Hint: use the change in
humidity ratio.)
15-06. 20 Ibm per minute of air at 40F and 90% relative humidity is adiabatically mixed
with moist air at 80F, but unknown relative humidity. The final mixture is at 72F
and 50% relative humidity. What is the relative humidity and mass flow rate ofthe
second air stream?
15-07. The sensible heat load ratio for a heating problem is known to be SHR = -2.0. The
setpoint condition for the conditioned space is 72F and 50% relative humidity.
Find the relative humidity of the 80F heating air if the correct ratio of sensible to
latent heat is to be removed from the conditioned space.
A:1
Appendix A-I: Dimensions and Units

Used in Air-Conditioning Applications
Dimension
SI Unit
IP Unit
Acceleration
mls2
ftlsec 2
Area
m2
ft2
Density
kg/m3
lb m Ift3
Energy
N-m, Joule (J)
Btu, ft-Ib
Force
(kg-m)/s2, Newton (N)
pound (Ibj
Length
m, meter (m)
foot (ft)
Mass
kg, kilogram (kg)
pound mass (Ibm)
Power
J/s, Watt (W)
Btu/h
Pressure
N/m2, Pascal (P)
pSI
Specific Heat
J/(kgeOC)
Btu/(IbmeOF)
Time
second (s)
second (sec)
Temperature (absolute)
degree Kelvin (K)
degree Rankine (R)
Temperature
degree Celsius (OC)
degree Fahrenheit eF)
Thermal Conductivity
W/(meOC)
W/m2
Btu/(hefteOF)
ft/sec, ftlmin, fpm
Volume
mls
m3
Volume Flow Rate
m 3/s
ft3/sec, ft 3/min, cfm
Thermal Flux Density

Velocity
Btu/(heft2)
ft3
Appendix A
A:2
Appendix A-2: Unit Conversion Factors
Dimension
SI Unit
IP Unit
Length
1 ft = 0.305 m
Area
1 m = 3.281 ft
1 m2= 10.76 ft2
Volume
1 m3= 35.32 ft3
1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
1 ft3 = 0.0929 m3
Mass
1 kg = 2.205 Ibm
1 Ibm = 0.435 kg
Force
1 N = 0.2248 lbf
1 lbf = 4.448 N
Energy
1 kJ = 0.9478 Btu
1 J = 0.7376 ft-Ibf
1 kWh = 3.412 X 103Btu
1 Btu = 778.2 ft-Ibf = 1.055 kJ

1 ft-Ibf = 1.356 J
1 Btu = 3.183 x 10-2kWh
Specific Energy
Specific Enthalpy
1 kJ/kg = 0.4298 Btu/Ibm
1 Btu/Ibm = 2.326 kJ/kg
Power
1 W = 3.412 Btu/h
1 kW = 1.341 hp
1 kW = 0.2844 ton refrigeration
Pressure
1 Pa = 1.450 x 10-4 psi

1 atm = 101 kPa
1 Btu/h = 0.318 W
1 hp = 2545 Btu/h = 0.746 kW
1 ton = 12,000 Btu/h = 3.516 kW
1 psi = 6.897 x 103Pa
1 atm = 14.7 psi = 29.921 in. Hg
1C diff. = 9/5F diff.

tC = [(9/5)y + 32]OF
K = c + 273.15
Velocity
1 mls = 1.969 x 102ftlmin
1 kglm3= 6.243 x 1O-2Ib m/ft3
Mass Density
Mass Flow Rate
1 kgls = 2.205 Ibm/sec
1 kgls = 7.937 x 1031b)h
Volume Flow Rate 1 m3/s = 2.119 x 103cfin
1 m3/s = 1.585 x 104 gal/min
1 W/(moOC) =
Thermal
Temperature
Conductivity
Heat Transfer
Coefficient
Specific Heat
Appendix A
1F diff. = 5/9C diff.

tF = (y - 32)(5/9)OC
R = OF + 459.67
1 ftlmin = 1.602 x 10-3mls
Ilbm/ft3 = 1.602 x 103kglm3
1 Ibm/sec = 0.4535 kgls
Ilbmlh = 1.260 x lO-4kgls
1 cfm = 4.719 x 10-4 m3/s
1 gal/min = 6.309 x 10-5 m3/s
1 Btu/(hoftoOF) =
0.5778 Btu/(hoftoOF)
1 W/(m2oOC) =
0.1761 Btu/(hoft2 0F)
1.731 W/(moC)
1 Btu/(hoft2 0F) =
5.679 W/(m2oC)
1 J/(kgoOC) =
2.389 x 10-4 Btu/(lbmoaF)
1 Btu/(lbmoOF) =
4.186 x 10-5 J/(kgoOC)
B: 1
Appendix B-1: Thermodynamic Properties of Water at Saturation

Specific Volume, ft311b
Temp.
t, of
Absolute Pressure p
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
Entropy, BtullboF
Enthalpy, Btullb
Sat.
SolidILiq.
hi
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
h jg
hg
si
Sig
Sg
Temp.,
of
psi
in.Hg
vi
Vig
Vg
-80
-79
-78
-77
-76
-75
-74
-73
-72
-71
0.000116
0.000125
0.000135
0.000145
0.000157
0.000169
0.000182
0.000196
0.000211
0.000227
0.000236
0.000254
0.000275
0.000296
0.000319
0.000344
0.000371
0.000399
0.000430
0.000463
0.01732
0.01732
0.01732
0.01732
0.01732
0.01733
0.01733
0.01733
0.01733
0.01733
1953234
1814052
1685445
1566663
1456752
1355059
1260977
1173848
1093149
1018381
1953234
1814052
1685445
1566663
1456752
1355059
1260977
1173848
1093149
1018381
-193.50
-193.11
-192.71
-192.31
-191.92
-191.52
-191.12
-190.72
-190.32
-189.92
1219.19
1219.24
1219.28
1219.33
1219.38
1219.42
1219.47
1219.51
1219.55
1219.59
1025.69
1026.13
1026.57
1027.02
1027.46
1027.90
1028.34
1028.79
1029.23
1029.67
-0.4067
-0.4056
-0.4046
-0.4036
-0.4025
-0.4015
-0.4005
-0.3994
-0.3984
-0.3974
3.2112
3.2029
3.1946
3.1964
3.1782
3.1701
3.1619
3.1539
3.1459
3.1379
2.8045
2.7972
2.7900
2.7828
2.7757
2.7685
2.7615
2.7544
2.7475
2.7405
-80
-79
-78
-77
-76
-75
-74
-73
-72
-71
-70
-69
-68
-67
-66
-65
-64
-63
-62
-61
0.000245
0.000263
0.000283
0.000304
0.000326
0.000350
0.000376
0.000404
0.000433
0.000464
0.000498
0.000536
0.000576
0.000619
0.000664
0.000714
0.000766
0.000822
0.000882
0.000945
0.01733
0.01733
0.01733
0.01734
0.01734
0.01734
0.01734
0.01734
0.01734
0.01734
949067
884803
825187
769864
718508
670800
626503
585316
548041
511446
949067
884803
825187
769864
718508
670800
626503
585316
547041
511446
-189.52
-189.11
-188.71
-188.30
-187.90
-187.49
-187.08
-186.67
-186.26
-185.85
1219.63
1219.67
1219.71
1219.74
1219.78
1219.82
1219.85
1219.88
1219.91
1219.95
1030.11
1030.55
1031.00
1031.44
1031.88
1032.32
1032.77
1033.21
1033.65
1034.09
-0.3963
-0.3953
-0.3943
-0.3932
-0.3922
-0.3912
-0.3901
-0.3891
-0.3881
-0.3870
3.1299
3.1220
3.1141
3.1063
3.0985
3.0907
3.0830
3.0753
3.0677
3.0601
2.7336
2.7267
2.7199
2.7131
2.7063
2.6996
2.6929
2.6862
2.6730
2.6730
-70
-69
-68
-67
-66
-65
-64
-63
-62
-61
-60
-59
-58
-57
-56
-55
-54
-53
-52
-51
0.000498
0.000533
0.000571
0.000612
0.000655
0.000701
0.000750
0.000802
0.000857
0.000916
0.001013
0.001086
0.001163
0.001246
0.001333
0.001427
0.001526
0.001632
0.001745
0.001865
0.01734
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
0.01736
478317
447495
418803
392068
367172
343970
322336
302157
283335
265773
478317
447495
418803
392068
367172
343970
322336
302157
283335
265773
-185.44
-185.03
-184.61
-184.20
-183.78
-183.37
-182.95
-182.53
-182.11
-181.69
1219.98
1220.01
1220.03
1220.06
1220.09
1220.11
1220.14
1220.16
1220.18
1220.21
1034.54
1034.98
1035.42
1035.86
1036.30
1036.75
1037.19
1037.63
1038.07
1038.52
-0.3860
-0.3850
-0.3839
-0.3829
-0.3819
-0.3808
-0.3798
-0.3788
-0.3778
-0.3767
3.0525
3.0449
3.0374
3.0299
3.0225
3.0151
3.0077
3.0004
2.9931
2.9858
2.6665
2.6600
2.6535
2.6470
2.6406
2.6342
2.6279
2.6216
2.6153
2.6091
-60
-59
-58
-57
-56
-55
-54
-53
-52
-51
-50
-49
-48
-47
-46
-45
0.001992
0.002128
0.002272
0.002425
0.002587
0.002760
0.002943
0.003137
0.003343
0.003562
0.01736
0.01736
0.01736
0.01736
0.01736
0.01736
0.01736
0.01737
0.01737
0.01737
249381
234067
219766
206398
193909
182231
171304
161084
151518
142566
249381
234067
219766
206398
193909
182231
171304
161084
151518
142566
-181.27
-180.85
-180.42
-180.00
-179.57
-179.14
-178.72
-178.79
-177.86
-177.43
1220.23
1220.25
1220.26
1220.28
1220.30
1220.31
1220.33
1220.34
1220.36
1220.37
1038.96
1039.40
1039.84
1040.28
1040.73
1041.17
1041.61
1042.05
1042.50
1042.94
-0.3757
-0.3747
-0.3736
-0.3726
-0.3716
-0.3705
-0.3695
-0.3685
-0.3675
-0.3664
2.9786
2.9714
2.9642
2.9570
2.9499
2.9429
2.9358
2.9288
2.9218
2.9149
2.6029
2.5967
2.5906
2.5844
2.5784
2.5723
2.5663
2.5603
2.5544
2.5485
-50
-49
-48
-47
-46
-45
-43
-42
-41
0.000979
0.001045
0.001116
0.001191
0.001271
0.001355
0.001445
0.001541
0.001642
0.001749
-40
-39
-38
-37
-36
-35
-34
-33
-32
-31
0.001863
0.001984
0.002111
0.002247
0.002390
0.002542
0.002702
0.002872
0.003052
0.003242
0.003793
0.004039
0.004299
0.004574
0.004866
0.005175
0.005502
0.005848
0.006213
0.006600
0.01737
0.01737
0.01737
0.01737
0.01738
0.01738
0.01738
0.01738
0.01738
0.01738
134176
126322
118959
112058
105592
99522
93828
88489
83474
78763
134176
126322
118959
112058
105592
99522
93828
88489
83474
78763
-177.00
-176.57
-176.13
-175.70
-175.26
-174.83
-174.39
-173.95
-173.51
-173.07
1220.38
1220.39
1220.40
1220.40
1220.41
1220.42
1220.42
1220.43
1220.43
1220.43
1043.38
1043.82
1044.27
1044.71
1045.15
1045.59
1046.03
1046.48
1046.92
1047.36
-0.3654
-0.3644
-0.3633
-0.3623
-0.3613
-0.3603
-0.3592
-0.3582
-0.3572
-0.3561
2.9080
2.9011
2.8942
2.8874
2.8806
2.8738
2.8671
2.8604
2.8537
2.8470
2.5426
2.5367
2.5309
2.5251
2.5193
2.5136
2.5078
2.5022
2.4965
2.4909
-40
-39
-38
-37
-36
-35
-34
-33
-32
-31
-30
-29
-28
-27
-26
-25
-24
-23
-22
-21
0.003443
0.003655
0.003879
0.004116
0.004366
0.004630
0.004909
0.005203
0.005514
0.005841
0.007009
0.007441
0.007898
0.008380
0.008890
0.009428
0.009995
0.010594
0.011226
0.011892
0.01738
0.01738
0.01739
0.01739
0.01739
0.01739
0.01739
0.01739
0.01739
0.01740
74341
70187
66282
62613
59161
55915
52861
49986
47281
44733
74341
70187
66282
62613
59161
55915
52861
49986
47281
44733
-172.63
-172.19
-171.74
-171.30
-170.86
-170.41
-169.96
-169.51
-169.07
-168.62
1220.43
1220.43
1220.43
1220.43
1220.43
1220.42
1220.42
1220.41
1220.41
1220.40
1047.80
1048.25
1048.69
1049.13
1049.57
1050.01
1050.46
1050.90
1051.34
1051.78
-0.3551
-0.3541
-0.3531
-0.3520
-0.3510
-0.3500
-0.3489
-0.3479
-0.3469
-0.3459
2.8404
2.8338
2.8272
2.8207
2.8142
2.8077
2.8013
2.7948
2.7884
2.7820
2.4853
2.4797
2.4742
2.4687
2.4632
2.4577
2.4523
2.4469
2.4415
2.4362
-30
-29
-28
-27
-26
-25
-24
-23
-22
-21
-20
-19
-18
-17
-16
-15
-14
0.006186
0.006550
0.006933
0.007337
0.007763
0.008211
0.008683
0.012595
0.013336
0.014117
0.014939
0.015806
0.016718
0.017678
0.01740
0.01740
0.01740
0.01740
0.01740
0.01740
0.01741
42333
40073
37943
35934
34041
32256
30572
42333
40073
37943
35934
34041
32256
30572
-168.16
-167.71
-167.26
-166.81
-166.35
-165.90
-165.44
1220.39
1220.38
1220.37
1220.36
1220.34
1220.33
1220.31
1052.22
1052.67
1053.11
1053.55
1053.99
1054.43
1054.87
-0.3448
-0.3438
-0.3428
-0.3418
-0.3407
-0.3397
-0.3387
2.7757
2.7694
2.7631
2.7568
2.7506
2.7444
2.7382
2.4309
2.4256
2.4203
2.4151
2.4098
2.4046
2.3995
-20
-19
-18
-17
-16
-15
-14
-44
Fundamentals ofTllermot/ynamics and Psycllrometries
-44
-43
-42
-41
AppendixB
8:2
Specific Volume, ft3IIb
Temp.
t, of
Absolute Pressure p
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Entbalpy, BtulIb
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
Sat.
SolidILiq.
hi
Entropy, BtulIbOF
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
hig
hg
si
Sig
Sg
Temp.,
of
1220.30
1220.28
1220.26
1220.24
1220.22
1220.20
1220.18
1220.16
1220.13
1220.11
1220.08
1220.05
1220.02
1055.32
1055.76
1056.20
1056.64
1057.08
1057.53
1057.97
1058.41
1058.85
1059.29
1059.73
1060.17
1060.62
-0.3377
-0.3366
-0.3356
-0.3346
-0.3335
-0.3325
-0.3315
-0.3305
-0.3294
-0.3284
-0.3274
-0.3264
-0.3253
2.7320
2.7259
2.7197
2.7136
2.7076
2.7015
2.6955
2.6895
2.6836
2.6776
2.6717
2.6658
2.6599
2.3943
2.3892
2.3841
2.3791
2.3740
2.3690
2.3640
2.3591
2.3541
2.3492
2.3443
2.3394
2.3346
-13
-12
-II
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-I
1220.00 1061.06
1219.96 1061.50
1219.93 1061.94
12J9.90 1062.38
1219.87 1062.82
1219.83 1063.26
1219.80 1063.70
1219.76 1064.14
1219.72 1064.58
-1219.68 -1065.03
-0.3243
-0.3233
-0.3223
-0.3212
-0.3202
-0.3192
-0.3182
-0.3171
-0.3161
-0.3151
2.6541
2.6482
2.6424
2.6367
2.6309
2.6252
2.6194
2.6138
2.6081
-2.6024
2.3298
2.3249
2.3202
2.3154
2.3107
2.3060
2.3013
2.2966
2.2920
-2.2873
0
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
psi
in.Hg
vi
Vig
Vg
-13
-12
-11
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-I
0.009179
0.009702
0.010252
0.010830
0.011438
0.012077
0.012749
0.013456
0.014197
0.014977
0.015795
0.016654
0.017556
0.018689
0.019753
0.020873
0.022050
0.023288
0.024590
0.025958
0.027396
0.028906
0.030493
0.032159
0.033908
0.035744
0.01741
0.01741
0.01741
0.01741
0.01741
0.01741
0.01742
0.01742
0.01742
0.01742
0.01742
0.01742
0.01742
28983
27483
26067
24730
23467
22274
21147
20081
19074
18121
17220
16367
15561
28983
27483
26067
24730
23467
22274
21147
20081
19074
18121
17220
16367
15561
-164.98
-164.52
-164.06
-163.60
-163.14
-162.68
-162.21
-162.75
-161.28
-160.82
-160.35
-159.88
-159.41
0
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.018502
0.019495
0.020537
0.021629
0.022774
0.023975
0.025233
0.026552
0.027933
0.029379
0.037671
0.039693
0.041813
0.044037
0.046369
0.048813
0.051375
0.054059
0.056872
0.059817
0.01743
0.01743
0.01743
0.01743
0.01743
0.01743
0.01743
0.01744
0.01744
0.01744
14797
14073
13388
12740
12125
11543
10991
10468
9971
9500
14797
14073
13388
12740
12125
11543
10991
10468
9971
9500
-158.94
-158.47
-157.99
-157.52
-157.05
-156.57
-156.09
-155.62
-155.14
-154.66
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
0.030894
0.032480
0.034140
0.035878
0.037696
0.039597
0.041586
0.043666
0.045841
0.048113
0.062901
0.066131
0.069511
0.073047
0.076748
0.080621
0.084671
0.088905
0.093332
0.097960
0.01744
0.01744
0.01744
0.01745
0.01745
0.01745
0.01745
0.01745
0.01745
0.01745
9054
8630
8228
7846
7483
7139
6811
6501
6205
5924
9054
8630
8228
7846
7483
7139
6811
6501
6205
5924
-154.18
-153.70
-153.21
-152.73
-152.24
-151.76
-151.27
-150.78
-150.30
-149.81
1219.64
1219.60
1219.56
1219.52
1219.47
1219.43
1219.38
1219.33
1219.28
1219.23
1065.47
1065.91
1066.35
1066.79
1067.23
1067.67
1068.11
1068.55
1068.99
1069.43
-0.3141
-0.3130
-0.3120
-0.3110
-0.3100
-0.3089
-0.3079
-0.3069
-0.3059
-0.3049
2.5968
2.5912
2.5856
2.5801
2.5745
2.5690
2.5635
2.5580
2.5526
2.5471
2.2827
2.2782
2.2736
2.2691
2.2645
2.2600
2.2556
2.2511
2.2467
2.2423
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
0.050489
0.052970
0.055563
0.058271
0.061099
0.064051
0.067133
0.070349
0.073706
0.077207
0.102796
0.107849
0.113128
0.118641
0.124398
0.130408
0.136684
0.143233
0.150066
0.157195
0.01746
0.01746
0.01746
0.01746
0.01746
0.01746
0.01747
0.01747
0.01747
0.01747
5657
5404
5162
4932
4714
4506
4308
4119
3940
3769
5657
5404
5162
4932
4714
4506
4308
4119
3940
3769
-149.32
-148.82
-148.33
-147.84
-147.34
-146.85
-146.35
-145.85
-145.35
-144.85
1219.18
1219.13
1219.08
1219.02
1218.97
1218.91
1218.85
1218.80
1218.74
1218.68
1069.87
1070.31
1070.75
1071.19
1071.63
1072.07
1072.50
1072.94
1073.38
1073.82
-0.3038
-0.3028
-0.3018
-0.3008
-0.2997
-0.2987
-0.2977
-0.2967
-0.2956
-0.2946
2.5417
2.5363
2.5309
2.5256
2.5203
2.5149
2.5096
2.5044
2.4991
2.4939
2.2379
2.2335
2.2292
2.2248
2.2205
2.2162
2.2119
2.2077
2.2035
2.1992
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
32*
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
0.080860
0.084669
0.088640
0.08865
0.09229
0.09607
0.09998
0.10403
0.10822
0.11257
0.11707
0.164632
0.172387
0.180474
0.18049
0.18791
0.19559
0.20355
0.21180
0.22035
0.22919
0.23835
0.01747
0.01747
0.01747
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
3606
3450
3302
3302.07
3178.15
3059.47
2945.66
2836.60
2732.13
2631.88
2535.86
3606
3450
3302
3302.09
3178.16
3059.49
2945.68
2836.61
2732.15
2631.89
2535.88
-144.35
-143.85
-143.35
-0.02
0.99
2.00
3.00
4.01
5.02
6.02
7.03
1218.61
1218.55
1218.49
1075.15
1074.59
1074.02
1073.45
1072.88
1072.32
1071.75
1071.18
1074.26
1074.70
1075.14
1075.14
1075.58
1076.01
1076.45
1076.89
1077.33
1077.77
1078.21
-0.2936
-0.2926
-0.2915
0.0000
0.0020
0.0041
0.0061
0.0081
0.0102
0.0122
0.0142
2.4886
2.4834
2.4783
2.1867
2.1811
2.1756
2.1700
2.1645
2.1590
2.1535
2.1481
2.1951
2.1909
2.1867
2.1867
2.1832
2.1796
2.1761
2.1726
2.1692
2.1657
2.1623
30
31
32
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
0.12172
0.12654
0.13153
0.13669
0.14203
0.14755
0.15326
0.15917
0.16527
0.17158
0.17811
0.18484
0.19181
0.24783
0.25765
0.26780
0.27831
0.28918
0.30042
0.31205
0.32407
0.33650
0.34935
0.36263
0.37635
0.39053
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01602
0.01603
2443.67
. 2355.22
2270.42
2189.02
2110.92
2035.91
1963.85
1894.71
1828.28
1764.44
1703.18
1644.25
1587.64
2443.69
2355.24
2270.43
2189.04
2110.94
2035.92
1963.87
1894.73
1828.30
1764.46
1703.20
1644.26
1587.65
8.03
9.04
10.04
11.04
12.05
13.05
14.05
15.06
16.06
17.06
18.06
19.06
20.07
1070.62
1070.05
1069.48
1068.92
1068.35
1067.79
1067.22
1066.66
1066.09
1065.53
1064.96
1064.40
1063.83
1078.65
1079.09
1079.52
1079.96
1080.40
1080.84
1081.28
1081.71
1082.15
1082.59
1083.03
1083.46
1083.90
0.0162
0.0182
0.0202
0.0222
0.0242
0.0262
0.0282
0.0302
0.0321
0.0341
0.0361
0.0381
0.0400
2.1426
2.1372
2.1318
2.1265
2.1211
2.1158
2.1105
2.1052
2.1000
2.0947
2.0895
2.0843
2.0791
2.1589
2.1554
2.1521
2.1487
2.1454
2.1420
2.1387
2.1354
2.1321
2.1288
2.1256
2.1224
2.1191
40
4J
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
*Extrapolated to represent metastable equilibrium with undercooled liquid.
AppendixB
Fundamentals ofTilermodynamics and Psycilrometrics
B: 3
Specific Volume, ft31lb
Temp.
t, of
Absolute Pressure p
Entropy, BtullboF
Enthalpy, Btullb
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
hi
hig
hg
si
Sig
Sg
Temp.,
of
psi
in.Hg
vi
Vig
Vg
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
0.19900
0.20643
0.21410
0.22202
0.23020
0.23864
0.24735
0.40516
0.42029
0.43591
0.45204
0.46869
0.48588
0.50362
0.01603
0.01603
0.01603
0.01603
0.01603
0.01603
0.01603
1533.22
1480.89
1430.61
1382.19
1335.65
1290.85
1247.76
1533.24
1480.91
1430.62
1382.21
1335.67
1290.87
1247.78
21.07
22.07
23.07
24.07
25.07
26.07
27.07
1063.27
1062.71
1062.14
1061.58
1061.01
1060.45
1059.89
1084.34
1084.77
1085.21
1085.65
1086.08
1086.52
1086.96
0.0420
0.0439
0.0459
0.0478
0.0497
0.0517
0.0536
2.0740
2.0689
2.0637
2.0586
2.0536
2.0485
2.0435
2. \159
2.1128
2.1096
2,1064
2.1033
2.0002
2.0971
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
0.25635
0.26562
0.27519
0.28506
0.29524
0.30574
0.31656
0.32772
0.33921
0.35107
0.52192
0.54081
0.56029
0.58039
0.60\12
0.62249
0.64452
0.66724
0.69065
0.71478
0.01604
0.01604
0.01604
0.01604
0.01604
0.01604
0.01604
0.01605
0.01605
0.01605
1206.30
1166.38
1127.93
1090.94
1055.32
1020.98
987.95
956.11
925.44
895.86
1206.32
1166.40
1127.95
1090.96
1055.33
1021.00
987.97
956.12
925.45
895.87
28.07
29.07
30.07
31.07
32.07
33.07
34.07
35.07
36.07
37.07
1059.32
1058.76
1058.19
1057.63
1057.07
1056.50
1055.94
1055.37
1054.81
1054.24
1087.39
1087.83
1088.27
1088.70
1089.14
1089.57
1090.01
1090.44
1090.88
1091.31
0.0555
0.0575
0.0594
0.0613
0.0632
0.0651
0.0670
0.0689
0.0708
0.0727
2.0385
2.0334
2.0285
2.0235
2.0186
2.0136
2.0087
2.0039
1.9990
1.9941
2.0940
2.0909
2.0878
2.0848
2.0818
2.0787
2.0758
2.0728
2.0698
2.0668
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
0.36328
0.37586
0.38882
0.40217
0.41592
0.43008
0.44465
0.45966
0.47510
0.49100
0.73964
0.76526
0.79164
0.81883
0.84682
0.87564
0.90532
0.93587
0.96732
0.99968
0.01605
0.01605
0.01606
0.01606
0.01606
0.01606
0.01606
0.01607
0.01607
0.01607
867.34
839.87
813.37
787.85
763.19
739.42
716.51
694.38
673.05
652.44
867.36
839.88
813.39
787.87
763.21
739.44
726.53
794.40
673.06
652.46
38.07
39.07
40.07
41.07
42.06
43.06
44.06
45.06
46.06
47.06
1053.68
1053.11
1052.55
1051.98
1051.42
1050.85
1050.29
1049.72
1049.16
1048.59
1091.75
1092.18
1092.61
1093.05
1093.48
1093.92
1094.35
1094.78
1095.22
1095.65
0.0746
0.0765
0.0783
0.0802
0.0821
0.0840
0.0858
0.0877
0.0896
0.0914
1.9893
1.9845
1.9797
1.9749
1.9702
1.9654
1.9607
1.9560
1.9513
1.9466
2.0639
2.0610
2.0580
2.0552
2.0523
2.0494
2.0465
2.0437
2.0409
2.0380
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
0.50736
0.52419
0.54150
0.55931
0.57763
0.59647
0.61584
0.63575
0.65622
0.67726
1.03298
1.06725
1.10250
1.13877
1.17606
1.21442
1.25385
1.29440
1.33608
1.37892
0.01607
0.01608
0.01608
0.01608
0.01608
0.01609
0.01609
0.01609
0.01609
0.01610
632.54
613.35
594.82
576.90
559.63
542.93
526.80
511.21
496.14
481.60
632.56
613.37
594.84
576.92
559.65
542.94
526.81
511.22
496.15
481.61
48.06
49.06
50.05
51.05
52.05
53.05
54.05
55.05
56.05
57.04
1048.03
1047.46
1046.89
1046.33
1045.76
1045.19
1044.63
1044.06
1043.49
1042.92
1096.08
1096.51
1096.95
1097.38
1097.81
1098.24
1098.67
1099.11
1099.54
1099.97
0.0933
0.0951
0.0970
0.0988
0.1006
0.1025
0.1043
0.1061
0.1080
0.1098
1.9420
1.9373
1.9327
1.9281
1.9235
1.9189
1.9144
1.9098
1.9053
1.9008
2.0352
2.0324
2.0297
2.0269
2.0242
2.0214
2.0187
2.0160
2.0133
2.0106
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
0.69889
0.72111
0.74394
0.76740
0.79150
0.81625
0.84166
0.86776
0.89456
0.92207
1.42295
1.46820
1.51468
1.56244
1.61151
1.66189
1.71364
1.76678
1.82134
1.87736
0.01610
0.01610
0.01611
0.01611
0.01611
0.01612
0.01612
0.01612
0.01612
0.01613
467.52
453.91
440.76
428.04
415.74
403.84
392.33
381.20
370.42
359.99
467.53
453.93
440.78
428.06
415.76
403.86
392.34
381.21
370.44
360.01
58.04
59.04
60.04
61.04
62.04
63.03
64.03
65.03
66.03
67.03
1042.36
1041.79
1041.22
1040.65
1040.08
1039.51
1038.95
1038.38
1037.81
1037.24
1100.40
1100.83
1101.26
1101.69
1102.12
1102.55
1102.98
1103.41
1103.84
1104.26
0.1 \16
0.1134
0.1152
0.1170
0.1188
0.1206
0.1224
0.1242
0.1260
0.1278
1.8963
1.8918
1.8874
1.8829
1.8785
1.8741
1.8697
1.8653
1.8610
1.8566
2.0079
2.0053
2.0026
2.0000
1.9973
1.9947
1.9921
1.9895
1.9870
1.9844
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
0.95031
0.97930
1.00904
1.03956
1.07088
1.10301
1.13597
1.16977
1.20444
1.23999
1.93485
1.99387
2.05443
2.11667
2.18034
2.24575
2.31285
2.38168
2.45226
2.52464
0.01613
0.01613
0.01614
0.01614
0.01614
0.01615
0.01615
0.01616
0.01616
0.01616
349.91
340.14
330.69
321.53
312.67
304.08
295.76
287.71
279.91
272.34
349.92
340.15
330.71
321.55
312.69
304.10
295.77
287.73
279.92
272.36
68.03
69.03
70.02
71.02
72.02
73.02
74.02
75.01
76.01
77.01
1036.67
1036.10
1035.53
1034.95
1034.38
1033.81
1033.24
1032.67
1032.10
1031.52
1104.69
1105.12
1105.55
1105.98
1106.40
1106.83
1107.26
1107.68
1108.11
1108.54
0.1296
0.1314
0.1332
0.1349
0.1367
0.1385
0.1402
0.1420
0.1438
0.1455
1.8523
1.8479
1.8436
1.8393
1.8351
1.8308
1.8266
1.8223
1.8181
1.8139
1.9819
1.9793
1.9768
1.9743
1.9718
1.9693
1.9668
1.9643
1.9619
1.9594
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
III
112
113
114
\15
116
117
118
119
120
1.27644
1.31381
1.35212
1.39138
1.43162
1.47286
1.51512
1.55842
1.60277
1.64820
1.69474
2.59885
2.67494
2.75293
2.83288
2.91481
2.99878
3.08481
3.17296
3.26327
3.35577
3.45052
0.01617
0.01617
0.01617
0.01618
0.01618
0.01619
0.01619
0.01619
0.01620
0.01620
0.01620
265.02
257.91
251.02
244.36
237.89
231.62
225.53
219.63
213.91
208.36
202.98
265.03
257.93
251.04
244.38
237.90
231.63
225.55
219.65
213.93
208.37
202.99
78.01
79.01
80.01
81.01
82.00
83.00
84.00
85.00
86.00
87.00
88.00
1030.95
1030.38
1029.80
1029.23
1028.66
1028.08
1027.51
1026.93
1026.36
1025.78
1025.20
1108.96
1109.39
1109.81
1110.24
\110.66
1111.09
1111.51
\111.93
1112.36
1112.78
1113.20
0.1473
0.1490
0.1508
0.1525
0.1543
0.1560
0.1577
0.1595
0.1612
0.1629
0.1647
1.8097
1.8055
1.8014
1.7972
1.7931
1.7890
1.7849
1.7808
1.7767
1.7726
1.7686
1.9570
1.9546
1.9521
1.9497
1.9474
1.9450
1.9426
1.9402
1.9379
1.9356
1.9332
\10
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
AppendixB
8:4
Specific Volume, ft31lb
Temp.
t, of
Absolute Pressure p
Entropy, BtullboF
Enthalpy, Btullb
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
si
Sig
Sg
Temp.,
of
psi
in.Hg
Vi
Vig
Vg
hi
h ig
hg
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
1.74240
1.79117
1.84117
1.89233
1.94470
1.99831
2.05318
2.10934
2.16680
3.54755
3.64691
3.74863
3.85282
3.95945
4.06860
4.18032
4.29465
4.41165
0.01621
0.01621
0.01622
0.01622
0.01623
0.01623
0.01623
0.01624
0.01624
197.76
192.69
187.78
182.98
178.34
173.85
169.47
165.23
161.11
197.76
192.69
187.78
182.99
178.36
173.86
169.49
165.25
161.12
89.00
90.00
90.99
91.99
92.99
93.99
94.99
95.99
96.99
1024.63
1024.05
1023.47
1022.90
1022.32
1021.74
1021.16
1020.58
1020.00
1113.62
1114.05
1114.47
1114.89
1115.31
1115.73
1I16.15
1116.57
II 16.99
0.1664
0.1681
0.1698
0.1715
0.1732
0.1749
0.1766
0.1783
0.1800
1.7645
1.7605
1.7565
1.7525
1.7485
1.7445
1.7406
1.7366
1.7327
1.9309
1.9286
1.9263
1.9240
1.9217
1.9195
1.9172
1.9150
1.9127
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
2.22560
2.28576
2.34730
2.41025
2.47463
2.54048
2.60782
2.67667
2.74707
2.81903
4.53136
4.65384
4.77914
4.90730
5.03839
5.17246
5.30956
5.44975
5.59308
5.73961
0.01625
0.01625
0.01626
0.01626
0.01627
0.01627
0.01627
0.01628
0.01628
0.01629
157.11
153.22
149.44
145.77
142.21
138.74
135.37
132.10
128.92
125.83
157.12
153.23
149.46
145.78
142.23
138.76
135.39
132.12
128.94
125.85
97.99
98.99
99.99
100.99
101.99
102.99
103.98
104.98
105.98
106.98
1019.42
1018.84
1018.26
1017.68
1017.10
1016.52
1015.93
1015.35
1014.77
1014.18
1117.41
II 17.83
II 18.25
1118.67
1119.08
1119.50
11I9.92
1120.34
1120.75
1121.17
0.1817
0.1834
0.1851
0.1868
0.1885
0.1902
0.1919
0.1935
0.1952
0.1969
1.7288
1.7249
1.7210
1.7171
1.7132
1.7093
1.7055
1.7017
1.6978
1.6940
1.9105
1.9083
1.9061
1.9039
1.9017
1.8995
1.8974
1.8952
1.8930
1.8909
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
2.89260
2.96780
3.04465
3.12320
3.20345
3.28546
3.36924
3.45483
3.54226
3.63156
5.88939
6.04250
6.19897
6.35888
6.52229
6.68926
6.85984
7.03410
7.21211
7.39393
0.01629
0.01630
0.01630
0.01631
0.01631
0.01632
0.01632
0.01633
0.01633
0.01634
122.82
119.90
117.05
114.29
111.60
108.99
106.44
103.96
101.55
99.21
122.84
II 9.92
II 7.07
114.31
II 1.62
109.00
106.45
103.98
101.57
99.22
107.98
108.98
109.98
110.98
111.98
112.98
113.98
114.98
115.98
116.98
1013.60
1013.01
1012.43
1011.84
1011.26
1010.67
1010.09
1009.50
1008.91
1008.32
1121.58
1122.00
1122.41
1122.83
1123.24
1123.66
1124.07
1124.48
1124.89
1125.31
0.1985
0.2002
0.2019
0.2035
0.2052
0.2068
0.2085
0.2101
0.2118
0.2134
1.6902
1.6864
1.6827
1.6789
1.6752
1.6714
1.6677
1.6640
1.6603
1.6566
1.8888
1.8867
1.8845
1.8824
1.8803
1.8783
1.8762
1.8741
1.8721
1.8700
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
3.72277
3.81591
3.91101
4.00812
4.10727
4.20848
4.31180
4.41725
4.52488
4.63472
7.57962
7.76925
7.96289
8.16061
8.36247
8.56854
8.77890
8.99360
9.21274
9.43637
0.01634
0.01635
0.01635
0.01636
0.01636
0.01637
0.01637
0.01638
0.01638
0.01639
96.93
94.70
92.54
90.44
88.39
86.40
84.45
82.56
80.72
78.92
96.94
94.72
92.56
90.46
88.41
86.41
84.47
82.58
80.73
78.94
117.98
118.99
119.99
120.99
121.99
122.99
123.99
124.99
125.99
126.99
1007.73
1007.14
1006.55
1005.96
1005.37
1004.78
1004.19
1003.60
1003.00
1002.41
1125.72
1126.13
1126.54
1126.95
1127.36
1127.77
1128.18
1128.59
1128.99
1129.40
0.2151
0.2167
0.2184
0.2200
0.2216
0.2233
0.2249
0.2265
0.2281
0.2297
1.6529
1.6492
1.6455
1.6419
1.6383
1.6346
1.6310
1.6274
1.6238
1.6202
1.8680
1.8659
1.8639
1.8619
1.8599
1.8579
1.8559
1.8539
1.8519
1.8500
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
4.7468
4.8612
4.9778
5.0969
5.2183
5.3422
5.4685
5.5974
5.7287
5.8627
9.6646
9.8974
10.1350
10.3774
10.6246
10.8768
11.1340
11.3963
11.6638
11.9366
0.01639
0.01640
0.01640
0.01641
0.01642
0.01642
0.01643
0.01643
0.01644
0.01644
77.175
75.471
73.812
72.196
70.619
69.084
67.587
66.130
64.707
63.320
77.192
75.488
73.829
72.213
70.636
69.101
67.604
66.146
64.723
63.336
127.99
128.99
130.00
131.00
132.00
133.00
134.00
135.00
136.01
137.01
1001.82
1001.22
1000.63
1000.03
999.43
998.84
998.24
997.64
997.04
996.44
1129.81
1130.22
1130.62
1131.03
1131.43
1131.84
1132.24
1132.64
1133.05
1133.45
0.2314
0.2330
0.2346
0.2362
0.2378
0.2394
0.2410
0.2426
0.2442
0.2458
1.6167
1.6131
1.6095
1.6060
1.6025
1.5989
1.5954
1.5919
1.5884
1.5850
1.8480
1.8461
1.8441
1.8422
1.8403
1.8383
1.8364
1.8345
1.8326
1.8308
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
5.9993
6.1386
6.2806
6.4253
6.5729
6.7232
6.8765
7.0327
7.1918
7.3539
12.2148
12.4983
12.7874
13.0821
13.3825
13.6886
14.0006
14.3186
14.6426
14.9727
0.01645
0.01646
0.01646
0.01647
0.01647
0.01648
0.01648
0.01649
0.01650
0.01650
61.969
60.649
59.363
58.112
56.887
55.694
54.532
53.397
52.290
51.210
61.986
60.666
59.380
58.128
56.904
55.711
54.549
53.414
52.307
51.226
138.01
139.01
140.oI
141.02
142.02
143.02
144.02
145.03
146.03
147.03
995.84
995.24
994.64
994.04
993.44
992.83
992.23
991.63
991.02
990.42
1133.85
1134.25
1134.66
1135.06
1135.46
1135.86
1136.26
1136.65
1137.05
1137.45
0.2474
0.2490
0.2506
0.2521
0.2537
0.2553
0.2569
0.2585
0.2600
0.2616
1.5815
1.5780
1.5746
1.5711
1.5677
1.5643
1.5609
1.5575
1.5541
1.5507
1.8289
1.8270
1.8251
1.8233
1.8214
1.8196
1.8178
1.8159
1.8141
1.8123
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
7.5191
7.6874
7.8589
8.0335
8.2114
8.3926
8.5770
8.7649
8.9562
9.1510
15.3091
15.6518
16.0008
16.3564
16.7185
17.0874
17.4630
17.8455
18.2350
18.6316
0.01651
0.01651
0.01652
0.01653
0.01653
0.01654
0.01654
0.01655
0.01656
0.01656
50.155
49.126
48.122
47.142
46.185
45.251
44.339
43.448
42.579
41.730
50.171
49.143
48.138
47.158
46.202
45.267
44.356
43.465
42.595
41.746
148.04
149.04
150.04
151.05
152.05
153.05
154.06
155.06
156.07
157.07
989.81
989.20
988.60
987.99
987.38
986.77
986.16
985.55
984.94
984.32
1137.85
1138.24
1138.64
1139.03
1139.43
1139.82
1140.22
1140.61
1141.00
1141.39
0.2632
0.2647
0.2663
0.2679
0.2694
0.2710
0.2725
0.2741
0.2756
0.2772
1.5473
1.5440
1.5406
1.5373
1.5339
1.5306
1.5273
1.5240
1.5207
1.5174
1.8105
1.8087
1.8069
1.8051
1.8034
1.8016
1.7998
1.7981
1.7963
1.7946
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
AppendixB
Fundamentals ofTilermodynamics and Psycllrometrics
B: 5
Specific Volume, ft 311b
Temp.
t, of
Absolute Pressure p
psi
in.Hg
Entropy, BtullboF
Enthalpy, Btullb
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
vi
Vig
Vg
hi
h ig
hg
Sat.
SolidILiq.
Evap.
Sat.
Vapor
si
Sig
Sg
Temp.,
of
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
9.3493
9.5512
9.7567
9.9659
10.1788
10.3955
10.6160
10.8404
11.0687
11.3010
19.0353
19.4464
19.8648
20.2907
20.7242
21.1653
21.6143
22.0712
22.5361
23.0091
0.01657
0.01658
0.01658
0.01659
0.01659
0.01660
0.01661
0.01661
0.01662
0.01663
40.901
40.092
39.301
38.528
37.774
37.035
36.314
35.611
34.923
34.251
40.918
40.108
39.317
38.544
37.790
37.052
36.331
35.628
34.940
34.268
158.07
159.08
160.08
161.09
162.09
163.10
164.10
165.11
166.11
167.12
983.71
983.10
982.48
981.87
981.25
980.63
980.02
979.40
978.78
978.16
1141.78
1142.18
1142.57
1142.95
1143.34
1143.73
1144.12
1144.51
1144.89
1145.28
0.2787
0.2803
0.2818
0.2834
0.2849
0.2864
0.2880
0.2895
0.2910
0.2926
1.5141
1.5109
1.5076
1.5043
1.5011
1.4979
1.4946
1.4914
1.4882
1.4850
1.7929
1.7911
1.7894
1.7877
1.7860
1.7843
1.7826
1.7809
1.7792
1.7776
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
11.5374
11.7779
12.0225
12.2713
12.5244
12.7819
13.0436
13.3099
13.5806
13.8558
23.4904
23.9800
24.4780
24.9847
25.5000
26.0241
26.5571
27.0991
27.6503
28.2108
0.01663
0.01664
0.01665
0.01665
0.01666
0.01667
0.01667
0.01668
0.01669
0.01669
33.594
32.951
32.324
31.710
31.110
30.523
29.949
29.388
28.839
28.303
33.610
32.968
32.340
31.726
31.127
30.540
29.965
29.404
28.856
28.319
168.13
169.13
170.14
171.14
172.15
173.16
174.16
175.17
176.18
177.18
977.54
976.92
976.29
975.67
975.05
974.42
973.80
973.17
972.54
971.92
1145.66
1146.05
1146.43
1146.81
1147.20
1147.58
1147.96
1148.34
1148.72
1149.10
0.2941
0.2956
0.2971
0.2986
0.3002
0.3017
0.3032
0.3047
0.3062
0.3077
1.4818
1.4786
1.4755
1.4723
1.4691
1.4660
1.4628
1.4597
1.4566
1.4535
1.7759
1.7742
1.7726
1.7709
1.7693
1.7677
1.7660
1.7644
1.7628
1.7612
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
212
214
216
218
220
222
224
226
228
14.1357
14.7096
15.3025
15.9152
16.5479
17.2013
17.8759
18.5721
19.2905
20.0316
28.7806
29.9489
31.1563
32.4036
33.6919
35.0218
36.3956
37.8131
39.2758
40.7848
0.01670
0.01671
0.01673
0.01674
0.01676
0.01677
0.01679
0.01680
0.01682
0.01683
27.778
26.763
25.790
24.861
23.970
23.118
22.299
21.516
20.765
20.045
27.795
26.780
25.807
24.878
. 23.987
23.134
22.316
21.533
20.782
20.062
178.19
180.20
182.22
184.24
186.25
188.27
190.29
192.31
194.33
196.35
971.29
970.03
968.76
967.50
966.23
964.95
963.67
962.39
961.11
959.82
1149.48
1150.23
1150.98
1151.73
1152.48
1153.22
1153.96
1154.70
1155.43
1156.16
0.3092
0.3122
0.3152
0.3182
0.3212
0.3241
0.3271
0.3301
0.3330
0.3359
1.4503
1.4442
1.4380
1.4319
1.4258
1.4197
1.4136
1.4076
1.4016
1.3957
1.7596
1.7564
1.7532
1.7501
1.7469
1.7438
1.7407
1.7377
1.7347
1.7316
210
212
214
216
218
220
222
224
226
228
230
232
234
236
238
240
242
244
246
248
20.7961
21.5843
22.3970
23.2345
24.0977
24.9869
25.9028
26.8461
27.8172
28.8169
42.3412
43.9461
45.6006
47.3060
49.0633
50.8738
52.7386
54.6591
56.6364
58.6717
0.01684
0.01686
0.01688
0.01689
0.01691
0.01692
0.01694
0.01695
0.01697
0.01698
19.355
18.692
18.056
17.446
16.860
16.298
15.757
15.238
14.739
14.259
19.372
18.709
18.073
17.463
16.877
16.314
15.774
15.255
14.756
14.276
198.37
200.39
202.41
204.44
206.46
208.49
210.51
212.54
214.57
216.60
958.52
957.22
955.92
954.62
953.31
952.00
950.68
949.35
948.03
946.70
1156.89
1157.62
1158.34
1159.06
1159.77
1160.48
1161.19
1161.90
1162.60
1163.29
0.3389
0.3418
0.3447
0.3476
0.3505
0.3534
0.3563
0.3592
0.3621
0.3649
1.3898
1.3839
1.3780
1.3722
1.3664
1.3606
1.3548
1.3491
1.3434
1.3377
1.7287
1.7257
1.7227
1.7198
1.7169
1.7140
1.7111
1.7083
1.7055
1.7026
230
232
234
236
238
240
242
244
246
248
250
252
254
256
258
260
262
264
266
268
29.8457
30.9043
31.9934
33.1135
34.2653
35.4496
36.6669
37.9180
39.2035
40.5241
60.7664
62.9218
65.1391
67.4197
69.7649
72.1760
74.6545
77.2017
79.8190
82.5078
0.01700
0.01702
0.01703
0.01705
0.01707
0.01708
0.01710
0.01712
0.01714
0.01715
13.798
13.355
12.928
12.526
12.123
11.742
11.376
11.024
10.684
10.357
13.815
13.372
12.945
12.147
12.140
11.759
11.393
11.041
10.701
10.374
218.63
220.66
222.69
226.73
226.76
228.79
230.83
232.87
234.90
236.94
945.36
944.02
942.68
939.99
939.97
938.61
937.25
935.88
934.50
933.12
1163.99
1164.68
1165.37
1166.72
1166.73
1167.40
1168.08
1168.74
1169.41
1170.Q7
0.3678
0.3706
0.3735
0.3764
0.3792
0.3820
0.3848
0.3876
0.3904
0.3932
1.3321
1.3264
1.3208
1.3153
1.3097
1.3042
1.2987
1.2932
1.2877
1.2823
1.6998
1.6971
1.6943
1.6691
1.6889
1.6862
1.6835
1.6808
1.6781
1.6755
250
252
254
256
258
260
262
264
266
268
270
272
274
276
278
280
282
284
286
288
41.8806
43.2736
44.7040
46.1723
47.6794
49.2260
50.8128
52.4406
54.1103
55.8225
85.2697
88.1059
91.0181
94.0076
97.0761
100.2250
103.4558
106.7701
110.1695
113.6556
0.01717
0.01719
0.01721
0.01722
0.01724
0.01726
0.01728
0.01730
0.01731
0.01733
10.042
9.737
9.445
9.162
8.890
8.627
8.373
8.128
7.892
7.664
10.059
9.755
9.462
9.179
8.907
8.644
8.390
8.146
7.910
7.681
238.98
241.03
243.07
245.11
247.16
249.20
251.25
253.30
255.35
257.40
931.74
930.35
928.95
927.55
926.15
924.74
923.32
921.90
920.47
919.03
1170.72
1171.38
1172.02
1172.67
1173.31
1173.94
1174.57
1175.20
1175.82
1176.44
0.3960
0.3988
0.4016
0.4044
0.4071
0.4099
0.4127
0.4154
0.4182
0.4209
1.2769
1.2715
1.2661
1.2608
1.2554
1.2501
1.2448
1.2396
1.2343
1.2291
1.6729
1.6703
1.6677
1.6651
1.6626
1.6600
1.6575
1.6550
1.6525
1.6500
270
272
274
276
278
280
282
284
286
288
290
292
294
296
298
300
57.5780
59.3777
61.2224
63.1128
65.0498
67.0341
117.2299
120.8941
124.6498
128.4987
132.4425
136.4827
0.01735
0.01737
0.01739
0.01741
0.01743
0.01745
7.444
7.231
7.026
6.827
6.635
6.450
7.461
7.248
7.043
6.844
6.652
6.467
259.45
261.51
263.56
265.62
267.68
269.74
917.59
916.15
914.69
913.24
911.77
910.30
1177.05
1177.66
1178.26
1178.86
1179.45
1180.04
0.4236
0.4264
0.4291
0.4318
0.4345
0.4372
1.2239
1.2187
1.2136
1.2084
1.2033
1.1982
1.6476
1.6451
1.6427
1.6402
1.6378
1.6354
290
292
294
296
298
300
AppendixB
c:
Appendix C-l: R-22 Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor

Density, Volume,
Enthalpy,
Entropy,
Specific Heat cp '
Velocity of
Viscosity,
Thermal Cond, Surface
1
Btullb
Sound,
fils _ _ _
Ib.,lftoF
BtulhftoF
Temp, Pressure, Iblft3
.,lIb
_ _BtullbOF
_ _ _ _ _ _BtullboF
_ _ _ _ cplc, -:-:-_
__
"'-__- - _ _
_ _ _ _ Tension, Temp,.
of
psia
Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor dyne/cm OF
-250.00
-240.00
-230.00
-220.00
-210.00
0.002
0.004
107.37
-63.169
106.41
-56.462
105.48
-51.569
104.58 16805. -47.705
103.70 6982.6 -44.426
76.604
77.629
78.669
79.724
80.796
-0.21914
-0.18786
-0.16605
-0.14958
-0.13616
0.44952
0.42332
0.40101
0.38211
0.36538
0.1018
0.1033
0.1048
0.1064
0.1080
1.2914
1.2860
1.2807
1.2754
1.2703
395.
403.
411.
419.
427.
-250.00
-240.00
36.75 -230.00
35.70 -220.00
34.67 -210.00
-200.00
-190.00
-180.00
-170.00
-160.00
0.010
0.022
0.044
0.084
0.151
102.81
101.92
101.03
100.12
99.22
3151.5
1527.4
787.79
429.22
245.51
-41.474
-38.706
-36.038
-33.424
-30.839
81.882
82.984
84.100
85.230
86.373
-0.12457
-0.11411
-0.10439
-0.09521
-0.08644
0.35048
0.33715
0.32518
0.31441
0.30470
0.1096
0.1113
0.1130
0.1147
0.1165
1.2653
1.2604
1.2558
1.2515
1.2474
435.
442.
449.
456.
463.
33.63
32.61
31.59
30.58
29.57
-200.00
-190.00
-180.00
-170.00
-160.00
-150.00
-140.00
-130.00
-120.00
-110.00
0.262
0.435
0.6%
1.080
1.626
98.30
97.38
%.46
95.53
94.60
146.65
91.059
58.544
38.833
26.494
-28.269
-25.708
-23.150
-20.594
-18.D38
87.528
88.692
89.864
91.040
92.218
-0.07800
-0.06986
-0.06198
-0.05435
-0.04694
0.29594
0.28801
0.28082
0.27430 0.2555
0.26838 0.2555
0.1183
0.1201
0.1221
0.1241
0.1262
1.2437
1.2403
1.2374
1.2349 3483.
1.2329 3384.
470.
476.
482.
488.
494.
0.0765
28.57
27.57
26.59
25.61
24.64
-150.00
-140.00
-130.00
-120.00
-110.00
-100.00
-90.00
-80.00
-70.00
-60.00
2.384
3.413
4.778
6.555
8.830
93.66
92.71
91.75
90.79
89.81
18.540 -15.481
13.275 -12.921
9.7044 -10.355
7.2285 -7.783
5.4766 -5.201
93.397
94.572
95.741
%.901
98.049
-0.03973
-0.03271
-0.02587
-0.01919
-0.01266
0.26298
0.25807
0.25357
0.24945
0.24567
0.2557
0.2561
0.2567
0.2574
0.2584
0.1285
0.1308
0.1334
0.1361
0.1389
1.2315
1.2307
1.2305
1.2310
1.2323
3290.
3198.
3110.
3023.
2937.
500.
505.
510.
514.
519.
0.0749
0.0734
0.0718
0.0703
0.0688
0.00292
0.00315
0.00338
0.00360
23.67 -100.00
22.71
-90.00
21.76 -80.00
20.82 -70.00
19.89 -60.00
-50.00
-45.00
-41.44b
-40.00
-35.00
-30.00
11.6%
13.383
14.6%
15.255
17.329
19.617
88.83
88.33
87.97
87.82
87.32
86.81
4.2138 -2.608 99.182 -0.00627 0.24220 0.25%

3.7160 -1.306 99.742 -0.00312 0.24056 0.2604
3.4048 -0.377 100.138 -0.00090 0.23944 0.2609
3.2880 0.000 100.296 0.00000 0.23899 0.2611
2.9185 1.310 100.847 0.00309 0.23748 0.2620
2.5984 2.624 101.391 0.00616 0.23602 0.2629
0.1420
0.1436
0.1448
0.1453
0.1471
0.1489
1.2344
1.2358
1.2369
1.2374
1.2393
1.2414
2852.
2810.
2780.
2768.
2725.
2683.
522.
524.
525.
526.
527.
529.
0.0673
0.0665
0.0660
0.0658
0.0651
0.0643
0.00382
0.00393
0.00401
0.00404
0.00414
0.00425
18.%
18.50
18.18
18.05
17.59
17.14
-50.00
-45.00
-41.44
-40.00
-35.00
-30.00
-25.00 22.136
-20.00 24.899
-15.00 27.924
-10.00 31.226
-5.00 34.821
86.29
85.77
85.25
84.72
84.18
2.3202
2.0774
1.8650
1.6784
1.5142
3.944
5.268
6.598
7.934
9.276
101.928
102.461
102.986
103.503
104.013
0.00920
0.01222
0.01521
0.01818
0.02113
0.23462 0.2638 0.1507 1.2437

0.23327 0.2648 0.1527 1.2463
0.23197 0.2659 0.1547 1.2493
0.23071 0.2671 0.1567 1.2525
0.22949 0.2684 0.1589 1.2560
2641.
2599.
2557.
2515.
2473.
530.
531.
532.
533.
534.
0.0636
0.0629
0.0622
0.0614
0.0607
0.00435
0.00445
0.00456
0.00466
0.00476
16.69
16.24
15.79
-25.00
-20.00
-15.00
-10.00
-5.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
38.726
42.960
47.538
52.480
57.803
83.64
83.09
82.54
81.98
81.41
1.3691
1.2406
1.1265
1.0250
0.9343
10.624
11.979
13.342
14.712
16.090
104.515
105.009
105.493
105.%8
106.434
0.02406
0.02697
0.02987
0.03275
0.03561
0.22832
0.22718
0.22607
0.22500
0.22395
0.2697
0.2710
0.2725
0.2740
0.2756
0.1611
0.1634
0.1658
0.1683
0.1709
1.2599
1.2641
1.2687
1.2737
1.2792
2431.
2389.
2346.
2304.
2262.
535.
535.
535.
536.
536.
0.615
0.597
0.580
0.563
0.546
0.0268
0.0271
0.0274
0.0276
0.0279
0.0600
0.0593
0.0586
0.0579
0.0572
0.00486
0.004%
0.00506
0.00516
0.00526
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
63.526
69.667
76.245
83.280
90.791
80.84
80.26
79.67
79.07
78.46
0.8532
0.7804
0.7150
0.6561
0.6029
17.476
18.871
20.275
21.688
23.111
106.891
107.336
107.769
108.191
108.600
0.03846
0.04129
0.04411
0.04692
0.04972
0.22294
0.22195
0.22098
0.22004
0.21912
0.2773
0.2791
0.2809
0.2829
0.2849
0.1737
0.1765
0.1794
0.1825
0.1857
1.2851
1.2915
1.2984
1.3059
1.3141
2219.
2177.
2134.
2091.
2048.
536.
536.
535.
535.
534.
0.530
0.515
0.499
0.484
0.470
0.0282
0.0284
0.0287
0.0290
0.0292
0.0566
0.0559
0.0552
0.0545
0.0538
0.00536
0.00546
0.00555
0.00565
0.00575
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
50.00 98.799
55.00 107.32
60.00 116.38
65.00 126.00
77.84
77.22
76.58
75.93
0.5548
0.5111
0.4715
0.4355
24.544 108.997
25.988 109.379
27.443 109.748
28.909 110.103
0.05251
0.05529
0.05806
0.06082
0.21821
0.21732
0.21644
0.21557
0.2870
0.2893
0.2916
0.2941
0.1891
0.1927
0.1964
0.2003
1.3229
1.3324
1.3428
1.3540
2005.
1%2.
1919.
1876.
533.
532.
531.
530.
0.456
0.442
0.429
0.416
0.0295
0.0298
0.0301
0.0303
0.0532
0.0525
0.0518
0.0512
0.00584
0.00594
0.00604
0.00613
50.00
55.00
60.00
65.00
70.00
75.00
80.00
85.00
90.00
95.00
136.19
146.98
158.40
170.45
183.17
1%.57
75.27
74.60
73.92
73.22
72.51
71.79
0.4026
0.3726
0.3451
0.3199
0.2%8
0.2756
30.387
31.877
33.381
34.898
36.430
37.977
110.441
110.761
111.066
111.350
111.616
111.859
0.06358
0.06633
0.06907
0.07182
0.07456
0.07730
0.21472 0.2%7 0.2045

0.21387 0.2994 0.2089
0.21302 0.3024 0.2135
0.21218 0.3055 0.2185
0.21134 0.3088 0.2238
0.21050 0.3123 0.2295
1.3663
1.37%
1.3941
1.4100
1.4275
1.4467
1832.
1788.
1744.
1700.
1655.
1611.
528.
527.
525.
523.
520.
518.
0.404
0.392
0.380
0.369
0.358
0.348
0.0505
0.0499
0.0492
0.0486
0.0479
0.0473
0.00623
0.00632
0.00642
0.00652
0.00661
0.00671
70.00
75.00
80.00
85.00
90.00
95.00
100.00
105.00
110.00
115.00
120.00
210.69
225.53
241.14
257.52
274.71
71.05
70.29
69.51
68.71
67.89
0.2560
0.2379
0.2212
0.2058
0.1914
39.538
41.119
42.717
44.334
45.972
112.081
112.278
112.448
112.591
112.704
0.08003
0.08277
0.08552
0.08827
0.09103
0.20%5
0.20879
0.20793
0.20705
0.20615
0.3162
0.3203
0.3248
0.3298
0.3353
0.2356
0.2422
0.2495
0.2573
0.2660
1.4678
1.4912
1.5173
1.5464
1.5791
1566.
1520.
1474.
1428.
1382.
515.
512.
509.
506.
502.
0.338
0.0466
0.0460
0.0454
0.0447
0.0441
0.00680
0.00690
0.00699
0.00709
0.00719
100.00
105.00
110.00
115.00
120.00
125.00
130.00
135.00
140.00
145.00
292.73
311.61
331.38
352.07
373.71
67.05
66.17
65.27
64.33
63.35
0.1781
0.1657
0.1542
0.1434
0.1332
47.633
49.319
51.032
52775
54.553
112.783
112.825
112.826
112.784
112.692
0.09379
0.09657
0.09937
0.10220
0.10504
0.20522
0.20427
0.20329
0.20227
0.20119
0.3413
0.3482
0.3559
0.3648
0.3752
0.2756
0.2864
0.2985
0.3123
0.3282
1.6160
1.6581
1.7063
1.7621
1.8275
1334.
1287.
1238.
1189.
1139.
498.
494.
489.
485.
479.
125.00
130.00
135.00
140.00
145.00
150.00
160.00
170.00
180.00
190.00
3%.32
444.65
497.35
554.82
617.53
62.33
60.12
57.59
54.57
50.62
0.1237
0.1063
0.0907
0.0763
0.0625
56.370
60.145
64.175
68.597
73.742
112.541
112.035
111.165
109.753
107.398
0.10793
0.11383
0.12001
0.12668
0.13432
0.20006
0.19757
0.19464
0.19102
0.18613
0.3873
0.4198
0.4711
0.5657
0.7952
0.3468
0.3957
0.4716
0.6073
0.9222
1.9050 1088.
2.1126 983.
2.4409 873.
3.0349 752.
4.4150 616.
474.
462.
448.
433.
415.
150.00
160.00
170.00
180.00
190.00
200.00 686.11
205.06c 723.74
44.44
32.70
0.0478 80.558
0.0306 91.052
102.809
91.052
0.14432 0.17805
0.15989 0.15989
o.
o.
"temperatures are on the ITS-90 scale
b = boiling point
0.00
200.00
205.06
c =critical point
AppendixC
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Appendix C-3: R-134a Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor

Temp,. Pressure,
OF
psia
Density, Volume,
Enthalpy,
Entropy,
Specific Heat cp'
Velocity or
Viscosity,
Thennal Cond, Surface
o
Ib/rt 3
rt 311b _ _B_t_uII_b_ _ _ _B_t_uII_b_o_F_ _ _ _B_tull_b_oo_F_ c/c, _S_o_un_d_,rtI_s_ _ _I_b",..If_t_oO_F_ _ _ _
B_tu/h_o_ft_oo_F_ Tension, Temp,.
Liquid
Vapor Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
dyne/cm
OF
32.989
31.902
29.093
26.238
80.235
80.783
82.190
83.618
0.09154 0.27880
0.08801 0.27588
0.07908 0.26903
0.07029 0.26294
0.2740 0.1397 1.1628

0.2776 0.1409 1.1615
0.2837 0.1438 1.1583
0.2870 0.1467 1.1554
3723.
3670.
3552.
3448.
416.
418.
424.
430.
5.289
4.913
4.117
3.497
0.0160
0.0163
0.0168
0.0173
28.15
27.76
26.78
25.81
-153.94
-150.00
-140.00
-130.00
23359
20.467
17.569
14.665
11.755
85.066
86.531
88.011
89.504
91.005
0.06169
0.05330
0.04513
0.03717
0.02940
0.25752
0.25270
0.24842
0.24462
0.24125
0.2886
0.2895
0.2900
0.2906
0.2913
1.1528
1.1507
1.1489
1.1475
1.1466
3352.
3261.
3173.
3087.
3001.
436.
441.
446.
451.
456.
3.006
2.613
2.292
2.028
1.808
0.0179
0.0184
0.0190
0.0195
0.0200
0.0721
0.0706
24.86
23.92
22.99
22.08
21.17
-120.00
-110.00
-100.00
-90.00
-80.00
16.680 10.297
14.138
8.837
12.045
7.374
10.310
5.907
8.8656 4.437
91.759
92.514
93.270
94.026
94.783
0.02559
0.02182
0.01809
0.01440
0.01075
0.23972
0.23827
0.23691
0.23563
0.23443
0.2917 0.1641 1.1463

0.2922 0.1658 1.1462
0.2928 0.1676 1.1461
0.2935 0.1694 1.1462
0.2943 0.1712 1.1465
2959.
2916.
2874.
2832.
2790.
458.
460.
462.
464.
466.
1.712
1.623
1.542
1.466
1.396
0.0203
0.0206
0.0209
0.0212
0.0214
0.0699
0.0691
0.0684
0.0677 0.00405
0.0669 0.00423
20.73
20.28
19.84
19.40
18.96
-75.00
-70.00
-{;5.00
-{;D.OO
-55.00
2.963
1.484
0.000
1.489
2.984
95.539
96.295
97.050
97.804
98.556
0.00713
0.00355
0.00000
0.00352
0.00701
0.23331
0.23225
0.23125
0.23032
0.22945
0.2951
0.2960
0.2970
0.2981
0.2992
0.1731
0.1750
0.1769
0.1789
0.1810
1.1468
1.1473
1.1479
1.1487
1.1497
2747.
2705.
2663.
2621.
2579.
468.
470.
471.
473.
474.
1.331
1.271
1.215
1.163
1.113
0.0217
0.0220
0.0223
0.0225
0.0228
0.0662 0.00440
0.0654 0.00457
0.0647 0.00473
0.0639 0.00489
0.0632 0.00505
18.52
18.09
17.66
17.23
16.81
-50.00
-45.00
-40.00
-35.00
-30.00
86.82
86.32
85.81
85.80
85.29
84.77
3.9014 4.484
3.4452 5.991
3.0519 7.505
3.0462 7.529
2.7116 9.026
2.4161 10.554
99.306
100.054
100.799
100.811
101.542
102.280
0.01048
0.01392
0.01733
0.01739
0.02073
0.02409
0.22863
0.22786
0.22714
0.22713
0.22647
0.22584
0.3004
0.3017
0.3031
0.3031
0.3045
0.3060
0.1831
0.1852
0.1874
0.1874
0.1897
0.1920
1.1508
1.1521
1.\535
1.\535
1.\552
1.\570
2536.
2494.
2452.
2451.
2410.
2367.
476.
477.
478.
478.
479.
480.
1.068
1.024
0.984
0.983
0.946
0.910
0.0231
0.0234
0.0237
0.0237
0.0240
0.0243
0.0625
0.0617
0.0610
0.0610
0.0602
0.0595
0.00521
0.00536
0.00550
0.00551
0.00565
0.00579
16.38
15.96
15.54
15.54
15.13
14.71
-25.00
-20.00
-15.00
-14.92
-10.00
-5.00
21.162
23.767
26.617
29.726
33.110
84.25
83.72
83.18
82.64
82.10
2.1587
1.9337
1.7365
1.5630
1.4101
103.015
103.745
104.471
105.192
105.907
0.02744
0.03077
0.03408
0.03737
0.04065
0.22525
0.22470
0.22418
0.22370
0.22325
0.3075
0.3091
0.3108
0.3126
0.3144
0.1943
0.1968
0.1993
0.2018
0.2045
1.1590
1.\613
1.\ 637
1.1664
1.1694
2325.
2283.
2240.
2198.
2155.
481.
481.
482.
482.
482.
0.876
0.843
0.813
0.784
0.756
0.0245
0.0248
0.0251
0.0254
0.0257
0.0588 0.00593
0.0580 0.00607
0.0573 0.00621
0.0565 0.00635
0.0558 0.00649
14.30
13.89
13.48
13.08
12.67
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
36.785
40.768
45.075
49.724
54.732
81.55
80.99
80.42
79.85
79.26
1.0484 23.085 108.016

0.9534 24.694 108.705
0.8685 26.314 109.386
0.04391 0.22283
0.04715 0.22244
0.05038 0.22207
0.05359 0.22172
0.05679 0.22140
0.3162
0.3182
0.3202
0.3223
0.3244
0.2072
0.2100
0.2129
0.2159
0.2190
1.1726
1.1761
1.\799
1.1841
1.1886
2113.
2070.
2027.
1985.
1942.
482.
482.
482.
482.
481.
0.730
0.705
0.681
0.658
0.636
0.0260
0.0263
0.0267
0.0270
0.0273
0.0550 0.00662
0.0543 0.00676
0.0536 0.00690
0.0528 0.00704
0.0521 0.00718
12.27
11.87
11.48
11.08
10.69
25.00
30:00
35:00
40.00
45.00
50.00
55.00
60.00
65.00
70.00
60.116
65.895
72.087
78.712
85.787
78.67
78.07
77.46
76.84
76.21
0.7925
0.7243
0.6630
0.6077
0.5577
27.944
29.586
31.239
32.905
34.583
110.058
11 0.722
111.376
112.019
112.652
0.05998
0.06316
0.06633
0.06949
0.07264
0.22110
0.22081
0.22054
0.22028
0.22003
0.3267 0.2222 1.\935

0.3290 0.2255 1.1988
0.3314 0.2289 1.2046
0.3339 0.2325 1.2109
0.3366 0.2363 1.2178
1899.
1856.
1813.
1770.
1726.
481.
480.
479.
477.
476.
0.615
0.595
0.576
0.557
0.539
0.0276
0.0280
0.0283
0.0286
0.0290
0.0513 0.00732
0.0506 0.00746
0.0499 0.00761
0.0491 0.00776
0.0484 0.00791
10.30
9.91
9.53
9.15
8.77
50.00
55.00
60.00
65.00
70.00
75.00
80.00
85.00
90.00
95.00
93.333
101.37
109.92
1\9.00
128.63
75.57
74.91
74.25
73.57
72.87
0.5125
0.4715
0.4343
0.4004
0.3694
36.274
37.978
39.697
41.430
43.179
113.272
113.880
114.475
115.055
115.619
0.07578
0.07892
0.08205
0.08518
0.08830
0.21979
0.21957
0.21934
0.21912
0.21890
0.3393
0.3422
0.3453
0.3485
0.3519
1683.
1640.
1596.
1552.
1509.
474.
472.
470.
468.
466.
0.522
0.505
0.489
0.473
0.458
0.0294
0.0297
0.0301
0.0305
0.0309
0.0476 0.00806
0.0469 0.00822
0.0462 0.00838
0.0454 0.00855
0.0447 0.00872
8.39
8.02
7.65
7.28
6.91
75.00
80.00
85.00
90.00
95.00
100.00
105.00
110.00
1\5.00
120.00
138.83
149.63
161.05
173.11
185.84
72.16
71.43
70.68
69.91
69.12
0.3411
0.3153
0.2915
0.2697
0.2497
44.943
46.725
48.524
50.343
52.181
116.166
116.694
117.203
117.690
118.153
0.09142 0.21868
0.09454 0.21845
0.09766 0.21822
0.10078 0.21797
0.10391 0.21772
0.3555 0.2633 1.2748 1465.

0.3594 0.2689 1.2880 1421.
0.3635 0.2748 1.3026 1376.
0.3680 0.2812 1.3189 1332.
0.3728 0.2881 1.3372 1288.
463.
460.
457.
454.
450.
0.443
0.428
0.414
0.400
0.387
0.0313
0.0318
0.0322
0.0327
0.0332
0.0439
0.0432
0.0425
0.0417
0.04 10
0.00890
0.00908
0.00926
0.00946
0.00965
6.55
5.84
5.49
5.15
100.00
105.00
110.00
115.00
120.00
125.00
130.00
135.00
140.00
145.00
199.25
213.38
228.25
243.88
260.31
68.31
67.47
66.60
65.70
64.77
0.2312
0.2141
0.1983
0.1836
0.1700
54.040
55.923
57.830
59.764
61.727
118.591
119.000
119.377
119.720
120.024
0.10704
0.11018
0.11333
0.11650
0.11968
0.3781
0.3839
0.3903
0.3974
0.4053
1243.
1198.
1153.
110S.
1062.
446.
442.
437.
432.
427.
0.374
0.361
0.348
0.335
0.323
0.0338
0.0343
'0.0349
0.0356
0.0363
0.0403
0.0395
0.0388
0.0380
0.0373
0.00986
0.01007
0.01029
0.01052
0.01075
4.80
4.47
4.\3
3.81
3.48
125.00
130.00
135.00
140.00
145.00
150.00
155.00
160.00
165.00
170.00
277.57
295.69
314.69
334.62
355.51
63.80
62.78
61.72
60.60
59.42
0.1574
0.1455
0.1345
0.1241
0.1144
63.722
65.752
67.823
69.939
72.106
120.284
120.495
120.650
120.739
120.753
0.12288 0.21566
0.12611 0.21517
0.12938 0.21463
0.13268 0.21400
0.13603 0.21329
0.4144 0.3486 1.5143 1017.

0.4247 0.3640 1.5630 97 I.
0.4368 0.3821 1.6213 924.
0.4511 0.4036 1.6921 877.
0.4683 0.4299 1.7798 829.
421.
416.
409.
403.
396.
0.311
0.298
0.286
0.274
0.262
0.0370
0.0378
0.0387
0.0397
0.0407
0.0366
0.0358
0.0351
0.0343
0.0336
om I 00
0.01125
om151
0.01178
0.01206
3.17
2.86
2.55
2.26
1.97
150.00
155.00
160.00
165.00
170.00
175.00
180.00
185.00
190.00
195.00
377.40
400.34
424.37
449.55
475.95
58.16
56.80
55.33
53.70
51.86
0.1052
0.0965
0.0881
0.0801
0.0723
74.335
76.636
79.027
81.534
84.196
120.677
120.493
120.175
119.684
118.963
0.13945
0.14295
0.14655
0.15029
0.15423
0.21247
0.21151
0.21037
0.2090 I
0.20733
0.4896 0.4627 1.8908

0.5168 0.5048 20354
0.5527 0.5612 2.2309
0.6031 0.6406 2.5087
0.6794 0.7612 29338
781.
731.
680.
627.
572.
388.
380.
372.
363.
353.
0.249
0.237
0.224
0.211
0.197
0.0420
0.0434
0.0450
0.0469
0.0493
0.0329
0.0321
0.0314
0.01235
0.01265
0.01296
1.69
1.41
1.15
0.90
0.67
175.00
180.00
185.00
190.00
195.00
200.00
205.00
210.00
213.85c
503.64
532.72
563.34
588.27
49.70
47.00
43.03
32.04
0.0646 87.088
0.0566 90.368
0.0474 94.548
0.0312103.775
117.906
116.289
113.411
103.775
0.15847
0.16326
0.16933
0.18128
0.20519
0.20226
0.19750
0.18128
0.8100 0.9673 3.6640

1.0906 1.4042 5.2174
514.
450.
378.
O.
343.
331.
316.
0.182
0.164
0.142
0.0523
0.0566
0.0639
0.45
0.25
0.09
0.00
200.00
205.00
210.00
213.85
-153.94a
-150.00
-140.00
-130.00
0.057
0.072
0.130
0.222
99.34
98.95
97.98
97.01
564.85
449.29
259.15
155.69
-120.00
-110.00
-100.00
-90.00
-80.00
0.367
0.586
0.906
1.363
1.997
96.05
95.09
94.13
93.17
92.21
97.027
62.509
41.496
28.303
19.783
-75.00
-70.00
-{;5.00
-{;D.OO
-55.00
2.396
2.859
3.393
4.006
4.707
91.73
91.25
90.77
90.28
89.80
-50.00
-45.00
-40.00
-35.00
-30.00
5.505
6.409
7.429
8.577
9.862
89.31
88.82
88.32
87.83
87.33
7.6569
6.6405
5.7819
5.0533
4.4325
-25.00
-20.00
-15.00
-14.92b
-10.00
-5.00
11.297
12.895
14.667
14.696
16.626
18.787
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
12.090
13.634
15.187
16.748
18.318
1.2749 19.897 106.617

\.1550 21.486 107.320
"temperatures are OR the ITS-90 scale
Vapor
0.21744
0.21715
0.21683
0.21648
0.21609
Liquid
a =triple point
Vapor Vapor Liquid Vapor
0.1497
0.1527
0.1559
0.1591
0.1624
0.2402
0.2444
0.2487
0.2533
0.2582
0.2957
0.3040
0.3133
0.3236
0.3353
1.2252
1.2334
1.2424
1.2522
1.2630
1.3577
1.3810
1.4075
1.4379
1.4731
Liquid Vapor
O.
b = boiling point
Liquid
Vapor
6.20
c =critical point
AppendixC
20
60
100
140
180
220
260
IJ I
3000
2000
1000~
1000
as
'u;
c.
~
I
..
200 ~
200
100
100
w
a:
40
::l
en
en
w
a:
D.
20
20
10
=
~
~
=
......
=-~
.....
~
C
.....
~
(JQ
11
2
1
260
ENTHALPY
(Btu/Ibm)
I-l
~
~
~
D: 1
Appendix D-l: Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air at 14.696 psia

Condensed Water
Temp. Humidity
Ratio,
I,
OF Ib,.JIbda Ws
Enthalpy,
Btullb dry air
Volume,
air
ft 31lb dry
va
va
g
hga
Entropy,
Btul(Ib dry air) OF
Sg a
Saga
Sa
Vapor
Btullb Btullb OF in.Hg
pg"
h.,
S.,
Temp.,
OF
9.553
9.579
9.604
9.629
9.655
9.680
9.705
9.731
9.756
9.782
ha
-19.221
-18.980
-18.740
-18.500
-18.259
-18.019
-17.778
-17.538
-17.298
-17.057
ha/
0.005
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.007
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.010
0.010
-19.215
-18.975
-18.734
-18.493
-18.252
-18.0ll
-17.770
-17.529
-17.288
-17.047
-<l.04594
-<l.0453 I
-<l.04468
-<l.04405
-<l.04342
-<l.04279
-<l.04217
-<l.04155
-<l.04093
-<l.04031
0.00001
0.00002
0.00002
0.00002
0.00002
0.00002
0.00002
0.00002
0.00003
0.00003
-<l.04592
-<l.04529
-<l.04466
-<l.04403
-<l.04340
-<l.04277
-<l.04215
-<l.04152
-0.04090
-<l.04028
-193.45
-193.06
-192.66
-192.27
-191.87
-191.47
-191.07
-190.68
-190.27
-189.87
-<l.4067
-<l.4056
-<l.4046
-<l.4036
-<l.4025
-<l.4015
-<l.4005
-<l.3994
-<l.3984
-<l.3974
0.000236 -80
0.000255 -79
0.000275 -78
0.000296 -77
0.000319 -76
0.000344 -75
0.000371 -74
0.000400 -73
0.000430 -72
0.000463 -71
-80
-79
-78
-77
-76
-75
-74
-73
-72
-71
0.0000049
0.0000053
0.0000057
0.0000062
0.0000067
0.0000072
0.0000078
0.0000084
0.0000090
0.0000097
9.553
9.579
9.604
9.629
9.655
9.680
9.705
9.731
9.756
9.781
va/
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
-70
-69
-68
-67
-66
-65
-63
-62
-61
0.0000104
0.0000 II 2
0.0000120
0.0000129
0.0000139
0.0000149
0.0000160
0.0000172
0.0000184
0.0000198
9.807
9.832
9.857
9.883
9.908
9.933
9.959
9.984
10.009
10.035
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
9.807
9.832
9.858
9.883
9.908
9.934
9.959
9.984
10.010
10.035
-16.806
-16.577
-16.336
-16.096
-15.856
-15.616
-15.375
-15.117
-14.895
-14.654
0.01l
0.012
0.013
0.013
0.015
0.015
0.017
0.018
0.019
0.021
-16.817
-16.565
-16.324
-16.083
-15.841
-15.600
-15.359
-15.135
-14.876
-14.634
-<l.03969
-<l.03907
-<l.03846
-<l.03785
-0.03724
-<l.03663
-<l.03602
-<l.0354I
-0.03481
-0.03420
0.00003
0.00003
0.00003
0.00004
0.00004
0.00004
0.00005
0.00005
0.00005
0.00006
-<l.03966
-<l.03904
-0.03843
-<l.0378I
-<l.03720
-<l.03659
-0.03597
-0.03536
-0.03476
-<l.03415
-189.47
-189.07
-188.66
-188.26
-187.85
-187.44
-187.04
-186.63
-186.22
-185.81
-<l.3963
-0.3953
-0.3943
-0.3932
-<l.3922
-0.3912
-0.3901
-0.3891
-<l.388 I
-0.3870
0.000498
0.000536
0.000576
0.000619
0.000665
0.000714
0.000766
0.000822
0.000882
0.000945
-60
-59
-58
-57
-56
-55
-54
-53
-52
-51
0.0000212
0.0000227
0.0000243
0.0000260
0.0000279
0.0000298
0.0000319
0.0000341
0.0000365
0.0000390
10.060
10.085
10.111
10.136
10.161
10.187
10.212
10.237
10.263
10.288
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
10.060
10.086
10.111
10.137
10.162
10.187
10.213
10.238
10.263
10.289
-14.414
-14.174
-13.933
-13.693
-13.453
-13.213
-12.972
-12.732
-12.492
-12.251
0.022
0.024
0.025
0.027
0.029
0.031
0.033
0.035
0.038
0.041
-14.392
-14.150
-13.908
-13.666
-13.424
-13.182
-12.939
-12.697
-12.454
-12.211
-<l.03360
-<l.03300
-0.03240
-0.03180
-<l.03121
-<l.03061
-0.03002
-<l.02943
-<l.02884
-0.02825
0.00006
0.00006
0.00007
0.00007
0.00008
0.00008
0.00009
0.00009
0.00010
0.000 II
-0.03354
-0.03294
-0.03233
-0.03173
-<l.03113
-<l.03053
-0.02993
-0.02934
-<l.02874
-<l.02814
-185.39
-184.98
-184.57
-184.15
-183.74
-183.32
-182.90
-182.48
-182.06
-181.64
-0.3860
-0.3850
-0.3839
-0.3829
-0.3819
-<l.3808
-0.3798
-0.3788
-0.3778
-0.3767
0.001013 -60
0.001086 -59
0.001163 -58
0.001246 -57
0.001333 -56
0.001427 -55
0.001526 -54
0.001632 -53'
0.001745 -52
0.001865 -51
-50
-49
-48
-47
-46
-45
-44
-43
-42
-41
0.0000416
0.0000445
0.0000475
0.0000507
0.0000541
0.0000577
0.0000615
0.0000656
0.0000699
0.0000744
10.313
10.339
10.364
10.389
10.415
10.440
10.465
10.491
10.516
10.541
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
10.314
10.340
10.365
10.390
10.416
10.441
10.466
10.492
10.517
10.543
-12.011
-11.771
-11.531
-11.290
-11.050
-10.810
-10.570
-10.329
-10.089
-9.849
0.043
0.046
0.050
0.053
0.056
0.060
0.064
0.068
0.073
0.078
-11.968
-11.725
-11.481
-11.237
-10.994
-10.750
-10.505
-10.261
-10.016
-9.771
-<l.02766
-<l.02708
-<l.02649
-<l.0259I
-<l.02533
-<l.02475
-0.02417
-<l.02359
-<l.02302
-<l.02244
0.00011
0.00012
0.00013
0.00014
0.00015
0.00016
0.00017
0.00018
0.00019
0.00020
-<l.02755
-<l.02696
-0.02636
-<l.02577
-<l.02518
-<l.02459
-<l.02400
-0.02342
-0.02283
-<l.02224
-181.22
-180.80
-180.37
-179.95
-179.52
-179.10
-178.67
-178.24
-177.81
-177.38
-0.3757
-0.3747
-0.3736
-0.3726
-0.3716
-0.3705
-0.3695
-0.3685
-0.3675
-0.3664
0.001992 -50
0.002128 -49
0.002272 -48
0.002425 -47
0.002587 -46
0.002760 -45
0.002943 -44
0.003137 -43
0.003343 -42
0.003562 -41
-40
-39
-38
-37
-36
-35
-34
-33
-32
-31
0.0000793
0.0000844
0.0000898
0.0000956
0.0001017
0.0001081
0.0001150
0.0001222
0.0001298
0.0001379
10.567
10.592
10.617
10.643
10.668
10.693
10.719
10.744
10.769
10.795
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
10.568
10.593
10.619
10.644
10.670
10.695
10.721
10.746
10.772
10.797
-9.609
-9.368
-9.128
-8.888
-8.648
-8.407
-8.167
-7.927
-7.687
-7.447
0.083
0.088
0.094
0.100
0.106
0.113
0.120
0.128
0.136
0.145
-9.526
-9.280
-9.034
-8.788
-8.541
-8.294
-8.047
-7.799
-7.551
-7.302
-<l.02187
-<l.02130
-0.02073
-0.02016
-<l.01959
-<l.01902
-<l.01846
-0.01790
-<l.01733
-<l.01677
0.00021
0.00022
0.00024
0.00025
0.00027
0.00028
0.00030
0.00032
0.00034
0.00036
-<l.02166
-0.02107
-<l.02049
-<l.0199 I
-0.01932
-0.01874
-0.01816
-<l.01758
-0.01699
-<l.0 164 I
-176.95
-176.52
-176.08
-175.65
-175.21
-174.78
-174.34
-173.90
-173.46
-173.02
-0.3654
-0.3644
-0.3633
-0.3623
-0.3613
-0.3603
-0.3529
-0.3582
-0.3572
-0.3561
0.003793
0.004039
0.004299
0.004575
0.004866
0.005175
0.005502
0.005848
0.006214
0.006601
-40
-39
-38
-37
-36
-35
-34
-33
-32
-31
-30
-29
-28
-27
-26
-25
-24
-23
-22
-21
0.0001465
0.0001555
0.0001650
0.0001751
0.0001858
0.0001970
0.0002088
0.0002214
0.0002346
0.0002485
10.820
10.845
10.871
10.896
10.921
10.947
10.972
10.997
11.022
11.048
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
10.822
10.848
10.873
10.899
10.924
10.950
10.976
11.001
11.027
11.052
-7.206
-6.966
-6.726
-6.486
-6.245
-6.005
-5.765
-5.525
-5.284
-5.044
0.154
0.163
0.173
0.184
0.195
0.207
0.220
0.233
0.247
0.261
-7.053
-6.803
-6.553
-6.302
-6.051
-5.798
-5.545
-5.292
-5.038
-4.783
-0.01621
-<l.01565
-<l.0151O
-<l.01454
-<l.01399
-<l.01343
-<l.01288
-<l.01233
-<l.01l78
-0.01123
0.00038
0.00040
0.00043
0.00045
0.00048
0.00051
0.00054
0.00057
0.00060
0.00063
-<l.01583
-<l.01525
-<l.01467
-<l.01409
-0.01351
-0.01293
-<l.01235
-0.01176
-O.01l18
-0.01060
-172.58
-172.14
-171.70
-171.25
-170.81
-170.36
-169.92
-169.47
-169.02
-168.57
-0.3551
-0.3541
-0.3531
-0.3520
-0.3510
-0.3500
-0.3489
-0.3479
-0.3469
-0.3459
0.007009
0.007442
0.007898
0.008381
0.008890
0.009428
0.009995
0.010594
0.011226
0.011893
-30
-29
-28
-27
-26
-25
-24
-23
-22
-21
-20
-19
-18
0.0002632
0.0002786
0.0002950
0.0003121
0.0003303
0.0003493
0.0003694
0.0003905
0.0004128
0.0004362
11.073
11.098
11.124
11.149
11.174
11.200
11.225
11.250
11.276
11.301
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.007
0.007
0.007
0.008
11.078
11.103
11.129
11.155
11.180
11.206
11.232
11.257
11.283
11.309
-4.804
-4.564
-4.324
-4.084
-3.843
-3.603
-3.363
-3.123
-2.882
-2.642
0.277
0.293
0.311
0.329
0.348
0.368
0.390
0.412
0.436
0.460
-4.527
-4.271
-4.013
-3.754
-3.495
-3.235
-2.973
-2.710
-2.447
-2.182
-<l.01069
-<l.01014
-0.00960
-<l.00905
-<l.0085I
-0.00797
-<l.00743
-<l.00689
-0.00635
-0.00582
0.00067
0.00071
0.00075
0.00079
0.00083
0.00088
0.00093
0.00098
0.00103
0.00109
-0.01002
-0.00943
-<l.00885
-<l.00826
-0.00768
-0.00709
-<l.00650
-0.00591
-0.00532
-<l.00473
-168.12
-167.67
-167.21
-166.76
-166.30
-165.85
-165.39
-164.93
-164.47
-164.01
-0.3448
-0.3438
-0.3428
-0.3418
-0.3407
-0.3397
-0.3387
-0.3377
-<l.3366
-0.3356
0.012595
0.013336
0.014117
0.014939
0.015806
0.016718
0.017679
0.018690
0.019754
0.020873
-20
-19
-18
-17
-16
-15
-14
-13
-12
-II
-64
-17
-16
-15
-14
-13
-12
-11
-70
-69
-68
-67
-66
-65
-64
-63
-62
-61
"Note that the values for subSCript g are actually solids (s) until OF.
AppendixD
0:2
Condensed Water
Temp. Humidity
t,
Ratio,
of Ib.,.llbda Ws
Volume,
Enthalpy,
Btullb dry air
ft 311b dry air
Vapor
h ga
Sa
Saga
Sg"
hw
Sw
p ga
Temp.,
of
0.487
0.514
0.543
0.574
0.606
0.640
0.675
0.712
0.751
0.792
-1.915
-1.647
-1.378
-1.108
-0.835
-0.561
-0.286
-0.008
0.271
0.552
-0.00528
-0.00475
-0.00422
-0.00369
-0.00316
-0.00263
-0.00210
-0.00157
-0.00105
-0.00052
0.00115
0.00121
0.00127
0.00134
0.00141
0.00149
0.00157
0.00165
0.00174
0.00183
-0.00414
-0.00354
-0.00294
-0.00234
-0.00174
-0.00114
-0.00053
0.00008
0.00069
0.00130
-163.55
-163.09
-162.63
-162.17
-161.70
-161.23
-160.77
-160.30
-159.83
-159.36
-0.3346
-0.3335
-0.3325
-0.3315
-0.3305
-0.3294
-0.3284
-0.3274
-0.3264
-0.3253
0.022050
0.023289
0.024591
0.025959
0.027397
0.028907
0.030494
0.032160
0.033909
0.035744
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0.0
0.240
0.480
0.721
0.961
1.201
1.441
1.681
1.922
2.162
0.835
0.880
0.928
0.978
1.030
1.085
1.143
1.203
1.266
1.332
0.835
1.121
1.408
1.699
1.991
2.286
2.584
2.884
3.188
3.494
0.00000
0.00052
0.00104
0.00156
0.00208
0.00260
0.00311
0.00363
0.00414
0.00466
0.00192
0.00202
0.00212
0.00223
0.00235
0.00247
0.00259
0.00635
0.00286
0.00300
0.00192
0.00254
0.00317
0.00380
0.00443
0.00506
0.00570
0.00272
0.00700
0.00766
-158.89
-158.42
-157.95
-157.47
-157.00
-156.52
-156.05
-155.57
-155.09
-154.61
-0.3243
-0.3233
-0.3223
-0.3212
-0.3202
-0.3192
-0.3182
-0.3171
-0.3161
-0.3151
0.037671
0.039694
0.041814
0.044037
0.046370
0.048814
0.051375
0.054060
0.056872
0.059819
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
va
vag"
va
g
0.0004608
0.0004867
0.0005139
0.0005425
0.0005726
0.0006041
0.0006373
0.0006722
0.0007088
0.0007472
11.326
11.351
11.377
11.402
11.427
11.453
11.478
11.503
11.529
11.554
0.008
0.009
0.009
0.010
0.010
0.011
0.012
0.012
0.013
0.014
11.335
11.360
11.386
11.412
11.438
11.464
11.490
11.516
11.542
11.568
-2.402
-2.162
-1.922
-1.681
-1.441
-1.201
-0.961
-0.721
-0.480
-0.240
0 0.0007875
1 0.0008298
2 0.0008742
3 0.0009207
4 0.0009695
5 0.0010207
6 0.0010743
7 0.0011306
8 0.0011895
9 0.0012512
11.579
11.604
11.630
11.655
11.680
11.706
11.731
11.756
11.782
11.807
0.015
0.015
0.016
0.017
0.018
0.019
0.020
0.021
0.022
0.024
11.594
11.620
11.646
11.672
11.699
11.725
11.751
11.778
11.804
11.831
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
Entropy,
Btul(lb dry air) . of
ha
hag"
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
0.0013158
0.0013835
0.0014544
0.0015286
0.0016062
0.0016874
0.0017724
0.0018613
0.0019543
0.0020515
11.832
11.857
11.883
11.908
11.933
11.959
11.984
12.009
12.035
12.060
0.025
0.026
0.028
0.029
0.031
0.032
0.034
0.036
0.038
0.040
11.857
11.884
11.910
11.937
11.964
11.991
12.018
12.045
12.072
12.099
2.402
2.642
2.882
3.123
3.363
3.603
3.843
4.084
4.324
4.564
1.402
1.474
1.550
1.630
1.714
1.801
1.892
1.988
2.088
2.193
3.804
4.117
4.433
4.753
5.077
5.404
5.736
6.072
6.412
6.757
0.00517
0.00568
0.00619
0.00670
0.00721
0.00771
0.00822
0.00872
0.00923
0.00973
0.00315
0.00330
0.00347
0.00364
0.00381
0.00400
0.00419
0.00439
0.00460
0.00482
0.00832
0.00898
0.00966
0.01033
0.01102
0.01171
0.01241
0.01312
0.01383
0.01455
-154.13
-153.65
-153.17
-152.68
-152.20
-151.71
-151.22
-150.74
-150.25
-149.76
-0.3141
-0.3130
-0.3120
-0.3110
-0.3100
-0.3089
-0.3079
-0.3069
-0.3059
-0.3049
0.062901
0.066131
0.069511
0.073049
0.076751
0.080623
0.084673
0.088907
0.093334
0.097962
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
0.0021531
0.0022592
0.0023703
0.0024863
0.0026073
0.0027339
0.0028660
0.0030039
0.0031480
0.0032984
12.085
12.110
12.136
12.161
12.186
12.212
12.237
12.262
12.287
12.313
0.042
0.044
0.046
0.048
0.051
0.054
0.056
0.059
0.062
0.065
12.127
12.154
12.182
12.209
12.237
12.265
12.293
12.321
12.349
12.378
4.804
5.044
5.285
5.525
5.765
6.005
6.246
6.486
6.726
6.966
2.303
2.417
2.537
2.662
2.793
2.930
3.073
3.222
3.378
3.541
7.107
7.462
7.822
8.187
8.558
8.935
9.318
9.708
10.104
10.507
0.01023
0.01073
0.01123
0.01173
0.01223
0.01272
0.01322
0.01371
0.01420
0.01470
0.00505
0.00529
0.00554
0.00580
0.00607
0.00636
0.00665
0.00696
0.00728
0.00761
0.01528
0.01602
0.01677
0.01753
0.01830
0.01908
0.01987
0.02067
0.02148
0.02231
-149.27
-148.78
-148.28
-147.79
-147.30
-146.80
-146.30
-145.81
-145.31
-144.81
-0.3038
-0.3028
-0.30\8
-0.3008
-0.2997
-0.2987
-0.2977
-0.2967
-0.2956
-0.2946
0.102798
0.107849
0.113130
0.118645
0.124396
0.130413
0.136684
0.143233
0.150066
0.157198
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
32*
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
0.0034552
0.0036190
0.0037895
0.003790
0.003947
0.004109
0.004277
0.004452
0.004633
0.004820
0.0050J4
12.338
12.363
12.389
12.389
12.414
12.439
12.464
12.490
12.515
12.540
12.566
0.068
0.072
0.075
0.075
0.079
0.082
0.085
0.089
0.093
0.097
0.101
12.406
12.435
12.464
12.464
12.492
12.521
12.550
12.579
12.608
12.637
12.667
7.206
7.447
7.687
7.687
7.927
8.167
8.408
8.648
8.888
9.128
9.369
3.711
3.888
4.073
4.073
4.243
4.420
4.603
4.793
4.990
5.194
5.405
10.917
11.335
11.760
11.760
12.170
12.587
13.010
13.441
13.878
14.322
14.773
0.01519
0.01568
0.01617
0.01617
0.01665
0.01714
0.01763
0.01811
0.01860
0.01908
0.01956
0.00796
0.00832
0.00870
0.00870
0.00905
0.00940
0.0,0977
0.01016
0.01055
0.01096
0.01139
0.02315 -144.31 -0.2936 0.164631

0.02400 -143.80 -0.2926 0.172390
0.02487 -143.30 -0.2915 0.180479
0.02 0.0000 0.18050
0.02487
1.03 0.0020 0.18791
0.02570
0.02655
2.04 0.0041 0.19559
0.02740
3.05 0.006J 0.20356
0.02827
4.05 0.0081 0.21181
5.06 0.0102 0.22035
0.02915
0.03004
6.06 0.0122 0.22920
7.07 0.0142 0.23835
0.03095
30
31
32
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
0.005216
0.005424
0.005640
0.005863
0.006094
0.006334
0.006581
0.006838
0.007103
0.007378
0.007661
12.591
12.616
12.641
12.667
12.692
12.717
12.743
12.768
12.793
12.818
12.844
0.105
0.110
0.114
0.119
0.124
0.129
0.134
0.140
0.146
0.152
0.158
12.696
12.726
12.756
12.786
12.816
12.846
12.877
12.908
12.939
12.970
13.001
9.609
9.849
10.089
10.330
10.570
10.810
11.050
11.291
11.531
11.771
12.012
5.624
5.851
6.086
6.330
6.582
6.843
7.114
7.394
7.684
7.984
8.295
15.233
15.700
16.175
16.660
17.152
17.653
18.164
18.685
19.215
19.756
20.306
0.02004
0.02052
0.02100
0.02148
0.02196
0.02244
0.02291
0.02339
0.02386
0.02433
0.02480
0.01183
0.01228
0.01275
0.01324
0.01374
0.01426
0.01479
0.01534
0.01592
0.01651
0.01712
0.03187
0.03281
0.03375
0.03472
0.03570
0.03669
0.03770
0.03873
0.03978
0.04084
0.04192
8.07
9.08
10.08
11.09
12.09
13.09
14.10
15.10
16.10
17.10
18.11
0.0162
0.0182
0.0202
0.0222
0.0242
0.0262
0.0282
0.0302
0.0321
0.0341
0.0361
0.24784
0.25765
0.2678J
0.27831
0.28918
0.30042
0.31206
0.32408
0.33651
0.34937
0.36264
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
12.252
8.616
13.033
0.164
12.869
51 0.007955
8.949
12.492
13.065
12.894
0.171
52 0.008259
9.293
12.732
13.097
0.178
12.920
53 0.008573
9.648
12.973
13.129
12.945
0.185
54 0.008897
13.213
10.016
13.162
0.192
12.970
55 0.009233
10.397
13.453
13.195
12.995
0.200
56 0.009580
13.694 10.790
13.228
0.207
13.021
57 0.009938
13.934 11.197
13.262
13.046
0.216
58 0.010309
*Extrapolated to represent metastable equilibrium wilh undercooled liquid.
"Note that the values for subscript g are actually solids (s) until OF.
20.868
21.441
22.025
22.621
23.229
23.850
24.484
25.131
0.02528
0.02575
0.02622
0.02668
0.02715
0.02762
0.02808
0.02855
0.01775
0.01840
0.01907
0.01976
0.02048
0.02122
0.02198
0.02277
0.04302
0.04415
0.04529
0.04645
0.04763
0.04884
0.05006
0.05132
19.11
20.11
21.11
22.11
23.11
24.11
25.11
26.11
0.0381
0.0400
0.0420
0.0439
0.0459
0.0478
0.0497
0.0517
0.37636
0.39054
0.40518
0.42030
0.43592
0.45205
0.46870
0.48589
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
AppendixD
0:3
Condensed Water
Temp. Humidity
Ratio,
t,
of Ib,.JIbda Ws
Vag"
0.224
0.233
0.242
0.251
0.261
0.271
0.281
0.292
0.303
0.315
0.326
Entropy,
Btu/(Ib dry air) . of
Enthalpy,
Btullb dry air
Volume,
dry air
ft 311b
va
g
13.295
13.329
13.364
13.398
13.433
13.468
13.504
13.540
13.577
13.613
13.650
ha
14.174
14.415
14.655
14.895
15.135
15.376
15.616
15.856
16.097
16.337
16.577
hag"
11.618
12.052
12.502
12.966
13.446
13.942
14.454
14.983
15.530
16.094
16.677
hga
sa
g
Vapor
Btullb Btullb' of in.Hg
pg"
Sw
hw
Temp.,
OF
25.792
26.467
27.157
27.862
28.582
29.318
30.071
30.840
31.626
32.431
33.254
Sa
0.02901
0.02947
0.02994
0.03040
0.03086
0.03132
0.03178
0.03223
0.03269
0.03315
0.03360
sag"
0.02358
0.02442
0.02528
0.02617
0.02709
0.02804
0.02902
0.03003
0.03107
0.03214
0.03325
0.05259
0.05389
0.05522
0.05657
0.05795
0.05936
0.06080
0.06226
0.06376
0.06529
0.06685
27.11
28.11
29.12
30.11
31.11
32.11
33.11
34.11
35.11
36.11
37.11
0.0536
0.0555
0.0575
0.0594
0.0613
0.0632
0.0651
0.0670
0.0689
0.D708
0.0727
0.50363
0.52193
0.54082
0.56032
0.58041
0.60113
0.62252
0.64454
0.66725
0.69065
0.71479
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
0.010692
0.011087
0.011496
0.011919
0.012355
0.012805
0.013270
0.013750
0.014246
0.014758
0.015286
va
13.071
13.096
13.122
13.147
13.172
13.198
13.223
13.248
13.273
13.299
13.324
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
0.015832
0.016395
0.016976
0.017575
0.018194
0.018833
0.019491
0.020170
0.020871
0.021594
13.349
13.375
13.400
13.425
13.450
13.476
13.501
13.526
13.551
13.577
0.339
0.351
0.365
0.378
0.392
0.407
0.422
0.437
0.453
0.470
13.688
13.726
13.764
13.803
13.843
13.882
13.923
13.963
14.005
14.046
16.818
17.058
17.299
17.539
17.779
18.020
18.260
18.500
18.741
18.981
17.279
17.901
18.543
19.204
19.889
20.595
21.323
22.075
22.851
23.652
34.097
34.959
35.841
36.743
37.668
38.615
39.583
40.576
41.592
42.633
0.03406
0.03451
0.03496
0.03541
0.03586
0.03631
0.03676
0.03721
0.03766
0.03811
0.03438
0.03556
0.03677
0.03801
0.03930
0.04062
0.04199
0.04339
0.04484
0.04633
0.06844
0.07007
0.07173
0.07343
0.07516
0.07694
0.07875
0.08060
0.08250
0.08444
38.11
39.11
40.11
41.11
42.11
43.11
44.10
45.10
46.10
47.10
0.0746
0.0765
0.0783
0.0802
0.0821
0.0840
0.0858
0.0877
0.0896
0.0914
0.73966
0.76567
0.79167
0.81882
0.84684
0.87567
0.90533
0.93589
0.96733
0.99970
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
0.022340
0.023109
0.023902
0.024720
0.025563
0.026433
0.027329
0.028254
0.029208
0.030189
13.602
13.627
13.653
13.678
13.703
13.728
13.754
13.779
13.804
13.829
0.487
0.505
0.523
0.542
0.561
0.581
0.602
0.624
0.646
0.669
14.089
14.132
14.175
14.220
14.264
14.310
14.356
14.403
14.450
14.498
19.222
19.462
19.702
19.943
20.183
20.424
20.664
20.905
21.145
21.385
24.479
25.332
26.211
27.120
28.055
29.021
30.017
31.045
32.105
33.197
43.701
44.794
45.913
47.062
48.238
49.445
50.681
51.949
53.250
54.582
0.03855
0.03900
0.03944
0.03988
0.04033
0.04077
0.04121
0.04165
0.04209
0.04253
0.04787
0.04945
0.05108
0.05276
0.05448
0.05626
0.05809
0.05998
0.06192
0.06392
0.08642
0.08844
0.09052
0.09264
0.09481
0.09703
0.09930
0.10163
0.10401
0.10645
48.10
49.10
50.10
51.09
52.09
53.09
54.09
55.09
56.09
57.09
0.0933
0.0951
0.0970
0.0988
0.1006
0.1025
0.1043
0.1061
0.1080
0.1098
1.03302
1.06728
1.10252
1.13882
1.17608
1.21445
1.25388
1.29443
1.33613
1.37893
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
0.031203
0.032247
0.033323
0.034433
0.035577
0.036757
0.037972
0.039225
0.040516
0.041848
13.855
13.880
13.905
13.930
13.956
13.981
14.006
14.032
14.057
14.082
0.692
0.717
0.742
0.768
0.795
0.823
0.852
0.881
0.912
0.944
14.547
14.597
14.647
14.699
14.751
14.804
14.858
14.913
14.969
15.026
21.626
21.866
22.107
22.347
22.588
22.828
23.069
23.309
23.550
23.790
34.325
35.489
36.687
37.924
39.199
40.515
41.871
43.269
44.711
46.198
55.951
57.355
58.794
60.271
61.787
63.343
64.940
66.578
68.260
69.988
0.04297
0.06810
0.04384
0.04427
0.04471
0.04514
0.04558
0.04601
0.04644
0.04687
0.06598
0.04340
0.07028
0.07253
0.07484
0.07722
0.07968
0.08220
0.08480
0.08747
0.10895
0.11150
0.11412
0.11680
0.11955
0.12237
0.12525
0.12821
0.13124
0.13434
58.08
59.08
60.08
61.08
62.08
63.08
64.07
65.07
66.07
67.07
0.1116
0.1134
0.1152
0.1170
0.1188
0.1206
0.1224
0.1242
0.1260
0.1278
1.42298
1.46824
1.51471
1.56248
1.61l54
1.66196
1.71372
1.76685
1.82141
1.87745
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
0.043219
0.044634
0.046090
0.047592
0.049140
0.050737
0.052383
0.054077
0.055826
0.057628
14.107
14.133
14.158
14.183
14.208
14.234
14.259
14.284
14.309
14.335
0.976
1.010
1.045
1.081
1.118
1.156
1.196
1.236
1.279
1.322
15.084
15.143
15.203
15.264
15.326
15.390
15.455
15.521
15.588
15.657
24.031
24.271
24.512
24.752
24.993
25.233
25.474
25.714
25.955
26.195
47.730
49.312
50.940
52.621
54.354
56.142
57.986
59.884
61.844
63.866
71.761
73.583
75.452
77.373
79.346
81.375
83.460
85.599
87.799
90.061
0.04730
0.04773
0.04816
0.04859
0.04901
0.04944
0.04987
0.05029
0.05071
0.05114
0.09022
0.09306
0.09597
0.09897
0.10206
0.10525
0.10852
0.11189
0.1l537
0.11894
0.13752
0.14079
0.14413
0.14756
0.15108
0.15469
0.15839
0.16218
0.16608
0.17008
68.07
69.07
70.06
71.06
72.06
73.06
74.06
75.06
76.05
77.05
0.1296
0.1314
0.1332
0.1349
0.1367
0.1385
0.1402
0.1420
0.1438
0.1455
1.93492
1.99396
2.05447
2.11661
2.18037
2.24581
2.31297
2.38173
2.45232
2.52473
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
III
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
0.059486
0.061401
0.063378
0.065411
0.067512
0.069676
0.071908
0.074211
0.076586
0.079036
14.360
14.385
14.41l
14.436
14.461
14.486
14.512
14.537
14.562
14.587
1.367
1.414
1.462
1.511
1.562
1.615
1.670
1.726
1.784
1.844
15.727
15.799
15.872
15.947
16.023
16.101
16.181
16.263
16.346
16.432
26.436
26.677
26.917
27.158
27.398
27.639
27.879
28.120
28.361
28.601
65.950
68.099
70.319
72.603
74.964
77.396
79.906
82.497
85.169
87.927
92.386
94.776
97.237
99.760
102.362
105.035
107.786
110.617
1l3.530
1l6.528
0.05156
0.05198
0.05240
0.05282
0.05324
0.05366
0.05408
0.05450
0.05492
0.05533
0.12262
0.12641
0.13032
0.13434
0.13847
0.14274
0.14713
0.15165
0.15631
0.16111
0.17418
0.17839
0.18272
0.18716
0.19172
0.19640
0.20121
0.20615
0.21122
0.21644
78.05
79.05
80.05
81.05
82.04
83.04
84.04
85.04
86.04
87.04
0.1473
0.1490
0.1508
0.1525
0.1543
0.1560
0.1577
0.1595
0.1612
0.1629
2.59891
2.67500
2.75310
2.83291
2.91491
2.99883
3.08488
3.17305
3.26335
3.35586
110
III
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
0.081560
0.084169
0.086860
0.089633
0.092500
0.095456
0.098504
0.101657
0.104910
0.108270
14.613
14.638
14.663
14.688
14.714
14.739
14.764
14.789
14.815
14.840
1.906
1.971
2.037
2.106
2.176
2.250
2.325
2.404
2.485
2.569
16.519
16.609
16.700
16.794
16.890
16.989
17.090
17.193
17.299
17.409
28.842
29.083
29.323
29.564
29.805
30.045
30.286
30.527
30.767
31.008
90.770
93.709
96.742
99.868
103.102
106.437
109.877
113.438
117.111
120.908
1l9.612
122.792
126.065
129.432
132.907
136.482
140.163
143.965
147.878
151.916
0.05575
0.05616
0.05658
0.05699
0.05740
0.05781
0.05823
0.05864
0.05905
0.21800
0.16605
0.17115
0.17640
0.18181
0.18739
0.19314
0.19907
0.20519
0.21149
0.21810
0.22180
0.22731
0.23298
0.23880
0.24480
0.25096
0.25729
0.26382
0.27054
0.27745
88.04
89.04
90.03
91.03
92.03
93.03
94.03
95.03
96.03
97.03
0.1647
0.1664
0.1681
0.1698
0.1715
0.1732
0.1749
0.1766
0.1783
0.1800
3.45052
3.54764
3.64704
3.74871
3.85298
3.95961
4.06863
4.18046
4.29477
4.41181
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
"Note that the values for subscript g are actually solids (s) until OF.
Fundamentals ofTllermodynamics and Psycllrometrics
AppendixD
0:4
Condensed Water
Temp. Humidity
t,
Ratio,
OF Ib,.llbda Ws
Enthalpy,
Btullb dry air
Volume,
dry air
ft311b
va
V a/
va
g
ha
Entropy,
Btu/(Ih dry air) . OF
haga
h a
g
Sa
Saga
S a
g
Vapor
hO'
SO'
pg"
Temp.,
OF
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
0.111738
0.115322
0.119023
0.122855
0.126804
0.130895
0.135124
0.139494
0.144019
0.148696
14.865
14.891
14.916
14.941
14.966
14.992
15.017
15.042
15.067
15.093
2.655
2.745
2.837
2.934
3.033
3.136
3.242
3.352
3.467
3.585
17.520
17.635
17.753
17.875
17.999
18.127
18.259
18.394
18.534
18.678
31.249
31.489
31.730
31.971
32.212
32.452
32.693
32.934
33.175
33.415
124.828
128.880
133.066
137.403
141.873
146.504
151.294
156.245
161.374
166.677
156.076
160.370
164.796
169.374
174.084
178.957
183.987
189.179
194.548
200.092
0.05986
0.06027
0.06068
0.06109
0.06149
0.06190
0.06230
0.06271
0.06311
0.06351
0.22470
0.23162
0.23876
0.24615
0.25375
0.26161
0.26973
0.27811
0.28707
0.29602
0.28457
0.29190
0.29944
0.30723
0.31524
0.32351
0.33203
0.34082
0.35018
0.35954
98.03
99.02
100.02
101.02
102.02
103.02
104.02
105.02
106.02
107.02
0.1817
0.1834
0.1851
0.1868
0.1885
0.1902
0.1919
0.1935
0.1952
0.1969
4.53148
4.65397
4.77919
4.90755
5.03844
5.17258
5.30973
5.44985
5.59324
5.73970
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
0.153538
0.158643
0.163748
0.169122
0.174694
0.180467
0.186460
0.192668
0.199110
0.205792
15.118
15.143
15.168
15.194
15.219
15.244
15.269
15.295
15.320
15.345
3.708
3.835
3.967
4.103
4.245
4.392
4.545
4.704
4.869
5.040
18.825
18.978
19.135
19.297
19.464
19.637
19.815
19.999
20.189
20.385
33.656
33.897
34.138
34.379
34.620
34.860
35.101
35.342
35.583
35.824
172.168
177.857
183.754
189.855
196.183
202.740
209.550
216.607
223.932
231.533
205.824
211.754
217.892
224.233
230.802
237.600
244.651
251.949
259.514
267.356
0.06391
0.06431
0.06471
0.06511
0.06551
0.06591
0.06631
0.06671
0.06710
0.06750
0.30498
0.31456
0.32446
0.33470
0.34530
0.35626
0.36764
0.37941
0.39160
0.40424
0.36890
0.37887
0.38918
0.39981
0.41081
0.42218
0.43395
0.44611
0.45871
0.47174
108.02
109.02
110.02
111.02
112.02
113.02
114.02
115.02
116.02
117.02
0.1985
0.2002
0.2019
0.2035
0.2052
0.2068
0.2085
0.2101
0.2118
0.2134
5.88945
6.04256
6.19918
6.35898
6.52241
6.68932
6.86009
7.03435
7.21239
7.39413
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
0.212730
0.219945
0.227429
0.235218
0.243309
0.251738
0.260512
0.269644
0.279166
0.289101
15.370
15.396
15.421
15.446
15.471
15.497
15.522
15.547
15.572
15.598
5.218
5.404
5.596
5.797
6.005
6.223
6.450
6.686
6.933
7.190
20.589
20.799
21.017
21.243
21.477
21.720
21.972
22.233
22.505
22.788
36.064
36.305
36.546
36.787
37.028
37.269
37.510
37.751
37.992
38.233
239.426
247.638
256.158
265.028
274.245
283.849
293.849
304.261
315.120
326.452
275.490
283.943
292.705
301.816
311.273
321.118
331.359
342.012
353.112
364.685
0.06790
0.06829
0.06868
0.06908
0.06947
0.06986
0.07025
0.07065
0.07104
0.07143
0.41735
0.43096
0.44507
0.45973
0.47494
0.49077
0.50723
0.52434
0.54217
0.56074
0.48524
0.49925
0.51375
0.52881
0.54441
0.56064
0.57749
0.59499
0.61320
0.63216
118.02
119.02
120.02
121.02
122.02
123.02
124.02
125.02
126.02
127.02
0.2151
0.2167
0.2184
0.2200
0.2216
0.2233
0.2249
0.2265
0.2281
0.2297
7.57977
7.76958
7.96306
8.16087
8.36256
8.56871
8.77915
8.99378
9.21297
9.43677
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
0.29945
0.31027
0.32156
0.33336
0.34572
0.35865
0.37220
0.38639
0.40131
0.41698
15.623
15.648
15.673
15.699
15.724
15.749
15.774
15.800
15.825
15.850
7.459
7.740
8.034
8.341
8.664
9.001
9.355
9.726
10.117
10.527
23.082
23.388
23.707
24.040
24.388
24.750
25.129
25.526
25.942
26.377
38.474
38.715
38.956
39.197
39.438
39.679
39.920
40.161
40.402
40.643
338.263
350.610
363.501
376.979
391.095
405.865
421.352
437.578
454.630
472.554
376.737
389.325
402.457
416.175
430.533
445.544
461.271
477.739
495.032
513.197
0.07181
0.07220
0.07259
0.07298
0.07337
0.07375
0.07414
0.07452
0.07491
0.07529
0.58007
0.60025
0.62128
0.64325
0.66622
0.69022
0.71535
0.74165
0.76925
0.79821
0.65188
0.67245
0.69388
0.71623
0.73959
0.76397
0.78949
0.81617
0.84415
0.87350
128.02
129.02
130.03
131.03
132.03
133.03
134.03
135.03
136.03
137.04
0.2314
0.2330
0.2346
0.2362
0.2378
0.2394
0.2410
0.2426
0.2442
0.2458
9.6648
9.8978
10.1353
10.3776
10.6250
10.8771
11.1343
11.3965
11.6641
11.9370
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
0.43343
0.45079
0.46905
0.48829
0.50867
0.53019
0.55294
0.57710
0.60274
0.63002
15.875
15.901
15.926
15.951
15.976
16.002
16.027
16.052
16.078
16.103
10.959
11.414
11.894
12.400
12.937
13.504
14.103
14.741
15.418
16.139
26.834
27.315
27.820
28.352
28.913
29.505
30.130
30.793
31.496
32.242
40.884
41.125
41.366
41.607
41.848
42.089
42.331
42.572
42.813
43.054
491.372
511.231
532.138
554.160
577.489
602.139
628.197
655.876
685.260
716.524
532.256
552.356
573.504
595.767
619.337
644.229
670.528
698.448
728.073
759.579
0.07567
0.07606
0.07644
0.07682
0.07720
0.07758
0.07796
0.07834
0.07872
0.07910
0.82858
0.86058
0.89423
0.92962
0.96707
1.00657
1.04828
1.09253
1.13943
1.18927
0.90425
0.93664
0.97067
1.00644
1.04427
1.08416
1.12624
1.17087
1.21815
1.26837
138.04
139.04
140.04
141.04
142.04
143.05
144.05
145.05
146.05
147.06
0.2474
0.2490
0.2506
0.2521
0.2537
0.2553
0.2569
0.2585
0.2600
0.2616
12.2149
12.4988
12.7880
13.0823
13.3831
13.6894
14.0010
14.3191
14.6430
14.9731
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
0.65911
0.69012
0.72331
0.75885
0.79703
0.83817
0.88251
0.93057
0.98272
1.03951
16.128
16.153
16.178
16.204
16.229
16.254
16.280
16.305
16.330
16.355
16.909
17.730
18.609
19.551
20.564
21.656
22.834
24.111
25.498
27.010
33.037
33.883
34.787
35.755
36.793
37.910
39.113
40.416
41.828
43.365
43.295
43.536
43.778
44.019
44.260
44.501
44.742
44.984
45.225
45.466
749.871
785.426
823.487
864.259
908.061
955.261
1006.149
1061.314
1121.174
1186.382
793.166
828.962
867.265
908.278
952.321
999.763
1050.892
1106.298
1166.399
1231.848
0.07947
0.07985
0.08023
0.08060
0.08098
0.08135
0.08172
0.08210
0.08247
0.08284
1.24236
1.29888
1.35932
1.42396
1.49332
1.56797
1.64834
1.73534
1.82963
1.93221
1.32183
1.37873
1.43954
1.50457
1.57430
1.64932
1.73006
1.81744
1.91210
2.01505
148.06
149.06
150.06
151.07
152.07
153.07
154.08
155.08
156.08
157.09
0.2632
0.2647
0.2663
0.2679
0.2694
0.2710
0.2725
0.2741
0.2756
0.2772
15.3097
15.6522
16.0014
16.3569
16.7190
17.0880
17.4634
17.8462
18.2357
18.6323
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
1.10154
1.16965
1.24471
1.32788
1.42029
1.52396
1.64070
1.77299
1.92472
2.09975
2.30454
16.381
16.406
16.431
16.456
16.481
16.507
16.532
16.557
16.583
16.608
16.633
28.661
30.476
32.477
34.695
37.161
39.928
43.046
46.580
50.636
55.316
60.793
45.042
46.882
48.908
51.151
53.642
56.435
59.578
63.137
67.218
71.923
77.426
45.707
45.949
46.190
46.431
46.673
46.914
47.155
47.397
47.638
47.879
48.121
1257.614 1303.321
1335.834 1381.783
1422.047 1468.238
1517.581 1564.013
1623.758 1670.430
1742.879 1789.793
1877.032 1924.188
2029.0692076.466
2203.464 2251.102
2404.6682452.547
2640.084 2688.205
0.08321
0.08359
0.08396
0.08433
0.08470
0.08506
0.08543
0.08580
0.08617
0.08653
0.08690
2.04412
2.16684
2.30193
2.45144
2.61738
2.80332
3.01244
3.24914
3.52030
3.83275
4.19787
2.12733
2.25043
2.38589
2.53576
2.70208
2.88838
3.09787
3.33494
3.60647
3.91929
4.28477
158.09
159.09
160.10
161.10
162.11
163.11
164.12
165.12
166.13
167.13
168.13
0.2787 19.0358
0.2803 19.4468
0.2818 19.8652
0.2834 20.2913
0.2849 20.7244
0.2864 21.1661
0.2880 21.6152
0.289522.0714
0.2910 22.5367
0.2926 23.0092
0.2941 23.4906
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
aNote that the values for subscript g are acrually solids (s) until OF.
AppendixD
E: 1
ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart

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AppendixE
Skill Development Exercises
Contents
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Heat and Work
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
The Carnot Cycle
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Instructions
After reading each chapter, answer all of the questions pertaining to that chapter on the
following worksheets. Remove and send your completed worksheets to ASHRAE. Be sure
to include your name and address
Skill Development Exercises
1: 1
Complete the following questions by writing your answers on these worksheets. Be sure to
include your name and address below. Send the completed worksheets to ASHRAE.
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1-01. List the seven main air-conditioning processes, give a one-sentence description of
each process, and give another one-sentence reason why the process is likely to be
found in a hospital.
Question Sheet
1: 2
1-02. Define what is meant by air-conditioning.
Question Sheet
1: 3
1-03. Name five pieces of normal HVAC equipment for which the application of thermodynamic principles is essential to predict performance.
1-04. In your own words, state what is meant by the conservation of energy principle.
Question Sheet
1: 4
1-05. Provide two examples of a process that goes in one direction but will not go in the
reverse direction without applying an external energy source.
1-06.
What is the difference between dry air and moist air?
Send your completed worksheets to:

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2-01. Using examples, explain the main difference between open and closed systems.
Question Sheet
2:2
2-02. Automobile engines are usually cooled by antifreeze that is circulated between the
engine and the radiator by a centrifugal pump. Air is blown over the radiator to cool
the antifreeze. Sketch the following systems and state whether they are open or
closed:
Antifreeze in the pump
Antifreeze in the radiator
Antifreeze in the pump, radiator and engine water jacket
Antifreeze in the radiator and air in the fan
Question Sheet
2: 3
2-03.
2-04.
Describe the differences between thermal, phase, chemical and nuclear energies.
Give an expression for the specific total energy of a system in terms of the internal,
potential and kinetic energies.
Question Sheet
2:4
2-05.
Sketch on a p- V diagram what happens when trapped air expands in a closed cylinder with a piston. Be sure to label the initial and final states, the path and the major
properties.
Chapter 2 SystelllS, Properties, States and Processes
Question Sheet
2: 5
2-06.
Sketch on a p- V diagram a four-process cycle that has process 1 to 2 as an isobaric

decrease in volume, 2 to 3 as an isometric increase in pressure, 3 to 4 as an isobaric
increase in volume, and 4 to 1 as an isometric decrease in pressure.
Question Sheet
2: 6
2-07.
Sketch on a t-p diagram the following four-process cycle: 1 to 2 isothermal; 2 to 3

isobaric; 3 to 4 isothermal; and 4 to 1 isobaric.

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Question Sheet
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Give the state postulate and explain what a simple compressive substance is.
Question Sheet
3:2
3-02. Explain the differences between absolute, gage and vacuum pressures.
3-03.
Give the typical units for the following properties and indicate which properties are
intensive and which are extensive: specific enthalpy, total volume, pressure, temperature, specific entropy, mass and quality.
3-04.
Give the temperature of212 cF in units of degrees Rankine, degrees Kelvin and cC.
Question Sheet
3: 3
3-05.
Sketch a T-v diagram for a pure substance and show the saturated liquid line, the
saturated vapor line, the critical point and a constant pressure process line from
compressed liquid to superheated vapor. Also include a constant temperature line.
3-06.
Sketch a p-v diagram for a pure substance and show the saturated liquid line, the
saturated vapor line, the critical point and a constant temperature process line from
compressed liquid to superheated vapor. Also include a constant pressure line.
Question Sheet
3:4
3-07.
A saturated mixture of water is at 230F and 103 psia. The specific volume of the
liquid is vj = 0.0178 ft3/lb m and the specific volume of the vapor is vg = 4.312 ft3/lb m.
Ifthe quality is x = 0.5, what is the specific volume of the mixture?
3-08.
A fixed volume container initially contains a pure substance in superheated form.

The container is cooled until there is a mixture of liquid and vapor inside. Using T-v
and p-v diagrams, describe the changes taking place in this constant volume process
as the contents are cooled.

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4-01.
The saturated temperature of water is lOOF. What is the pressure? What are the
liquid and vapor values of specific volume, specific enthalpy and specific entropy?
(Use the table in Appendix B.)
4-02.
The saturated temperature of water is 100F and the quality is 50%. What is the
value of specific volume and specific enthalpy? (Use the table in Appendix B.)
Question Sheet
Chapter 4
4:2
4-03.
The saturation pressure for R-22 is 50 psia. What is the saturation temperature?
(U se the table in Appendix C.)
4-04.
The saturation temperature for water is 231.5F and the quality is 0.2. What is the
pressure and the specific enthalpy? (Use the table in Appendix B.)
Chapter 4
Question Sheet
4: 3
4-05.
The enthalpy for R-22 is 50 Btu/Ibm and the pressure is 40 psia. Is the refrigerant in
the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the quality?
(Use the chart in Appendix C.)
4-06.
The enthalpy for R-22 is 50 Btu/Ibm and the temperature is 100F. Is the refrigerant
in the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the pressure
and the quality? (Use the table in Appendix C.)
Question Sheet
Chapter 4
4:4
4-07. The enthalpy for R-22 is 150 Btu/Ibm and the pressure is 40 psia. Is the refrigerant in
the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the value of the
density? (Use the chart in Appendix C.)

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Chapter 4
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Air is often treated as an ideal gas. For the conditions of p = 14.696 psia and t =
72F, find the specific volume for dry air, va' in Appendix D, and compare the value
read in the table to the value caclulated using the Ideal Gas Law. Use T= t + 459.67
to convert from OF to R. Use the value of gas constant given in Table 5-1. Express
the answer as a percent error by treating the tabulated value as being correct.
Question Sheet
Chapter 5
5:2
5-02.
Water vapor is sometimes treated as an ideal gas. For the condition ofp = 67.0341
psia, find the specific volume for saturated vapor, vg , in Appendix B, and compare
the value read in the table to the value caclulated using the Ideal Gas Law. Use T=
t + 459.67 to convert from OF to R. Use the value of gas constant given in Table 5-1.
Express the answer as a percent error by treating the tabulated value as being correct.
5-03.
Repeat Exercise 5-02 except for conditions of saturated vapor at p = 0.3628 psia.
Compare the error found with the error determined in Exercise 5-02 and comment
on the difference.
Cltapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables
Question Slteet
5: 3
5-04.
A room of dimensions 10ft x 20 ft x 8 ft at atmospheric pressure contains 120 lb of

air. Assume an ideal gas and estimate the temperature in the room in of.
5-05.
Consider the constant pressure heating of air from 70F to 200F. If the pressure is
14.7 psia, what is the ratio of specific volumes before and after the heating?
11/
Question Sheet
Chapter 5
I deal Gas Law and Air Tables
5:4
5-06.
Chapter 5
Make a table listing the values of internal energy, enthalpy and entropy for air at
14.696 psia, with temperatures ranging from Oop to lOOoP in steps of lOoP, using
the coefficients of specific heat suggested for air at 80 0 P in the text. Use reference
values of zero internal energy, zero enthalpy and zero entropy at OOp.
Question Sheet
5: 5
5-07.
Find the values of enthalpy for dry air in the table in Appendix D, at the same temperature entries used in the table created in Exercise 5-06 and compare calculated
and look-up values. Calculate percent error assuming the tabulated values to be
correct.

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Ideal Gas Law andAir Tables
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Provide a description of heat, and describe how it is different from internal energy.
Question Sheet
Chapter 6
Heat and Work
6:2
6-02. A 0.35 Ibm potato at 70F is placed in an oven at 350F. After 45 minutes, the potato
temperature is 350F. Assume the coefficient of specific heat for the potato is cp =
1.0 BtU/lbmoF. If the reference datum for internal energy is U= 0 at t = OaF, then
estimate the internal energy content of the potato at the beginning and end of the 45
minutes. What has been the heat during the 45 minutes and is it positive or negative?
What was the average rate of heat transfer?
6-03. Provide a description of work in general, and then give short (one- or two-sentence)
descriptions of boundary work and shaft work.
Chapter 6
Heat and Work
Question Sheet
6: 3
6-04.
Provide a description of flow work, and say how it is included in enthalpy.
6-05. A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 2 Ibm of water at 212P and quality x =
0.4. The fixed weight piston is not attached to a shaft. Heat is added to the water
until it is all saturated vapor. Calculate the work done by the system.
Question Sheet
Chapter 6
Heat and Work
6:4
6-06.
Chapter 6
A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.2 ft3 of air at 80 psia and 76F. The air
is expanded to 0.9 ft3 in such a way that the temperature remains constant. Calculate
the work done by the system, the final pressure and the mass of air.
Heat and Work
Question Sheet
6: 5
6-07.
In the isentropic compression of air in a cylinder, the volume is reduced from 1.5 ft3
to 0.5 ft3. The ratio of specific heats for air is k= 1.4. The initial pressure is 14.7 psia
and the initial temperature is 45F. Assume the air acts as an ideal gas. Estimate the
final pressure, the final temperature and the work done.

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Heat and Work
7: 1
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Give a one-page description of the heat, work and energy change terms in the First
Law equation for a closed system and describe how they relate to each other (a word
description of the conservation of energy principle).
Question Sileet
Cllapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems
7:2
7-02. A rigid tank with a volume of 3 ft3 is initially filled with air at 15 psi a and 20F. The
air is heated to 200F. Treat the air as an ideal gas.' Apply the Ideal Gas Law to
determine the mass of air in the tank. Apply the continuity equation to determine the
final pressure in the tank. Assuming the air in the tank to constitute a closed system,
apply the First Law to determine the heat transferred during the process.
Question Sheet
7: 3
7-03.
A rigid tank with a volume of 1.5 ft3 is initially filled with R-22 in a saturated vapor
state at 140F. The refrigerant is cooled until the pressure is 57.083 psia. Sketch the
process on ap-v diagram. Use the refrigerant tables (in Appendix C-l) to determine
the mass of refrigerant in the tank. Determine the final temperature. Assuming the
refrigerant in the tank to constitute a closed system, apply the First Law and determine the heat transferred during the process.
Question Sheet
Chapter 7
First Law and Closed Systems
7:4
7-04.
Chapter 7
A piston-cylinder device contains 10 lb of air which is maintained at a constant

pressure of 150 psia by a floating piston of constant weight. How much heat must be
added to raise the temperature from 20F to 300F?
/11
Question Sheet
7: 5
7-05. A piston-cylinder contains 1 Ibm of saturated liquid R-22 at 20F. The refrigerant is
maintained at constant pressure by a floating piston. Determine the work and heat if
the refrigerant is heated until the quality is 50%. Sketch the process on a p-v diagram.
Question Sheet
Chapter 7
7: 6
7-06.
Describe experiments in which the First Law may be used to determine the specific
heats of an ideal gas of unknown properties placed in a rigid tank, and in a cylinder
in which the pressure is kept constant with a floating, frictionless piston.

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The inlet temperature to a centrifugal flow, 0.8 kW air compressor is 20F. The
steady mass flow rate is 0.04 lbn/s. If the compressor is assumed adiabatic and the
kinetic and potential energies are assumed negligible, then estimate the outlet temperature of the compressor.
Question Sheet
Chapter 8
First Law and Open Systems
8:2
8-02. The inlet condition to a centrifugal flow, R-134a compressor is saturated vapor at
20F. The steady mass flow rate is 0.08 Ibm Is. If the heat lost from the compressor is
800 Btulh and the work to run the compressor is 3.0 kW, estimate the specific enthalpy of the refrigerant leaving the compressor. Neglect the kinetic and potential
energies of the flow.
8-03. Air enters an adiabatic turbine at 300F and with negligible velocity. The rate of
doing work is 2.0 kW. The outlet temperature is 20F. If the outlet velocity is 300
fils, then calculate the mass flow rate of air.
Chapter 8
Question Sheet
8: 3
8-04. A mixing tank has two steady inflows and one steady outflow. The conditions of the
first inflow are superheated steam at t] = 350F, h] = 1,140 Btu/Ibm' and flow rate
rill = 30 Ibm Ih. The second inflow is compressed liquid at t2 = 70F, h2 = 38 Btu/Ibm'
Ifthe rate of heat removal from the tank is 25,000 Btu/h, then estimate the inflow of
water needed to result in the outflow being saturated liquid water at 212F. Neglect
changes in kinetic and potential energy.
Question Sheet
Chapter 8
8:4
8-05.
Two air streams are mixed together in an adiabatic mixer to produce an output stream
of air at 95F. lfthe two incoming streams are at 120F and 35F respectively, find
the ratio of volume flow rates of the hot to cold air to produce the 95F air.

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Chapter 8
Question Sheet
9: 1
Name
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9-01.
Fax
State
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----------------------------
Determine the outlet temperature and mass flow rate of a 0.7 k W air compressor that
compresses air from 15 psia to 100 psia. The inlet temperature is 72F. Assume
isentropic compression of an ideal gas, k = 1.4, Cp = 0.24 Btullb111 .oF.
Question Sheet
9:2
9-02.
Determine the outlet temperature and mass flow rate of a 0.7 k W air compressor that
compresses air from 15 psia to 150 psia. The inlet temperature is 72F. Assume
polytropic compression of an ideal gas, n = 1.3, Cp = 0.24 Btullbm.of and a heat loss
rate of 0.1 KW.
9-03. The inlet condition to a R-22 compressor is saturated vapor at -40F. If the specific
work for the isentropic compression is 30 Btu/Ibm' then calculate the specific enthalpy of the refrigerant at the compressor exit. Sketch the process on the p-h diagram and use Appendix C-2 to estimate the delivery pressure. (The diagram of Appendix C-2 is not easy to read, so an approximate value is acceptable.)
Question Sheet
9: 3
9-04. The inlet to an adiabatic steam turbine is superheated steam at 1,OOOF, 400 psia and
enthalpy of 1,526 Btullb The steam leaves the turbine at 150F, with a quality of
0.90. Determine the specific work in Btullb111 of the turbine.
111.
9-05.
The inlet condition to a throttling valve in a R -134a refrigerator is saturated liquid at

110F. Determine the outlet condition of the refrigerant (quality) if the outlet pressure is 21.162 psia.
Question Sheet
9:4
9-06.
Consider a pipe-in-pipe, counterflow, water-to-air heat exchanger. The water flow

rate ofO.1lbm /s enters at 200F and leaves at 100F. The air flow rate ofO.9lbm /s
enters at 72F. The coefficient of specific heat of water is Cp = 1.0 Btullbm .oF, and
for air Cp = 0.24 Btullbm .oF. For both water and air, the change in enthalpy can be
expressed as the coefficient of specific heat times the change in temperature. Complete the following:
Sketch the heat exchanger and the temperature profiles of the two streams
through the length of the heat exchanger.
Determine the outlet temperature of the air.
Determine the UA product for the heat exchanger.

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A refrigerator with a coefficient of performance of 2.8 provides 120,000 Btu of

cooling. Calculate the net work required to run the refrigerator and the heat to be
rejected to the surroundings.
Question Sheet
Chapter 10
The Carnot Cycle
10:2
10.2.
Give the Clausius statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics and briefly
describe in your own words what the statement means.
10.3.
Describe the four processes of the reversed Carnot cycle and show the cycle on a T-s
diagram.
10.4.
A Carnot heat engine operates between a source at 2000 R and a sink at 440 R. lfthe
heat engine is supplied heat at a rate of 800 Btu/min, determine the thermal efficiency and the power output of the engine.
Question Sheet
10: 3
10.5.
A heat engine is operating on a Camot cycle and has a thermal efficiency of 55%.
The waste heat from the engine is rejected to a nearby lake at 50F at a rate of 600
Btu!min. Determine the power output of the engine and the temperature of the heat
source.
10.6.
A refrigerator is required to remove heat from a cooled space at a rate of 200 Btu!
min to maintain a temperature of 20F. If the ambient air surrounding the refrigerator is at 72F, determine the minimum power input required for the refrigerator.
Question Slteet
Cltapter 10 Tlte Carnot Cycle
10:4
10.7.
An inventor claims to have developed a cooling system that removes heat from a
cooled region at 10F and transfers it to surrounding air at 75F while maintaining a
COP of7.5. How do you assess the inventor's claim?
10.S.
An air-conditioning system is used to maintain a house at 72F when the temperature outside is 95F. The house is gaining heat through the walls and windows at a
rate of 50,000 Btu/h, and the heat generation rate within the house by lights and
appliances is 5,000 Btu/h. Determine the minimum power input required by the airconditioning system.

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Question Sheet
11: 1
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11-01. Sketch the basic elements of the vapor-compression cycle: compressor, condenser,
expansion valve and evaporator and describe the basic function of each.
Question Sheet
11: 2
11-02. Sketch the T-s and p-h property diagrams of an ideal vapor-compression cycle and
describe the thermodynamic processes of the cycle.
11-03. A 3-ton refrigeration system operates on an ideal vapor-compression cycle with

R-134a as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated
vapor at 8.577 psia and is compressed to 199.25 psia. Find the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator and the power of the compressor. Compare the coefficient
of performance with that ofa Carnot cycle operating between -35F and 125F.
Chapter II Refrigeration Cycles
Question Sheet
11:3
11-04. A 3-ton refrigeration system operates on an actual vapor-compression cycle with

R-134a as the working fluid. The isentropic efficiency ofthe adiabatic compressor
is 85%. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at 8.577 psi a and
is compressed to 199.25 psia. The pressure drop in the condenser is 13.41 psi. The
pressure drop in the evaporator is 2.72 psi. Find the coefficient of performance of
the refrigerator and the power ofthe compressor.
Question Sheet
11: 4
11-05. A 5 kW compressor drives an ideal vapor-compression cycle heat pump with R-22
as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at
83.28 psia and is compressed to 396.32 psia. Find the heating capability of the heat
pump and the coefficient of performance.
11-06. An ice-making machine operates on a vapor-compression cycle using R-22. The

refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at 10F and leaves the compressor with an enthalpy of 120 Btu/Ibm. The condenser pressure is 210.69 psia.
Water enters the ice-machine at 55F and leaves as ice at 25F. For an ice production rate of 10 lbn/h, estimate the power input to the refrigerator. The heat removed
to convert 55F water to ice at 25F is 169 Btullbm .
Chapter II Refrigeration Cycles
Question Sheet
11:5
11-07. Sketch and describe the operation of an absorption refrigeration cycle that uses a
mixture of ammonia and water. Ammonia serves as the refrigerant.
Question Sheet
11: 6
11-08. Sketch and describe the operation of an open cycle gas refrigeration system.

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12-01. State Dalton's law of additive pressures, and then sketch and explain how this model
may result from the addition of two gases of equal volume and temperature.
Question Sileet
Chapter 12 Moist Air as a Mixture ofIdeal Gases
12:2
12-02. Calculate the mass fractions and mole fractions when 2 Ibm nitrogen (molecular
weight MN2 = 28.013 Ibl/,1lb mo,) is mixed with 6 Ibm hydrogen (molecular weight
MH2 = 2.0161b m lIb moe
I). What is the molecular weight of the mixture? What are the
partial volume fractions and the partial pressure fractions?
12-03. 2 lbm dry air (molecular weight M Alr. = 28.97 lbm lIb moeI) is mixed with 0.1 lbm water
vapor (molecular weightMH20 = 18.015Ibmllbmo'e). What is the molecular weight of
the mixture? What is the partial pressure of the water vapor if the total pressure is
atmospheric (14.97 psia)? Compare the partial pressure with the saturated pressure
at 100F and say whether this mixture is possible at this temperature.
Chapter 12 Moist Air as a Mixture ofIdeal Gases
Question Sheet
12: 3
12-04. Find the humidity ratio, specific volume (per Ibm of dry air) and specific enthalpy
(per Ibm of dry air) of saturated moist air at standard atmospheric pressure and
120F.
12-05. Find the specific enthalpy (per Ibm of dry air) of moist air at standard atmospheric
pressure and 120F if the humidity ratio is 0.05.
Question Sheet
Chapter i2
Moi.~t Air as
a Mixture ofideal Gases
12:4
12-06. 2 lb m dry air is mixed with 0.1 lb m water vapor at atmospheric pressure and temperature of 120F. Calculate the enthalpy of the mixture (per Ibm of dry air) from:
the moist air tables; and the expressions given for the enthalpy of dry air and water
vapor in the text.

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Cl,apter 12 Moist Air as a Mixture ofIdeal Gases
Question Sheet
13: 1
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13-01. Give a short description of humidity ratio and relative humidity.
Question Sheet
13:2
13-02. Using the definitions of humidity ratio, relative humidity and the Ideal Gas Law,
show that the relationship between humidity ratio and relative humidity can be written as:
~ = W(pi pg)/{0.622+W)
W = 0.622~ Pg I(p-~ pg)
lb vapor/lb dry air

III
1Jl
13-03. Consider moist air at 72P and atmospheric pressure. Answer the following questions:
What is the humidity ratio and relative humidity if the air is saturated?
What is the humidity ratio if the relative humidity is 60%?
What is the relative humidity if the humidity ratio is 0.015 Ibm vapor/lb dry air?
fII
Question Sheet
13: 3
13-04. Explain the term dewpoint temperature. Calculate the dewpoint temperature for nop
atmospheric air with a relative humidity of 60%.
13-05. On a 72P day, the wet-bulb temperature is measured as 55P. Calculate the humidity ratio and the relative humidity.
Question Sheet
13:4
13-06. Atmospheric air at 90F and 60% relative humidity is cooled to 80F or 60F. In
each case, calculate the final relative humidity.
13-07. Moist air at 95F, atmospheric pressure and relative humidity of 60% is cooled at
constant pressure to saturation conditions at a rate of 2,000 Ibm dry air per hour.
Estimate the rate of heat removal.

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Chapter 13 Properties ofMoistAir
Question Sheet
14: 1
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14-01. Sketch the outline of the psychrometric chart showing typical lines of constant value
of dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, humidity ratio, relative humidity,
specific enthalpy and specific volume.
Question Sheet
14:2
14-02. List the seven properties that are represented on the psychrometric chart.
The following five problems are to be solved by looking up the properties of moist air on
the psychrometric chart for standard atmospheric pressure (sea-level). Given two properties, you must look up the other five properties.
14-03. Dry-bulb temperature of90oP and a wet-bulb temperature of75P.
14-04. Humidity ratio of 0.008 lb m moisture per lb dry air and relative humidity of 80%.
I1l
14-05. Humidity ratio of 0.020 lbm moisture per lb111 dry air and dry-bulb temperature of
80 oP.
Question Sheet
14: 3
14-06. Enthalpy of25 Btu per Ibm dry air and relative humidity of20%.
14-07. Saturated moist air at a dry-bulb temperature of 72F.

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15-01. Moist air is cooled from 80F, 50% relative humidity to 70F with no moisture
added or removed. What is the final relative humidity and the heat removed per lb
of dry air?
11/
Question Sheet
15:2
15-02. Moist air is cooled from 80F, 50% relative humidity to 50F. What is the final
relative humidity, humidity ratio and change of enthalpy?
15-03. 1,000 cfm of outdoor air at 40F and 20% relative humidity is to be heated and
humidified to a final condition of 72F and 50% relative humidity with a heater
followed by a steam humidifier. The temperature after the heater is 64F. Find the
following: the heat added in the heater section; the mass flow rate of steam; and the
enthalpy of the steam.
Question Sheet
15: 3
15-04. Outdoor air at 95F and 50% relative humidity is to be cooled to a final condition of
72F and 50% relative humidity using a cooling coil and a simple heater. Find the
intermediate temperature between the cooling coil and the heater, the specific heat
removed in the cooling coil, and the specific heat added in the heater.
15-05. Outdoor air at 95F and 20% relative humidity is cooled in an evaporative cooler by
spraying with saturated liquid water at 70F. What is the final temperature if the
final relative humidity is 60%? (Hint: use the protractor to get the slope of the process line.) How much water will it take per Ibm of dry air? (Hint: use the change in
humidity ratio.)
Question Sheet
15:4
15-06. 20 Ibm per minute of air at 40F and 90% relative humidity is adiabatically mixed
with moist air at 80F, but unknown relative humidity. The final mixture is at 72F
and 50% relative humidity. What is the relative humidity and mass flow rate of the
second air stream?
15-07. The sensible heat load ratio for a heating problem is known to be SHR = -2.0. The
setpoint condition for the conditioned space is 72F and 50% relative humidity.
Find the relative humidity of the 80F heating air if the correct ratio of sensible to
latent heat is to be removed from the conditioned space.

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ASHRAE Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics

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697

ASHRAE Continuing Education

A Self-Directed Learning Course

Richard R. Johnson, Ph.D.

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating

Copyright 1997 by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning

Systems, Properties, States and Processes

Property Diagrams for Pure Substances

Thermodynamic Tables and Charts

The Next Step

Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables

Heat and Work

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Closed Systems

The Next Step

First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Open Systems

The Next Step

Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics

The Next Step

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

The Carnot Cycle

Moist Air as a Mixture of Ideal Gases

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

Properties of Moist Air

The Next Step

The Psychrometric Chart

Air-Conditioning Processes on the Psychrometric Chart

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics

Dimensions and Units Used in Air-Conditioning Applications

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

The Major Processes of Air-Conditioning

Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics

The Next Step

Study Objectives of Chapter I

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries

HVAC: Heating, Ventilating andAir-Conditioning

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

The Major Processes ofAir-Conditioning

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries

Both thermodynamic and psychrometric principles are applied to these processes:

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

The Next Step

Chapter 1 has been an introductory chapter. Following an introduction and a definition of

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 1

1-02. Define what is meant by air-conditioning.

Fundamentals ofThernwdynamics and Psychrometries

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

Closed and Open Systems in Thermodynamics

Processes and Cycles

The Next Step

Study Objectives of Chapter 2

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes