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AbstractA simple model for calculating the hot-spot temperature is introduced. The model is based on the hot-spot to ambient gradient. The model considers the changes of the oil viscosity
and winding losses with temperature. The results are compared
with temperatures calculated by IEEE Annex G method and measured results at varying load for the following transformer units:
250-MVA ONAF, 400-MVA ONAF, and 605-MVA OFAF.
Index TermsHot-spot temperature, oil viscosity, top-oil temperature, winding losses.
NOMENCLATURE
Specific heat capacity of winding material.
A constant.
Load current.
Oil viscosity.
Ambient temperature.
Top-oil temperature.
Top-oil temperature rise over ambient.
Manuscript received January 25, 2008; revised January 16, 2009. Current version published June 24, 2009. This work was supported in part by the SINTEF
Energy Research Department, Trondheim, Norway. Paper no. TPWRD-000362008.
D. Susa is with the SINTEF Energy Research Department, Trondheim
NO-7465 , Norway (e-mail: dejan.susa@ sintef.no).
H. Nordman is with the ABB, Power Transformers, Vaasa 65101, Finland
(e-mail: hase.nordman@fi.abb.com).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2009.2022670
Hot-spot temperature.
Rated hot-spot to ambient temperature
gradient.W
Winding time constant.
Winding time constant.
Oil time constant.
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pu
I. INTRODUCTION
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(1)
SUSA AND NORDMAN: SIMPLE MODEL FOR CALCULATING TRANSFORMER HOT-SPOT TEMPERATURE
1259
TABLE I
THRESHOLDS FOR ALL COOLING MODES
where
is the hot-spot-to-ambient temperature gradient.
is a function of the fluid properties and winding characteristic
dimensions and is considered to be a constant [32]. is constant that is partly based on experimental results obtained from
thermal tests [3], [4]. The sensors locations have been discussed
in [3], [4], and [20]. is the viscosity variation with temperature
(in kilograms per millisecond), given by the following equation
[6]:
(2)
where the viscosity is evaluated at the value of
given by
(11)
(3)
(4)
The differential equation for the thermal circuit in Fig. 2 is
given as follows:
(12)
and
describe the behavior
where
of the dc and eddy losses as a function of temperature [6].
The dc losses vary directly with temperature, whereas the
is the temeddy losses vary inversely with temperature.
perature factor for the loss correction, equal to 225 for aluis the hot-spot temperaminium and 235 for copper.
ture.
Finally, (5) becomes
(5)
(13)
Now, if the following parameters are defined:
the thermal resistance
as
(6)
stand for the rated and relative
where subscripts and
values, respectively,
the winding time constant
The final solution of (13) for the load increase and decrease
is given in the following section. The corresponding values for
the temperature threshold level and oil viscosity exponent are
given in Tables I and II.
B. Complete Model
1) Load Increase: The hot-spot temperature increases to a
level corresponding to a load factor of K
(7)
stands for the rated winding time constant
where
given in Section II-C and it is assumed that
, [32];
the load factor
(14)
The initial hot-spot rise over ambient is
. The hot-spot
rise calculated for the end of previous load step is used as the
is
initial hot-spot rise for the next load step calculation.
the ultimate hot-spot rise given by the following equation:
(8)
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(15)
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TABLE II
LOAD STEPS FOR THE 250-MVA TRANSFORMER
(25)
Equation (21) is applicable here as well.
Equations require an iterative calculation procedure.
3) Winding Exponent and Change Levels: The viscosity ex0.5). In
ponent for all cooling modes is equal to 0.5 (i.e.,
addition, the temperature change thresholds are given in Table I.
C. Time Constants
1) Winding Time Constant: The winding time constant [19]
is as follows:
The function
describes the relative increase of the hot-spot
temperature rise until the corresponding threshold is reached
(16)
for
(26)
for
(27)
where
(17)
(18)
is the winding time constant after the change
(19)
is the rated oil time constant given in Section II-C.
is the time delay correction for the following condition:
where
rated top-oil time constant (in minutes);
(20)
(21)
is the time when the function
reaches the corresponding
threshold level.
Equations require an iterative calculation procedure.
2) Load Decrease: The hot-spot temperature decreases to a
level corresponding to a load factor of K
(22)
The function
describes the relative decrease of the
hot-spot temperature rise until the corresponding threshold is
reached
(23)
The function
will be replaced by function
once the
change level for a given load is reached as suggested in Table I
(24)
(29)
where
weight of the winding material (use only the
excited parts) (in kilograms);
weight of the core (in kilograms);
weight of the tank and fittings (in kilograms);
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SUSA AND NORDMAN: SIMPLE MODEL FOR CALCULATING TRANSFORMER HOT-SPOT TEMPERATURE
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TABLE III
MAXIMUM AND AVERAGE ERROR FOR THE 250-MVA TRANSFORMER
0.13) in
Fig. 3. Hot-spot temperature of the 118-kV winding in the 250-MVA ONAFcooled transformer.
0.51) in
difference between the measured and calculated curve. The average error is obtained as the sum of the data values divided by
the number of data values. The error plots are also shown in
Figs. 35.
A. The 250-MVA ONAF
The rated voltages of the 250-MVA transformer were
1.5%/118/21 kV. The windings were seen from
the limb side, the 118-kV and 230-kV main windings, the
regulating winding, and the 21-kV tertiary winding. The connection was YNyn0d11, and the short-circuit impedance in the
250/250-MVA main direction was 12%. The oil flow through
the windings was guided by oil guiding rings in a zigzag pattern.
The transformer was equipped with a total of 16 fiber-optic
sensors, eight in the 118-kV winding and eight in the 230-kV
winding, according to the principles explained in [4]. In total,
14 thermocouples were located in the tie plates and outer core
packets at the top level of the main windings of phase B.
In addition to the normal delivery tests, including the ONAN
and ONAF heat-run tests, the following load tests were performed on the unit operating in the ONAF cooling mode:
constant load current; 1.28 p.u.; duration 13.5 h;
constant load current; 1.49 p.u.; duration 15 h;
varying load current Table II.
The measured hot-spot temperature results of the hottest
winding and sensor, recorded during the varying load current
test, are compared with the results obtained from the thermal
models in Fig. 3.
The maximum and average errors are given in Table III.
B. The 400-MVA ONAF
The rated voltages of the transformer were 410 6 1.33%/
120/21 kV. The windings were, seen from the limb side: 120-kV
and 410-kV main windings, a regulating winding, and a 21-kV
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TABLE IV
LOAD STEPS FOR THE 400-MVA TRANSFORMER
TABLE V
MAXIMUM AND AVERAGE ERROR FOR THE 400-MVA TRANSFORMER
probes (eight in each winding), and the tie plates, outer core
packets, and yoke clamps had a total of 37 thermocouples.
Additional load tests with ONAF cooling were the following:
constant load current: 1.0 p.u.; duration 12 h:
constant load current: 1.29 p.u.; duration 10 h;
constant load current: 1.60 p.u.; duration 15 h;
varying load current (Table IV).
The measured hot-spot temperature results of the hottest
winding and sensor, which were recorded during the varying
load current test, are compared with results obtained from the
thermal models in Fig. 4.
The maximum and average errors are given in Table V.
C. The 605-MVA OFAF
Fig. 5. Hot-spot temperature of the 362-kV winding in the 605-MVA OFAFcooled transformer.
tertiary winding. The connection was YNynd, and the short-circuit impedance in the 400/400-MVA main direction was 20%.
The oil flow through the windings was guided by the oil guiding
rings in a zigzag pattern. The main windings in this transformer
are representative of two basic cases: 1) restricted oil flow
(2-mm radial spacers in the 120-kV winding) and 2) unrestricted oil flow (3-mm radial spacers in the 410-kV winding).
The main windings were equipped with a total of 16 fiber-optic
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SUSA AND NORDMAN: SIMPLE MODEL FOR CALCULATING TRANSFORMER HOT-SPOT TEMPERATURE
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TABLE VI
LOAD STEPS FOR THE 605-MVA TRANSFORMER
TABLE VII
MAXIMUM AND AVERAGE ERROR FOR 605-MVA TRANSFORMER
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TABLE VIII
INPUT DATA FOR THE THERMAL MODELS
B. Model Algorithm
The algorithm that describes the steps to follow in order to
calculate the hot-spot temperature is given in Fig. 6.
C. Model Validation
The model can be validated in an extended heat-run test (Fig.
7) made on a transformer with installed fiber-optic sensors by
using fitting and extrapolation techniques. Note that these techniques should be applied in a manner consistent with the modeling presented in this paper. An application example as well as
a corresponding mathematical procedure are given in [35]. The
extended heat-run test consists of a regular heat-run test with
added an overload test (Fig. 7). The overload should be applied
three hours after the cooling curve is recorded in order to obtain
a prolonged cooling curve as well. In this way, different oil-flow
modes (i.e., due to cold start, load increase, and load decrease),
are considered as well as their effect on the model parameter.
The duration and size of the applied overload should be limited
with the maximum steady-state hot-spot temperature of 140 ,
[1].
REFERENCES
[1] Loading Guide for Oil-immersed Power Transformers, IEC 60076-7,
2005.
[2] IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers, IEEE
Std. C57.91, 1995.
[3] H. Nordman and M. Lahtinen, Thermal Overload Tests on a 400 MVA
Power Transformer with a Special 2.5 pu Short Time Loading Capability, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 107112, Jan. 2003.
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SUSA AND NORDMAN: SIMPLE MODEL FOR CALCULATING TRANSFORMER HOT-SPOT TEMPERATURE
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Hasse Nordman (M08) was born in Overmark, Finland, in 1945. He received the Ph.D. degree in mathematics from the Abo Akademi University, Turku,
Finland, in 1977.
From 1970 to 1982, he was with ABB Corporate
Research (formerly Stromberg Research Centre),
Vaasa, Finland, working on current-related phenomena (losses, temperatures, short-circuit forces)
in electric power equipment. Since 1982, he has been
with the Development Engineering Department in
the Power Transformer Division of ABB, Vaasa. He
is also the leader of the global ABB R&D activity Load Losses and Thermal
Performance.
Dr. Nordman is a member of CIGRE, Chairman of the Finnish National Committee in the IEC Power Transformer Technical Committee (TC 14), and Convenor of the Maintenance Team MT1: Revision of IEC 354: Loading guide for
oil-immersed power transformers.
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