2

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The man, who kills a man, kills a man. The man who kills
himself, kills all men; as far as he is concerned he wipes out
theworld.
-G.K.Chesterton

A. Background of the Study

Suicide is very controversial because it is a very unnatural action. It
contradicts the nature of both animal and human tendency of self-preservation. To
do this one needs an enormous amount of courage which for some is something to
admire while for some it is something to condemn. Albert Camus described
suicide in this manner:
I see many people die because they judge that life is not worth living. I see others
paradoxically getting killed for the ideas or illusions that give them a reason for living
(what is called a reason for living is also an excellent reason for dying). I therefore
conclude that the meaning of life is the most urgent of questions.

There are also two possible reasons why a person decides to take his life:
First, some may think that life is meaningless and too painful for them to bear. On
the other hand some think that there is something or someone really noble worth
dying for. In almost all cultures, place, and time, suicide has been present and each
culture has its own ways of accepting it.
Throughout history, suicide has evoked a wide range of reactions
bewilderment, dismissal, heroic exaltation, compassion, antagonism, moral or
religious condemnationbut it is never uncontroversial1. But how can we
understand suicide from the point of view of one of the greatest thinkers in the
period of scholasticism-St. Thomas Aquinas, in his notion of Human Act? How
can we make an ethical inquiry on the act of self-killing?

B. Statement of the Problem

The intention of this paper is to use St. Thomas Aquinas notion of human
act as a guide for an ethical evaluation of suicide and question whether it is always
the case that a person who committed suicide is held morally accountable for their
actions.
1 Carlo Andrew S. Nachor, In Defense of Suicide, (Quezon City:St. Anthony Mary
Claret College, 2009), p. v

1. What is suicide?
2. What is St. Thomas Aquinas notion of Human Act?
3. Using the perspective of Aquinas Human Acts, should one consider all
those who commit suicide as fully and morally accountable in their action?

C. The Significance of the Study

The researcher observes that suicide has always been present in all cultures,
times and all walks of life. From the earliest page of world history, the Scriptures,
to our daily newspapers, news television shows and radio, we always hear about
suicide. A wide range of emotions and acceptance are seen. The topic is close to
the researchers heart because several times, he has known some friends or
acquaintances who have committed suicide and saw how the society has ostracized
the victim and his family.
The researcher aims neither to totally condemn nor to promote suicide;
rather, he wants the readers to have a better understanding of suicide. He wishes to
present the subject matter in a wider perspective and use whatever insights that he
gainsfor a greater awareness to the readers on how to treat people who committed
suicide, their family or those individuals who attempted to do it. He advocates that

suicide victims and their family must not undergo discrimination and prejudice;
rather they have special need of support from the community where they belong.
He believes that, the act of suicide should not be condemned immediately nor
should it be totally promoted nor accepted; but rather, one must look at thefactors
which may have caused the suicide. In other words, suicide is a very complicated
issue that not a single ethical conclusion can suffice to justify it. Some must be
treated with consideration and some not. Those who did it in full intention are
morally responsible while those who are too burdened with emotional turmoil,
pain can be considered not morally responsible since there is no fullness of
humans capacity for proper reasoning. To understand the moral responsibility, the
researcher would like to use Aquinas notion of human act in order to distinguish
the instances wherein we can condemn the person or not.
St. Thomas Aquinas is well known for his Golden Mean. He is very
careful not to be in any of the extremes. 2 He got this from the Greek ancient
philosopher Aristotle. Though some would say that his philosophy is no longer
relevant to contemporary times, the researcher assumes that his way of thinking as
an inclusivist may be a good perspective to understand suicide. His importance as
a thinker is still regarded with respect up to the present.

2Ibid., p.6

This paper can give two significant contributions in the society;first, a

better understanding and consideration of suicide using the perspective of St.
Thomas Aquinas, and second is that this can be useful as guidelineto the religious
leaders and counselors on how they would give the best pastoral care for those
who are in the verge of committing this act and those families who are bereaved
by the death of a loved one due to this act. The research offers an alternative view
on how we should judge a person desiring, attempting, committing suicide and
their grieving loved ones. This paper may not offer any solutions but the writer
believes that the change of viewon suicide is the first step to solve the problem.
There is a need for a change of attitude towards suicide and for those who
attempted to do the act, what is needed is the awareness about suicide and not
condemnation. There is much more to understand with the act of suicide.

D. Scope and Limitation

The study will focus on suicide as an act under philosophical and ethical
investigation. To introduce the subject matter, the researcher will use different
ethical principles from some philosophers regarding suicide to show a general
view of what suicide is. The main perspective that he will use is that of St. Thomas

Aquinas, the notion of Human Act in order to undertake an ethical inquiry on

suicide.
The researcher does not intend to support or to condemn the act, rather to
question Aquinas judgment on suicide that it is totally unacceptable whether that
is always the case. The researchers majorreferences are the ones found in the
Saint Anthony Mary Claret College Library and online sources.
The researcher also wants to clarify that apart from Aquinas notion of
Human Act and suicide, his other notions are no longer part of the scope. In other
words, other treatises and thoughts of Aquinas apart from these are excluded from
the scope.

E. Review of Literature and Related Studies

The following books are very much useful and related to this topic. The
researcher believes that reading these materials will be of great help in his ethical
inquiry on suicide in the light of Aquinas notion of Human Act.

Anderson, James. On the Truth of Catholic Faith Summa Contra Gentiles

Book Two: Creation. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1962.
The book contains a discussion of St. Thomas Aquinas about the nature of
man, Gods freedom and unity of soul and body. According to him, one needs to
know and study creatures in order to achieve Divine Wisdom and to know God.
The chapter is divided into several parts namely: the bringing forth of things into
being, distinction and order, and finally, the nature of creatures.

Bourke, V.J. The Pocket Aquinas.New York: Washington Square

Press,1960.
This reader-friendly book is a representative collection of Aquinas
enormous and monumental Summa Theologiae. It is divided into several chapters
namely: Knowledge and Method, Nature and Philosophy, Man and Psychology,
Reality and First Philosophy, Morality and Ethics, Societal and Political
Philosophy, Beauty and Art, and finally, Revelation and Theology. The book is
remarkable because the authors way of discussing Aquinas is very simple and
comprehensive, yet, never lost the grandeur and profoundness of Aquinas
thoughts.

Coppleston, SJ, Frederick. A History of Philosophy: Mediaeval Philosophy

Vol. 2. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.,1962.
The second volume of Copplestons history starts its discussion on the
Patristic period and ends with the Carolingian Renaissance. This book is a helpful
tool in understanding the context and the thought of Medieval Thinkers. The
author describes in his book that the Christian Theology absorbed the Greek
philosophies

Evans, Glen. The Encyclopedia of Suicide: Second Edition. New York: Facts
on File, Inc, 2003.
This is a revised edition of the earlier Encyclopedia of Suicide. It contains a
history of suicide, the newest research and statistics, developments on researches
about suicide, and relationship of suicide to drugs. This encyclopedia is a good
reference for the researcher in understanding the historical background as well as
the most recent developments on suicide. The book also emphasizes that suicidal
tendencies are not just cries or attention but rather medical emergencies which
should be prompted by experts.

10

Fairbairn, Gavin. Contemplating Suicide. London: London &New York. 1995.

In Contemplating Suicide,Fairbairn takes a fresh look at suicidal thinking
of self-harm. His view is distinctive in emphasizing the intentions that a person
has in thinking of suicide, rather than external facts.He constructs a natural history
of suicidal self-harm and examines some of the ethical issues it raises. He sets his
philosophical reflections against a backdrop of experiences in the caring
professions and uses a storytelling approach in offering a critique of the current
language of self-harm.

Gilson, Etiene. The Christian Philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas. New

York: Random House, Inc., 1958.
This book is a product of long years of study and experience of the author
at the Pontifical Institute on Medieval Studies. It is an impressive masterpiece that
shows the authors deep knowledge of the Angelic Doctor. It is an interpretation of
the vast body of writings accumulated during the lifetime of St. Thomas Aquinas.
This book is divided into three parts namely; God, Nature and morality.
Gracia, Jorge and Noone, Timothy.A Companion to Philosophy of Middle
Ages. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2002.
This book is a compilation of essays by the most distinguished scholars in
the field of medieval thought. The book is divided into two parts namely: essays
on historical concept of the medieval period which started with the Patristic

11

Fathers until the Condemnation of some views in Paris in the 13 th Century. The
second part contains One hundred thirty-eight (138) alphabetically arranged
entries of some important authors of European and Arabic thought living in the
14th and 5th Century. It is a very useful reference for specialist and student alike.

Hecht, Jenifer. Stay: A History of Suicide and Philosophies against It.

London: Yale University Press, 2013
After seeing some of her friends died of suicide, Hecht decided to come up
with an intensive study on suicide. She looked up the history of suicide and how it
is viewed from different schools of thought. She attempted to answer the following
questions: Didreligion take a stand against suicide across most of Western history?
How and why? Even more importantly, how true wasthe claim that suicide
influences others to suicide? Is it demonstrablytrue that one of the key predictors
of suicide knowsa suicide? What about this idea of a monster in you thatneeded
to be outsmarted until it could be chased awaydoes this metaphor imply that no
one is fully in his or her right mind when ending it all? This also contains
sociological researches on suicide which the author believed to be very relevant
for todays time
Hume, David. Essays on Suicide and Immortality of Soul: The Complete 1783
Edition. Scotland: National Library of Scotland.,1783.

12

David Humes Essay on Suicide contains his thoughts on suicide,

immortality of soul, anti-suicide. It also included other works such as Immortality
of Soul from an anonymous editor, and Letters 114 and 115 from Rousseaus
Eloisa.

Jamison, Kay Redfield. Night Falls Fast: Understanding Suicide. New York:
Random House Inc., 1999.
This book contains a good introduction on suicide though it focuses
primarily on the psychological, psychopathological and neurobiological as well as
prevention of suicide. This will be of great use to anyone who seeks a deeper
understanding about suicide. The researcher tried to use this as a guide to establish
a good grasp of what suicide really is.

Joiner, Thomas. Why People Commit Suicide. London: Harvard University

Press,2005.
The book contains an intellectual discourse on suicide which the author did
after losing his father to suicide. This contains facts about suicide and answers the
following questions: Why do people commit suicide? Why some desires for death?
How does science play a role in evaluating and preventing suicide? This book is
very useful for the researcher in understanding what suicide means.

13

Mappes and De Grazia.Biomedical Ethics 5th Edition. New York:

McGrawHill Education,2002.
The book provides insightful and comprehensive treatments on ethical
issues regarding medicine. This offers high quality analyses coupled with
exceptionally clear writings. This contains viewpoints on the biomedical ethics.
The structure of every chapter is as follows: Introduction to the central problem,
various positions regarding the problem, arguments, brief abstractions, and
annotated bibliographies

Murray, Alexander. Suicide in the Middle Ages. Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 2000.
A three-part series, second volume in The Curse of Self-Murder explores
the origins of the condemnation of suicide and provides a unique perspective on
medieval culture and religion. The researcher believes that this is a good book to
read if one wants a deeper understanding on the suicide in the Middle Ages.

Osborne Jr., Thomas. Human Action in Thomas Aquinas, John Duns

Scotusand William of Ockham. Washington D.C.: The Catholic
America Press,2014.
This book contains the comparative views on human action is viewed by
the three famous Medieval Thinkers namely, St. Thomas Aquinas, John Duns

14

Scotus and William of Ockham. The chapter discusses the following: Cause of
Human Act, Practical Reason, Stages of Act, Evaluation and Specific on Act, and
Indifferent, Good, and Meritous Acts. Each chapter contains a comparison of the
thoughts of the medieval thinkers mentioned above

Rachels, James. The Elements of Moral Philosophy: Seventh Edition. New

York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2012.
This is a standard textbook for undergraduate courses in Ethics. This book
introduces readers to major moral concepts and theories through eloquent and
thought-provoking discussions. The seventh edition features the updated
discussions on death, monogamy, utilitarianism, retributivists honesty and many
others.

F. Schematic Presentation of Conceptual Framework

`

For us to see clearly the flow of this thesis entitled, Inquiry on the Ethics

of Suicide according to St. Thomas Aquinas, the researcher has made a

conceptual framework.
The cloud with the word suicide signifies the idea of suicide. An arrow
connects this to a rectangle which symbolizes the Angelic Doctors notion of
Human Act. According to Aquinas, an act is considered as human act if the

15

persons intellect and will are operative in his/her action. If suicide is a human act,
then it is indeed immoral. But is this always the case? Some acts of suicide are
acts of man, which are the opposite consequence of human act. These are actions
done without the presence of one or both intellect and will. If this is the case, there
is a need to suspend our moral judgment towards the person who committed or
attempted to commit suicide. Both acts of man and human act give both the writer
and the readers a wider understanding on suicide.

16

17

G. Definition of Terms
Acts of man- are those acts that man performs without being master of them
through his intellect and will. In principle, acts of man are not the concern of
morals, since they are not voluntary.
Amoral-having no moral standards, restraints, or principles; unaware of or
indifferent to questions of right or wrong: a completely amoral person.
Choice-is willing one already-consented-to means in preference to others (as
conducive to the end intended);
Consent- is willing means as conducive to an end (the same end as willed in
intention)
Enjoyment-is willing the end in so far as it is possessed
Ethics is the philosophical study of concepts involved in practical reasoning:
good, right, duty obligation freedom, rationality and choice
Human acts- are actions which are voluntary in nature. These actions must be
subject both to will and reason.

18

Intention-is willing an end as acquirable by means;use is willing whatever is at a

person's command for the realization of the means chosen (as conducive to the end
intended);
Intend- is to have in mind as purpose or goal.
Non-moral-actions or events: those areas of interest where moral categories
cannot beapplied since they are not one with full intellect and will.
Suicide- an act or an instance of taking ones own life voluntarily
Use- is willing whatever is at a person's command for the realization of the means
chosen (as conducive to the end intended)
Voluntary-is an act done by design or intention.
Will -is capacity to choose among alternative courses of action, and to act on the
choice made, particularly when the action is directed toward a specific goal or is
governed by definite ideals and principles of conduct.

H. Methodology
The method of discussion will be a critical analysis of the morality of
suicide using the notion of Aquinas human act and morality. To understand

19

suicide better the first part will be an exposition of what suicide is, its kinds and
some philosophical views about it. This will include a historical survey of suicide
on different ages and contexts. Then, using Aquinas notion of Human Act, we will
examine the ethical and moral implications of suicide depending on what kind and
situation. Then having all these affirmative and negative aspects of suicide, the
researcher will try to make a synthesis of all these, for a better understanding of
suicide

H. Thesis Division
The first Chapter of the thesis is this Introduction. Chapter II will be for the
definition and discussion of what suicide is and its classifications. This chapter
also includes how different cultures view and accept suicide, and how notable
thinkers have discussed the subject matter. Chapter IIIs discussion will be on the
human act notion of St. Thomas Aquinas. This will include how the Angelic
Doctor came with the idea, what human act is and how it functions when one uses
it as a basis for ethical inquiry. Chapter IV will be for an Ethical inquiry in the
moral accountability of suicide committers using the notion of Human Act of the
Angelic Doctor. Chapter V will be for the conclusion and recommendations.

20

CHAPTER II
UNDERSTANDING SUICIDE
There is but one truly serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide.
Judging whether life is or is not worth living
amounts to answering the fundamental question of philosophy.
All the rest whether or not the world has three dimensions,
whether the mind has nine or twelve categoriescomes
afterwards.
-Albert Camus

Suicide is an ever serious problem. Taking ones life is a very strange act
and yet it is not a surprise for us to hear someone committing suicide. Right from
ancient to modern times, the events of suicide have been a distressing
phenomenon among all the human societies, in one way or the other. It is a
phenomenon which is very ancient yet very relevant until today. It is found in most
of the cultures and race. The researcher knows that there is a need to clarify that
suicide is not universal since there are some cultures where suicide is not present
but it isvery rare. Researchers have found that suicide was unknown among the
Yahgans of Tierra del Fuego, the Andaman Islanders, and various Australian
aborigine tribes.3

3Glen Evans and Norman L. Farberow, Introduction: The History of Suicide, Encyclopedia of Suicide, (New
York:Facts on File Inc.,2003), i.

21

Though different ways of life, context and time have various and wide range of
response on self-killing.What is certain is that this is an ethical and human
problem which is needed to be understood and addressed. But before knowing
this problem, one must have a better understanding on the subject matter.

A. The Meaning of Suicide

1. Definition
The safest definition of suicide is a willed self-caused death but in order to
have deeper analysis, we must trace its roots. In trying to trace the etymological
meaning of suicide, one problem that the researchers encounter is that one cannot
find any equivalent word in any ancient civilizations. Greeks will use the
following expressions:
to seize death; to grasp death; to break up life; to end life; to be delivered
from life; to deliver oneself; to leave the light; to go voluntarily to Hades;
to do violence to oneself; to flee living; to carry oneself off; to get through
with oneself; to consume oneself; to die voluntarily; to kill oneself;
to destroy oneself; to get oneself out of the way4

4Ibid., xiv.

22

Romans would use expressions like sibi mortem consciscere(to procure his
own death), vim sibi inferre(to cause violence to himself), or sua manu
cadere(to fall by his own hand)5
2. Etymology
The etymology of suicide is as controversial as the act itself since there are
two opposing versions on how the word originated. The word suicide first
appeared in 1662, when Edward Philips, in his New World of Words, called suicide
a barbarous word, more appropriately derived from sus, a sow, than from the
pronoun sui, as if it were a swinish part for a man to kill himself. The Oxford
English Dictionary, on the other hand, states that suicide was first used in English
in 1651, derived from the modern Latin word suicidium, which in turn had been
produced by combining the Latin pronoun for self and the verb to kill. 6 This
means that suicide indeed is a recent word and even the old Latin does not have
any equivalent to it.
The etymology would suggest that suicide is a word that is too morbid and
too unacceptable to be have a term for it, but history shows that there is a very
long debate and discussion upon understanding suicide and its moral acceptability.

5Ibid., xv.

6Ibid,p.xv

23

3. Acts Commonly Mistaken as Suicide

In order to understand suicide better, the researcher adopted the taxonomy of
Fairbairn in his book, Contemplating Suicide; one must distinguish what is suicide
from the acts whichseemto be suicide. The problem lies not from the point of view
of the doer, but from the perspective of the observer.
a. Cosmic Roulette
This term is used to describe actions wherein the actor intentionally puts
himself to danger or risks. He or she may create situations that might bring him
danger but the intention of dying is not fully. They have special preference on
gambling their lives though they knew that death is a probable consequence. The
action normally is directed not on dying but on the risk of dying. One maythink
mistakenly that a person who died because of his or her desire of risks committed
suicide. This, in fact, is not the case.
b. Gesturing Suicide
These are acts in which a person pretends to take suicidal self-harming action or
says that he has done so when he has not, may be referred to as gestured suicide or
suicide gestures. In other words, these are people who want to show others that
they are suicidal. They would attempt not because they like to die but to catch
attention or convey a message. In some cases, this becomes a means for

24

blackmailing, winning sympathy and stimulating emotional reaction to the people

around him or her. For some, it is a way of asking for help.
c. Living Dangerously
These are acts that though considered as risky; still the actors try to do it.
Unlike the Cosmic Roulette, these acts are not oriented towards the risk. A typical
mountain climber, though his adventures are risky, never in his mind did he desire
for death. Hewould bring safety equipment and follow precautionary measures.
Other examples are the alcoholics, drug addicts, smokers and drag racers that
enjoy not the risk but the act that they do. They just enjoy the sensations of
smoking, drugs, speed driving or other self-centered, risky and gratifying acts.
d. Heroism
Heroic deaths are not suicides even if the person knew that he was certain
to die; they are not suicides because the person did not intend to die but merely to
save those he set out to save. An example of this is the case of Scholastic Richard
Michael Richie Fernando, SJ. He is a Filipino Jesuit Missionary to Cambodia
who died from a grenade blast after protecting a student amputee, Sarom, who run
amuck and tried to retaliate due to his expulsion. His primary intention is to
protect rather than to kill himself. His death is just the consequence of what he
hasintended.

25

e. Fatal Intentional Omissions yet the Protagonist did not Intend to Die
These are suicide which are caused by the negligence of the protagonist to
take the necessary procedure to survive but never willed to die. An example of this
is a Jehovahs Witnesses member who is in need of blood transfusion in order to
be saved but refused since his/her religion prohibits this medical procedure.
Another example is the case of Anorexia nervosa wherein the actors refuse to eat
not because they intended to but because of the disease. Both of the cases may be
considered as an intentional omission of a necessary act for survival but cannot be
considered suicide because they never intended to die.
These four categories of action though closely related and often
considered as suicide are not considered as such. In order to know fully what
suicide is, one must not mistakenly take these as acts of suicide. After
understanding what not suicide is, the discussion will now proceed to the
analysis the different faces of suicide

B. History of Suicide as a Philosophical Thought

On the pages of the history of humanity, stories and discourses on suicide
has always occupied a place. From the most ancient times in most of the societies
until today, suicide has always been present, though it varies on the means of

26

doing it, attitude and views on it. What is significant about this is that it is almost a
universal phenomenon.
The earliest account on suicide isfound in an Egyptian papyrus entitled A
Dispute over Suicide (also known as The Dialogue of a Misanthrope with His
Own Soul), written by anunidentified writer during Egypts First Intermediate
Period (22802000 B.C.).7 The main theme of this writing reflects the neutrality of
suicide in the early Egyptian culture. This contains the discourse between a man
and his soul on whether he will commit suicide or not. The soul was afraid that the
man will commit suicide while but the man wants it, considering it to be a
vacation. The soul is saying that death does not respect social position. The soul
cited reasons why suicidal self arises such as distrust for the world, lack of
friendship, absence of good, dishonor, injustice, lack of self-worth and fantasy
over death.8
1. Ancient Greek and Hellenistic Philosophy
Ancient Greek Civilization has a lot of philosophers who spoke on suicide.
The Stoics and Epicureans in particular, considered it a reasonable expression of
human freedom, but their beliefs remained unusual throughout that period.

7Ibid., xvi.
8Ibid.,xvi.

27

The earliest declaration of a theory of anti-suicide was by the pre-Socratic

philosopher Pythagoras, who lived between about 570 and 495 B.C. Pythagorean
philosophers deprecated a voluntary end to life because, to them, life is sacred.
Pythagoras taught that each of us is stationed at a guard post, responsible for
attending to it until we are dismissed.

Plato would borrow the idea, which

remained a cogent metaphor for centuries. He disapproves suicide and quoted

Socrates as saying before his death that no man has right to take his own life
unless he sends some necessity to him. Life itself was the discipline of the
gods.9But according to Jennifer Michael, Plato praises a suicide as a noble act
done for some good reason and adds contrasting disdain for people described as
merely having weak characters, unable to face life. 10 He also said that suicide can
be permissible if there is pressure of some excruciating and unavoidable
misfortuneto the actor and if one has fallen into some irremediable disgrace
that he cannot live with
Aristotle refuted suicide by saying that it is failure to courage by saying that
running away from trouble through suicide is a form of cowardice. He believed
that having the human form to be of great moral importance; therefore, destroying
human life at any stage is immoral. In committing suicide, a person is also robbing
9Evans and Farberow, 186.
10Jenifer Hecht, Stay: A History of Suicide and Philosophies Against It, (London: Yale University Press.,
2013), 18.

28

civic and social contributions; therefore, it has social effects. 11This was later
adopted by St. Thomas Aquinas.
The Stoics are concerned with living a naturally flourishing life and if the
means for having this is no longer available, suicide maybe justified regardless of
the character or virtue of the individual in question. Seneca, a Roman Stoic,
would say that quality and not the quantity of life is all that matters. According to
him, it is better to commit suicide rather than letting senility on old age prevent us
from living as we should.12
Epicureanism has different view on death. Death for them is nothing since
it does not exist for the living. If it exists, we dont and if we are present, it does
not exist. For this school of thought a man is a fool if he says that he fears death
not because it is painful as it arrives but because anticipation of it is too painful. 13
If the goal is to seek pleasure, and pleasure is defined as the absence of pain in
body and trouble in spirit; while death deprives our capacity to feel both, therefore
death is something not to be feared of. This is because they thought death would

11Evans and Farberow, 186.

12James Fieser, Metaethics, Normative Ethics and Applied Ethics, (Belmont, C,A: WadswothThompson Learning), 33.
13 William Sahakian, Systems of Ethics and Value Theory, ( New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams &
Co.,1964), 155.

29

help to reach complete state completely void of pain and therefore full of spiritual
tranquility.14
Seneca defended suicide as a last resort against unbearable agony. In his
Epistles and De Ira, he said; The eternal law has done nothing better than this,
that it has given us only one entrance into life, but a thousand ways of escape out
of it,
2. Medieval Philosophy
The Medieval period is mostly about Christianity. This period started when
the Rome became the Holy Roman Empire-when Christianity became the official
religion of the State in 350 AD. This is the reason why as one continues historical
analysis on suicide, one will largely see it in a point of view of Christianity.
The first view that the writer would like to discuss is a writing of a Church
Father named Eusebius who at that time was about to be a Bishop. In a narrative
he wrote he praised certain women who committed suicide to protect their chastity.
The researcher takes this as a statement that implies the acceptability of suicide if
one does it to protect ones chastity.
On the other hand, St. Augustine of Hippo, a great theologian and Church
Father, has no tolerance on suicide. In the City of God, he said that no man is
14Nachor, 19-20.

30

allowed to inflict death on himself even for the following reasons; on account on
another mans or his sins, because of guilt, for these can be healed through
repentance. There is no better life after death for those who died by suicide. 15
The Angelic Doctor, St. Thomas Aquinas rejected suicide and expanded on
St. Augustines rule. According to him, suicide is morally unacceptable for three
reasons: it injures the community of which an individual is a part; it is contrary to
natural self-love, whose aim is to preserve us; and it violates our duty to God:
since he gave us life, only he should be allowed to end it. 16 For him Suicide is
equated to homicide.
The Thomistic-Augustinian view of suicide became prevalent to the Roman
Catholic Church and this is the reason why during the medieval era or even until
now, suicide victims are not given any burial rites and is not allowed to be
buriedin the Catholic cemetery. Middle age narrative contains gruesome stories on
how the dead bodies of suicide victims are dragged, tried, violated, tortured,
impaled, hanged and being buried in the cemetery of the damned.17

15Ibid.,p.50
16 Evans and Farberow, xxiii.
17Hecht,57.

31

3. The Modern Philosophy

The Modern period, since they are reviving the lost glory of Ancient Greece and
Rome became ambivalent towards the suicide and slowly separates from the
traditional medieval thought.
St. Thomas More (1478-1535) is a British Chancellor to King Henry VIII
and a Catholic Martyr-Saint. In his Utopia, it appears that he satirically and
fantastically recommends suicide for those who are suffering from painful and
incurable diseases. But the tone of the work makes it doubtful whether he would
really support suicide in reality.18 On the other hand, some commentaries about his
writings would say that he supported suicide as a form of Euthanasia.
Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) is a French writer and mayor of
Bordeaux who was the first major dissenter about suicide among European
writers. He shares the same stand with the Epicureans on death and suicide. In his
work, A Defense of Legal Suicide,he wrote that death is a remedy against all evils.
He also said that though mans life depends on the will of others, death depends on
his. He considered suicide as a foolish act but not immoral.19
John Locke (1632-1704), the father of British Empiricism argued against suicide.
In his Two Treaties of Government, Locke wrote that man being created by God to
18Nachor,20.
19 Evans and Farberow, 164.

32

be His servant and through His order sent to the world and do His business.
Therefore, it is every mans duty to preserve his life and guard his post 20
Franois-Marie Arouet Voltaire (1694-1778), a French writer and
philosopher who is considered as one of the leaders of enlightenment, condemned
the conventional prejudice on suicide. He steadily attacked the taboos,
superstitions, and primitive punishments still being imposed for suicide victims.
As a result, he and others laid the foundation for a secular approach to the problem
of suicide; saw laws slowly changed; and were instrumental in a gradual shift in
societys emotional attitudes21.
David Hume (1711-1776) is a Scottish philosopher who influenced development
of skepticism and empiricism. One of the most significant works on suicide in this
period is his Essay on Suicide. He stated three reasons why he supports suicide.
First, because God has given us power to act. Therefore, death at ones own hand
was as much under His control as if it had proceeded from any other source.
Second, suicide was not a breach against neighbor and society, for a man who
retires from life does no harm to society, he only ceases to do good and which, if it
is an injury, is of the lower kind. Third, Hume stated that suicide cannot be a

20Ibid., 150.
21Ibid, 239.

33

crime against self because he believed that no man ever threw away a life while it
was still worth keeping.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a post-Enlightenment German philosopher
would argue thatsuicide is wrong because it undermines the worth of human
persons and takes from the universe the goodness that is in him. Human life must
be preserved at all cost and each individual has a definite place in this vast
universe.In his 1785 Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant started his
discussion by saying that, in the first place,that most of us owe it to someone to
stick around. Killing oneself is murder, he says. It can also be regardedas a
violation of ones duty to other.
4. Contemporary Philosophy
The Contemporary Philosophers are more lenient and open to suicide since
the old religious and social groupings that had objected suicide gradually losttheir
power. But this does not mean that they totally accepted suicide.
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) is a German Philosopher who
formulated the philosophy of pessimism. In his work, The World as Will and Idea,
he said that as man will soon find that the terrors of life will outweigh the fear of
death, and with this, he will end his life. 22 Though he considered suicide as a

22Nachor, 21.

34

painless antidote for a physical misery, he still believes that above all it is a
mistake since it does not give hope nor solve ones problem in life. He argued that
death is freeing ones life and going to nowhere to avoid suffering and pain. It is
not an escape because escape for him means going to better place. Nowhere is
never a better place. According to him, in order to escape such miserable state, one
must suffer first.23
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), a German philosopher wouldoften
contemplate on suicide by saying that the thought of it is a consolation to many
bad nights. He however did not advocate totally suicide as a solution 24. He
believes that you can polish life and avoid difficulties, but if you do, you lose the
meaning of life itself.
Albert Camus (1913-1960) a French philosopher and writer said that the
only problem is the problem of suicide wrote extensively about the subject matter.
According to him, living on this earth will always be an absurdity since man is
always looking for understanding, and need of social warmth; 25unfortunately, the
world is chaotic and cold. A man encounters the so-called absurd situation
23Hecht,179.
24 Evans and Farberow,172-173.

25 Michel Federico Schiacca, Philosophical Trends in a Contemporary World, (Indiana:

University of Notre Dame Press, 1964), 271.

35

(jealousy, ambition and selfishness) and is doomed to do his meaningless and

aimless activity which he compares to the Myth of Sisyphus. According to him,
there will be a time wherein being in an absurd situation will no longer be bearable
to us and the only solution is suicide.26
These are but only few of the philosophical views on suicide. There are a
lot more which is not included in this historical inquiry. The researcher believes
that this can help us understand how the philosophical beliefs on suicide evolved
through time due to socio-temporal influences. However, this is not sufficient for
the understanding ofthe subject matter. One must also understand the categories of
suicide based on the motivation of the suicide actor.
C. Durkheims Classifications of Suicide
Albert Camus, as mentioned in the previous chapter of the book classified the
countless reasons for suicide into two namely: uselessness of life and
meaningfulness or nobleness of a cause. These paradoxical categories however are
not sufficient to fully understand the act of suicide. This is the reason why he
concluded that suicide indeed is a very serious philosophical problem.
For a self- killing to be considered as suicide, Emile Durkheims gave three
considerations namely; the relationship between death and actor is not accidental,

26 D. R. Jatava, A Philosophy of Suicide,(Jaipur: ABD Press, 2010), p. 4

36

the

person

chooses

to

die,

and

the

act

is

intentional

rather

than

consequential.27Emile Durkheim, a sociologist, made the famous classification on

suicide namely: egoistic or suicide due to loneliness; altruistic or suicide because
of excessive concern in the society; fatalistic suicide or suicide because a person is
under regulated; and anomic or suicide because a person is over-regulated.
Fairbairn however reconstructed these categories and made it more intentionallycentered.28
1. No Hope Suicide
This is probably the most common form of suicide. The actor intended and
decided to take his life because he believed that there is no hope for change or
improvement of his present situation. Some people who kill themselves because
they have no hope of achieving a better life may do so rationally because their
lives are not amenable to change in directions in which they would wish them to
change; others, because they are irrational, will misjudge the possibilities that
exist. If such a person was so irrational that we considered him no longer to be
capable of autonomous action, he could not suicide.29

27http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/suicide/ accessed last September 2, 2015

28 Gavin Fairbair, Contemplating Suicide, (New York: Taylor & Francis e-Library,
2005), p. 84-134.

29Ibid.

37

2. Existential Suicide
This is kind of suicide caused by fear for the future and realization of ones
mortality. This may also be caused by a very pessimistic view in life. An example
would be an individual who is so fearful of the possibility of a nuclear war that he
would rather be dead than wait for what seems to him to be inevitable.30
3. Dutiful Suicide
In some cultures, there are instances that there is a duty to kill oneself in
certain circumstances. It is still debatable if this must be considered as suicide
since the intention of the actor is to perform his duty primarily and not to end his
life. Some examples of these are: Harakiri, from Japan wherein a man who lost his
honor by disemboweling himself to regain it; Sutee, a practice in India wherein the
widow would throw herself in the funeral pyre of her husband.31
4. Altruistic Suicide
This kind of suicide happens when a person does not want to burden his or
her family. The most common reasons of committing it are dependence due to
terminal illness and old age. The intention is to free others from the burden that the
actor caused them.32
30Ibid.
31Ibid.
32Ibid.

38

5. Revenge Suicide
In this act, the intention of the actor is to cause pain or punish others who
they believe have offended them. The classification of it as suicide is also
debatable since the primary intention is to take vengeance and not to die.
6. Political or Ideological Suicide
Sometimes suicide is enacted with the intention of making a politicalpoint.
Deaths of this kind might be termed political or ideological suicide. An example
of this is suicide of the Buddhist monks who set fire tothemselves as a protest
about the war in Vietnam in the 1960s and1970s. They set out to make a political
point by showing that what theybelieved in was so important that they were
willing to die for it. The effectivenessof the act is measured not on the success of
the act but how the message brought change.
7. Other-Driven Suicide
This suicide act is influenced by other person outside the actor. This may
either be by force or affection. Classical examples are the story of Romeo and
Juliet wherein both protagonists committed suicide because of each others
influence. Romeo committed suicide because of believing that Juliet is dead and
Juliet on the other hand did the same.33
33Ibid.

39

8. Judicial Suicide
When a person commits suicide because of believing that this is what they deserve
after doing a grave sin or crime, this can be considered as judicial suicide. Some of
the actors believe that they have greatly sinned against God and others and only
suicide is only suitable punishment. A classic example of this is the despair of
Judas who believed that betraying Jesus is an unforgiveable sin.34

D. Suicide and the World Health Organization

Suicide is a philosophical problem yet it is a concrete phenomenon. In order
to understand suicide better, the writer cited some facts on the recent studies on
suicide according to the World Health Organization.
More than 800,000 people die because of suicide annually and it is the
second leading cause of death in 15-29-year-olds. In every adult who died of
suicide there may have been more than 20 others attempting suicide.
Many suicides happen impulsively in moments of crisis with a breakdown
in the ability to deal with life stresses, such as financial problems, relationship
break-up or chronic pain and illness. In addition, experiencing conflict, disaster,
violence, abuse, or loss, discrimination, bullying and a sense of isolation may also
34Ibid

40

cause suicidal behavior.Another reason is that, those who are at risk are those who
have a history of sexual or physical abuse, or a history of parental neglect, mental
health problems like schizophrenia, unhealthy lifestyle like drug and alcohol
abuse, unemployment or lack of job security, isolation, notion of being totally
alone, bullying and genetics or family history.35

In such circumstances, the availability of means such as pesticides or

firearms can make the difference as to whether a person lives or dies.
Social, psychological, cultural and other factors can lead a person to
suicidal behavior, but the stigma connecting mental disorders and suicide is the
reason why many people feel unable to seek help.36
In brief, the history of Philosophy tells us that the act of killing ones self
had always been a topic to debate on. The turn of the times defined the view on
suicide; the ambivalent view on suicide due to different schools of thought in
ancient period, the absolute condemnation on the theocentric medieval period, and
the more liberal, anthropocentric discussions of the suicide during the modern and
contemporary philosophy.
35http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Suicide/Pages/Causes.aspxaccesed last
November 1, 2015
36http://www.who.int/mental_health/suicideprevention/exe_summary_english.pdf?ua=1 accessed last November 2, 2015

41

These pieces of information from the World Health Organization suggests

that indeed suicide is not always done intentionally and can be considered as an
act of man since as mentioned by WHO, some suicide are done impulsively
which implies that actors did not really intend to take their own lives.
Upon assessing and understanding the common causes for suicide, one can
say that indeed, some suicidal acts can be considered not really as a crime but a
disease. Some of the actors must be considered as victims and not really as
criminals.
These are the basic pieces of information that one needs to know in order to
understand suicide. The researcher attempted to discover the definition and
etymology of suicide, explored its philosophical history, analyzed its taxonomy as
proposed by Durkheim and Fairbairn and discussed what does WHO say about
recent cases of suicide.

42

CHAPTER III
THE HUMAN ACT OF SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS
No one can do justice to Aquinass theory of the will in a
few pages. It is rich, complicated and controversial, and as
thorough treatment of it would require a book lengthy study.

- Eleonore Stump

In order to understand the moral theory of Aquinas, one should understand

his metaphysics, particularly his theory of Exitus-Reditus. Aquinas created the
notion of The Great Circle of Beingwhich states the universe or all finite beings/
the Many are projected outwardly from God/The One. This movement is called
exitus. Since The One or God is The Good and the Source of all good, all things
that come from Him are good. This is the reason why all He created has
inclination and attraction towards good and this attraction enables the universe to

43

have the drive to journey back towards God since He is the source of all good.
This movement of going back home is called reditus.
The heart of his moral philosophy is the same. Though man is imperfect,
God bestowed on him the intellect and will which are always inclined towards
good and truth. Though he has free will, man is always seeking for good and his
search for good ultimately will lead him to the Source of all goodness.
In moral theory, identifying a human action's kind is important. Although in
some instances making ethical judgments is relatively easy but inother instances,
the task can be tough. Knowing what in a human action is relevant to making
thisdetermination is essential to identifying a correct moral kind.A sound moral
theory should indicate what in a human action is potentially relevant to identifying
its moral kind and why. St. Thomas Aquinas gave serious consideration to the
issue of moral specification - The second part of his Summa Theologiae which
contains his most prominent and systematic examination of thespecification of
human actions.

A. Short Biography of Saint Thomas Aquinas

To understand his thought we must know who St. Thomas Aquinas is and
the context in which he lived. St. Thomas Aquinas is one of the prominent figures

44

of the Medieval Period because he wrote extensively on metaphysics, philosophy

of religion, philosophy of the human person, and ethics. He was born in 1224 at
Kingdom of Naples. In 1230 or 1231, he was sent to Monte Casino Abbey where
he stayed and studied for eight years. In July 1239, Thomas needed to transfer to
the University of Naples where he learned about the writings of Aristotle,
Maimonides and Averroes. Between 1242 and 1244 he entered the Dominican
Order. By 1246, as a Dominican student regent, he transcribed the lectures of Saint
Albert the Great on Pseudo-Dionysius. He subsequently moved to Cologne and
worked under his mentor St. Albert. By 1256, hereturned to Naples no longer as a
student but as a teacher. He fell ill on the way and died 7 March 1274 in the
Cistercian monastery of Fossanova, near Terracina. He was forty-nine years old. 37
He is considered the Father of Thomism and the principal classical
proponent of natural theology. He is also a significant figure in Western
philosophy because his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law,
metaphysics, and political theory are either opposed or developed by Modern
Philosophy.38Some would say that Aquinas is considered primarily as a theologian
and not so much of a Philosopher. Aquinas himself didnt think of himself as a
37EtieneGilson,The Christian Philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas, (New

York: Random House,

Inc., 1958.), 432.

38 Peter Kreft.,The Modern Scholar : Thomas Aquinas, (Boston: Recorded Books LLC, 2009), 8.

45

philosopher but as a theologian, an explorer and defender of what he believed to

be the true, divinely revealedreligion. Though he is most likely considered as a
theologian, we can still regard him as a great philosopher because of the following
reasons: he was a great synthesizer; inclusive thinking made him stand at the
center of philosophy up to his time; the longevity of his philosophy was
extraordinary; he consistently took the position of the golden mean, and finally,
his common sense prevailed throughout showing the union between his theoretical
and practical sides of his mind.39
Seeing these special qualities of St. Thomas Aquinas, the researcher
believes that his point of view can be a very effective way for an ethical evaluation
of suicide. The researcher believes that the idea of Angelic Doctor, a name of
endearment given to the thinker, can still be a good lens to understand the morality
or immorality of taking ones life.
B. Components of Morality
1. The Moral Agent
St. Thomas followed Boethius definition of person. The person according to
Boethius is an individual substance of rational nature.St. Thomas Aquinas believes
that compared to angels, man is different since he is deprived of knowledge which

39Ibid.,6.

46

the angels have. Yes man is a rational being but this does not mean that his
knowledge is perfect. Despite his flaws, man is created according to the image and
likeness of God. And this includes his will which is always inclined towards good.
St. Thomas Aquinas clearly defined the qualities which sets human beings
apart from other animals. According to the First part of Second Part of Summa
Theologiae which focuses on Mans Last End, the faculty of will and reason
I (Aquinas) answer that, of actions done by man those alone are properly called
human,which are proper to man as man. Now man differs from irrational animals
in this,that he is master of his actions. Wherefore those actions alone are properly
called human, of which man is master. Now man is master of his actions through
his reason and will;whence, too, the freewill is defined as the faculty and will of
reason. Therefore those actions are properly called human which proceed from a
deliberate will.40
Following Aristotle, he identified human person is composed of form and
matter wherein the soul is the form. This is even applicable to all living things
since the soul or anima in Latin is the internal principle why a thing has life. The
rest of his explanation on Summa is devoted on the question of distinctive
featuresof a human soul as compared to animals or plants. Like animals and
plants, human beings can also have the ability for nourishment, growth and
reproduce. What makes man different from other creatures is his capability of
using his capacities of intellect and will. The will is where he ascribes the freedom

40 St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, (Ohio:Benziger Bros.,1947), 777.

47

of choice and on intellect, which is what makes that freedom possible and which
in general is what makes us fundamentally different from other animals. 41

2. Elements of Human Action

In order to make specifications on human actions, the Angelic Doctor gives
five different terms namely, end, object, matter, circumstance, and motive.
a. End
End isthe first term which Aquinas uses in the second part of his Summa
Theologiae to identify what specifies human actions. He reasons that, since human
actions do not have substantial forms to determine their species, the closest
analogue will be whatever in a human action plays a comparable role. The end
seems to him to be this corresponding principle, for just as no natural creature
exists or has a species without a substantial form, so no human action can come to
be of a particular kind unless an agent wills some definite end. Consequently,
Thomas judges that the end is as if (quasi) the form of a human action,
determining its species.42
41 St. Thomas Aquinas, Treatise on Human Nature, (Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company
Inc., 2002), xiv-xv.
42 Joseph Pilsner, The Specification of Human Actions in Saint Thomas Aquinas, (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 2

48

The Angelic Doctor is distinctive in his emphasis on the role of the end in human
action. According to him, a human act is specified by the end. End has two kinds
namely; the proximate and the remote end. The former pertains to immediate
goals while the latter is further goals for the sake of which immediate goals are
pursued. This specifying end is the proximate rather than the remote end.43
This is based on his understanding of the manner in which natural
movement is specified, namely by the term of the motion. But human action is
distinguishing because the human will independently moves itself whose object
towards the end. According to Thomas, the end is both the acts principle and its
term. As a self-mover, an agent moves himself to one end rather than another. The
agents powers are also moved by the will to the end, since the end is the acts
term.

b. Object
Object is the term most frequently used by Thomas to describe what gives
form and species to a human action. An object's place in moral specification can
best be understood by first considering its role in the related context of human
43 Ibid., p. 3

49

powers and their proper actions. Thomas sees differences in the objects of will
which allow one to discriminate further among will acts; for instance, relevant
differences in the object can determine whether actions are morally good or evil,
and whether they belong to more particular moral species, such as fraternal
correction or murder.44
c. Matter
Thomas sometimes says that matter specifies a human action and frequently
uses matter as an alternative term for object. When called upon to clarify what he
means, he says that not all matter can determine a human action's species, but only
a certain kind; he refers to it in some passages as the matter about which an
action takes place, in other passages as an action's due (debita) or undue
(indebita) matter. Unfortunately, it is not clear at first exactly what aspect of a
human action such matter refers to, or how matter which specifies is to be
distinguished from other kinds of matter identified by Aquinas.45
d. Circumstance
A circumstance is an attendant property of an action, as in murder, one
might take note of the time, the place, the type and color of the weapon. Although
Thomas in some contexts denies that any circumstance can give form and species
44 Ibid., p. 3
45 Ibid., p. 5

50

to a human action, in other contexts he asserts that at least some circumstances do.
For an example of the latter claim,Thomas points to a case where a stolen item
also happens to be consecrated to God, as when a thief makes off with achalice.
He arguesthat, although the sacredness of what has been stolen may seem like an
attendant property of the theft, it is the very factor which in this case indicates that
a sacrilege has been committed; hence, this circumstance seems tobring with it a
new species of sin.46
e. Motive
Speaking generally, a motive in Aquinas can refer to any principle of
movement, but in the context of the voluntary, one often sees motive referring to
what attract or moves a person to action, as when someone is drawn by a desirable
goal. Although he suggests that all human actions receive their species from
motives, he hardly ever mentions this principle; it is usually invoked in certain
special cases, the most noteworthy being the sin or vice of gluttony.47

C. The Faculty of Intellect as Constitutive Element of Human Act

46 Ibid., p. 6
47 Ibid.

51

The Angelic Doctor said that the intellect is the power that places the
human soul in its degree of perfection and yet properly speaking the human soul is
not an intellect. It is always eager to seek what is true. The angel, whose whole
power can be reduced to the intellectual faculty and to the will that issues from it,
is a pure intellect. That is why it is also called Intelligence. The human soul, on the
other hand, exercises vegetative and sensory functions and cannot rightfully be
given this title. We can only say that the intellect is one of the powers of the
human soul.48
The object of the intellect is universal being and truth. But universal being and
truth constitute the first formal principle it is possible to assign; and the formal
principle of an act is also that which places it in a determinate species. For
example, the act of heating is only such by reason of its formal principle, which is
heat. Now, the intellect moves the will by presenting it with its object, which is
universal being and truth. By doing so it places the act of the will in its proper
species, as opposedto the acts of the sensory or purely natural powers. So we have
here a real and effective moving of the will by the intellect. The will in its turn
moves the intellect, in the sense that it can in certain cases put it effectively into
motion. If we compare all our active powers with one another, the one that tends
toward the universal end will necessarily appear to act upon those tending toward
48 Etienne Gilson, Thomism: The Philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas,
(Ontario: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2002), 241.

52

particularends. For everything that acts, acts in view of an end, and the art that
aims at a given end directs and moves the arts that procure the means of attaining
this end. Now, the object of the will is precisely the good, that is, the end in
general. Consequently, since every power of the soul tends toward a particular
good which is its own proper good, as sight to the perception of colors and the
intellect toward the knowledge of truth, the will, whose object is the good in
general, must be able to use all the powers of the soul, and especially the intellect,
since the will encompasses the intellect.49

D. The Faculty of Freewill as Constitutive Element of Human Act

The biggest influence of Saint Thomas Aquinas in his notion of human act
is Aristotle. In order to understand his notion, the researcher tries to go back and
trace the roots of the thought. His Treatise on Mans Last End,is grounded on
Aristotles Nicomachean Ethics.
The key text for Aristotles discussion of human action consists of the first
four chapters of Book III of the Nicomachean Ethics. His focus is on choice
(prohairesis), which is the act that belongs to virtuous or vicious habits.

49Ibid.,289

53

Hedividesthe whole human act into three component acts, namely (1) will or wish
(boulesis), (2) deliberation (bouleusis), and (3) choice (prohairesis).50
The Medieval Thinkers especially St. Thomas Aquinas thought that will or
wish (boulesis/voluntas) and choice (prohairesis/electio) are acts that belong to
one faculty, namely the will (voluntas), for which there was no Greek word in
Aristotles time. This thought of Aristotle is the greatest influence in Aquinas
notion of Human Act. The Angelic Doctor, however, elaborated the thought.
According to him human actions should be classified in two categories namely; in
respect to the end and in respect to the means in achieving the end. In the earlier,
there are three kinds of human act namely; willing, enjoyment and intention. The
latter has three kinds namely; consent, choice and use. 51
One significant innovation of St. Thomas Aquinas to moral theory is his careful
scrutiny of the will and how it is being used to produce free human actions. From
the moment a person is first aware of the desirability of some goal to the moment
when he or she achieves it, Thomas recognizes six distinct stages of the will's
involvement: volition simply considered, consent, intention, choice, use, and
enjoyment.52
50 Thomas Osborne, Jr.,Human Action in Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus and William of
Ockham, (Washington D.C: The Catholic University of America Press, 2014), 110.
51Ibid.,114.
52 Joseph Pilsner, The Specification of Human Actions in Saint Thomas Aquinas, (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2006), 10.

54

The first stage is volition simply considered. This is where an agent's

natural attraction to an end prior to the ordering and volition of means to achieve
it. One must take note that in this stage, the determination to pursue the specific
end is not yet established. It is a stage prior to human action. Note well that a
determination to pursue this end has not yet been made; the man may never
proceed from attraction to action. Nevertheless, he recognizes that the proposal
possesses merit, and will is the power through which an agent is drawn to such
an intelligible good.
The second stage is consent. This is the stage wherein the will of the person
is attracted towards the means that will bring him to an end. In order for an agent
to pursue an end, he or she must find meansto achieve it. Some means which at
first seem capable of attaining an end might be found impracticable upon more
careful examination.
The third stage is intention. Aquinas says that intention is the willing of an
end as acquired by means; therefore, an end cannot be intended if a means has
been found. No agent can reasonably decide to seek an end without a practical way
to attain it; lacking at least one possible means an end can only be wished for and
not pursued. Once a possible means has first been found, intention starts.

55

The fourth stage is choice. This is the stage wherein one is preferred over
the other. Care must be taken to distinguish between consent and choice, since
both concern the means: while consent is the will's approval of each means
deemed conducive to an end, choice is the will's definitive movement to that one
(previously-consented-to) means by which the agent seeks to achieve an end in
this instance.
The fifth stage is the use. The use of something means the application of
that thing to some operation. Anything which is within a person's power and can
contribute to the execution of an action can be used.
The final stage of willing is called enjoyment. Here, the agent's will relate
to the end precisely in so far as this end is possessed; it pertains to the delight one
has in the desired goal. Enjoyment brings perfection to the will; all that preceded
is somehow directed to this moment.53
The will is always inclined to what is good. Etienne Gilson described it as a
blind mouth which always hungers for what is good. The intellect on the other
hand, is attracted towards truth and it shows to the will what is good and true.

53Ibid., 10-15.

56

E. Act of Man
Human action is constituted with Intellect and will and from here, one can draw
the two factors which may impede the action in becoming a human act namely the
impediment of knowledge and the impediments of will.
There is only one impediment of knowledge and that is ignorance. A child who
does not know the effect of pulling the trigger of the gun is not responsible for
killing his/her playmate. This also applies for all those who have mental disorders
but the degree of responsibility depends on the gravity of his/her illness. Man is
responsible according to the degree of knowledge s/he possesses.
As for the impediments of the will, passions or strong emotions such as
love, anger, hatred, anguish and fear can cause high excitement which impairs the
will. For example, a person walking on the street when suddenly someone rushes
to punch him. S/he may become so angry that s/he strikes back in retaliation. The
overwhelming emotion of anger temporarily deprived him of his free will and thus
makes his act not sinful.

57

Man is responsible for his/ her actions insofar as they are human acts;
otherwise, these actions are but acts of man. These acts may either lessen or totally
impedes the moral responsibility of an individual. 54 Consequently, we have the
other classification of actions one by person- Acts of man.

Acts of man, as opposed to human acts, are those acts that man performs without
being master of them through his intellect and will. In principle, acts of man are not the
concern of morals, since they are not voluntary. The acts of man include:
1. The natural acts of vegetative and sense faculties: digestion, heartbeat,
growth, bodily reactions, and visual or auditive perceptions. However, these
acts become human acts when performed under the direction of the will, as
when we look at something, or arouse ourselves.
2. Acts of persons who lack the use of reason. Such is the case with children or
3.

person with mental problems.

Acts of people who are asleep or under the influence of hypnosis, alcohol, or
other drugs. In this case, however, there may still be some degree of control
by the will. Also, there is indirect responsibility if the cause of the loss of
control is voluntary.

54 Xavier Colavecho, OP, Impediments of Human Action, Catholic

Encyclopedia for School and Home, (New York: St. Joseph Seminary and
College, 1965)

58

4.

Quick, nearly automatic reactions, called primo-primi acts. These are reflex
and nearly instantaneous reactions, such as withdrawing ones hand after
suffering an electric shock, in which the will does not have time to intervene.

5. Acts performed under violence or threat of violence. This includes

physical orin some casesmoral violence.55
The Angelic Doctor made a distinction between human act and act of man.
Before making a conclusion regarding the human act, he wrote this as one of the
arguments on human act and puts a response on it:
Objection 3: Further, then does a man seem to act for an end, when he acts
deliberately. But man does many things without deliberation, sometimes not even
thinking of what he is doing; for instance when one moves one's foot or hand, or
scratches one's beard, while intent on somethingelse. Therefore man does not do
everything for an end.
Reply to Objection 3: Such like actions are not properly human actions; since
they do not proceed from deliberation of the reason, which is the proper principle
of human actions. Therefore they have indeed an imaginary end, but not one that
is fixed by reason.

Karol Josef Wojtyla, a Thomist philosopher who later became the beloved
Saint John Paul II wrote extensively regarding morality, human dignity and
freedom and morality. Before proceeding any further, morality and ethics must be
properly defined. Morality applies only to human acts, that is, actions which

55http://fsubelmonte.weebly.com/3-human-acts-and-freedom.html Accessed last January 24,

2016

59

proceed from mans rationality; these are actions which are done with knowledge,
freedom and voluntariness. He said in one of his journals:
Actions which do not have a rational character can be considered non-moral;
they cannot be judged as morally good or morally evil. If human actions are to be
judged whether morally good or morally evil, then there must be something by
which actions could be measured as good or evil; this is what we refer to as the
norm or standard of morality. The standard or norm does not only judge the
morality of the action, it likewise gives the reasons why a particular action is
morally good or morally evil.56

Upon assessing this, one can say that a human act is a product of a complex
processes done by will and intellect. Some acts such as crying, mannerisms and
routine acts are considered as acts of man since these actions are not undergoing
these processes of deliberation. When someone for instance, pick up the telephone,
it is not necessary that one should ask whether how, or what should he do. It is
automatic that after picking the phone, he says, Hello. Another example, during
the Mass, when the priest would say to the regular Congregation, The Lord be
with you. For a person who is a regular churchgoer, it is not necessary to undergo
process of deliberation of reason and volition before responding. Automatically, he
or she will respond And with your Spirit.
There are also acts which are product of intense emotion and pain and
therefore can be considered still as acts of man. Actions such as crying, outburst
56://www.kritike.org/journal/issue_12/aguas_june2013.pdf Retrieved last November 2,2015

60

due to extreme anger and loud cries caused by sudden death of a close friend or
relative are examples of these. A person who is experiencing a great emotional
turmoil and pain can no longer use his will and reason efficiently.
Depression can be a good example for this. As depression deepens and
takes over the body and mind, the pain of depression often becomes
overwhelming. The chemical imbalance and deep despair can lead the brain to try
and find ways to end the pain. This is when suicidal thinking begins. Depressive
illnesses can distort thinking such that a person cant think clearly or rationally.
The illness can cause thoughts of hopelessness and helplessness, which may lead
to suicidal thoughts.57
A human action is constituted by intellect and will. The will follows the
intellect. Only the intellect can act on the will directly. The will is a blind mouth
that hungers for goodness, but must rely on the intellect to make judgments about
what is good. When the intellect presents the will with something as good, the will
chooses it. In such a way, the intellect moves the will as its final cause. 58

57 http://www.save.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.viewpage&page_id=705c8cb8-9321-f1bd867e811b1b404c94 accesed last January 24, 2016

58Scott MacDonald, Aquinass Libertarian Account of Free Choice, Revue Internationale de Philosophie
no.52 (June 1998), 312.

61

After understanding these points regarding Aquinas Human acts, for the
next chapter, the researcher will now use this as lens for ethical inquiry regarding
the moral accountability of the person who committed suicide.

CHAPTER IV
AN ETHICAL INQUIRY ON SUICIDE
"I dont share the opinion that suicides are certainly to be damned.
My reason is that they do not wish to kill themselves
but are overcome by the power of the devil59"
-Martin Luther

The previous chapter opens with the attraction of the Many (The
Universe) including the will of the person towards goodness. But despite this, one
may wonder how a person is attracted to commit suicide. At firstglance, this is
very unnatural. But on a closer look, one can also say that those who commit
suicide due to intense pain and suffering are still acting naturally since they are
59Martin Luther, Table Talk #222,Luthers Works, Vol. 54, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press,
1967), 29.

62

searching for what is good. The only problem is that because of being overcome
by despair, the person can no longer see any good. The impaired reason can no
longer find anything good. Out of desperation, he decides to cease living. This
chapter aims to show the different perspectives on the question whether a person
who commits suicide is morally accountable for what he does in the perspective of
Aquinas Human act.

A. Saint Thomas Aquinas Argument against Suicide

The writer wants to clarify that he is not claiming that St. Thomas Aquinas
agrees on suicide. Actually, the Angelic Doctor is strongly against suicide. St.
Thomas Aquinas formulated an authoritative church position on suicide in his
Summa Theologiae.
1. Arguments on Suicide and Response
In his discourse on whether suicide is right or not, Aquinas presented five
arguments in favor of suicide.
The first argument goes like this; Murder is sin because it is an act of
injustice. According to Aristotle one cannot do injustice towards himself.
Therefore killing oneself is not an act of injustice and therefore is not a sin.

63

Aquinas responds to this argument by saying that murder is a sin, not only because
it is contrary to justice, but also becauseit is opposed to charity which a man
should have towards himself: in this respect suicide is a sin in relation to oneself.
In relation to the community and to God, it is sinful, by reason also of its
opposition to justice.60
The second argument in favor of suicide says that it is lawful for one who
exercises authority to kill. Some authorities are evil doer. Consequently, they may
lawfully kill themselves. Aquinas answered this argument by saying that though
awicked ruler can pass judgment on others a person cannot judge himself.
Therefore a person in authority is unlawful if he puts himself to death.
The third argument supporting suicide says that it is lawful to suffer lesser
danger to avoid the greater. For example if an infected or decayed limb causes one
to suffer greatly, he may lawfully cut it off. Whereas if suicide would prevent him
to have greater evil such as shame or unhappy life, one may say that this act can be
lawful. Aquinas made a response to this by saying that though man has a free-will;
the passage from life to death is beyond his control for it belongs to God.
Therefore it is unlawful for a person to take his own life. Aquinas said that
according to the Philosopher (the title given by Aquinas to Aristotle), death
isgreater evil than life and therefore preference of death over life is unlawful. In
60St.Thomas Aquinas. ,Summa Theologica(Ohio:Benziger Bros, 1947) p. 2109

64

the case of a woman committing suicide rather than being violated or raped, this is
still unlawful. If she is violated without her consent, she is still pure. Without
consent in the mind, there is no stain in the body.
The fourth argument supporting suicide is the use of the Biblical story of
Samson, who despite of the fact of committing suicide, is still venerated as one of
the saints. Aquinas replied to this argument by saying that not even Samson is
excused from his liability in crushing himselfin order to kill the Philistines.
However, he can be excused if he is commanded by the Holy Spirit. This principle
is also applicable for the case of the martyrs of the Church.
The final argument that Aquinas presented in favor of suicide is the Biblical
story of Razias who as mentioned at the Second Book of Maccabees took his own
life choosing to die nobly rather than to fall into the hands of the wicked, and to
suffer abuses unbecoming his noble birth." Now nothing that is done nobly and
bravely is unlawful. Therefore suicide is not unlawful. Aquinas offered an answer
which he quoted from Aristotle that avoiding penal evil and choosing death is a
sign of the weakness of the soul.61
All of these objection-responses logically lead the readers to the Angelic
Doctors conclusion that suicide is morally unacceptable except if the actor is
moved by the Spirit to commit suicide.
61Ibid.

65

2. Aquinas Main Argument against Suicide

St. Thomas Aquinas gave three reasons why suicide is unlawful: First, it is
contrary to natures inclination to love ones self. Second, it injures the community
and thirdly, it is a sin against God.

a. Suicide is Contrary to Natural Law and Charity

Aquinas said that everything naturally loves itself, and because of this
everything naturally keeps itself in survival, and resists death as far as it can.
Therefore, suicide is contrary to the inclination of nature, and to charity because it
is natural for every man to love himself. Because of this, suicide is always a
mortal sin, and contrary to the natural law and to charity.
b. Suicide Injures the Community
The Angelic Doctor, adapting the thought of Aristotle, said that every part
belongs to a whole the same as every man belongs to a community. By committing
suicide, he is also robbing civic and social contributions; therefore, it has social
effects- particularly injures the community.
c. Suicide is a Sin against God

66

Aquinas said that life is God's gift to man, and he only has the power to
take and give life. Therefore whoever takes his own life, sins against God, like he
who kills anothers slave, sins against that slave's master, and as he who gives to
himself the right to judgment of a matter not entrusted to him. God alone has the
right to pronounce sentence of death and life, since according to Dt. 32:39, "I will
kill and I will make to live."62
The manner in which Aquinas presented suicide is remarkable. His
common method starts with the objections to his claim, then what he says and
finally his reply to those objections in support ofwhat he says.
The writer really admires the Angelic Doctor but he thinks that there is still
lacking in his treatise on suicide. What if the persons will and intellect are
impaired due to pain, anguish or despair and because of the impairment of this
ability, committed suicide? Is he morally responsible for his action? The writers
question is not really whether suicide is morally acceptable or not, rather, he
questions the moral accountability of the one who committed suicide.

62Ibid, 2109.

67

B. The Main Argument of this Paper

In this chapter, the writer tries to assert that in some cases, suicide should be
treated not with prejudice but understanding. In one of the scenes in the movie
Luther, Father Martin Luther, who was still at that time an Augustinian monk,
said, while he himself is burying a young boy who committed suicide:
Some people say that according to Gods justice,this boy is damned because he
took his life.I say he was overcome by the devil.Is this child anymore to blame for
the despair that overtook him?He is an innocent man who is killed by a robber in
the woods.God must be mercy.

Upon reading this quote, one should understand that in medieval period,
there is neither science nor technical psychology, the reason why physiological
and behavioral problems are attributed to the devil. In this statement, the writer
wants to emphasize that though Luther has a very limited scientific explanation, he
recognized the fact that the boy who committed suicide is not morally responsible

68

for his action since he committed the act after being overcome by despair. The
writer thinks that this explanation of Luther supports his argument.
In order to support this claim, the researcher formulated this argument:

P1: According to Aquinas notion of human acts, a person is morally

accountable for his actions if they are performed
usingintellect and will.
P2: If suicide is done with intellect and will, the actor is held
Morally responsible for his or her actions.
P3: If suicide is done out of despair or suffering, then it lacks
the faculty of reason and will.
P4: If a person who commits suicide is in despairor is suffering,
Then his faculty of intellect and will is impaired.
C: Therefore, some of those who committed suicide are not morally

69

responsible for their actions since moral accountability is

applicable only on human actions that are performed with
intellect and will.
The first two premises are in favor of Aquinas judgment on suicide which
the writer believes to be valid and true. If suicide is a human act-which means that
he or she premeditated the act with effective deliberation of intellect and will
without impairment of these faculties due to pain, depression or suffering, then,
the actor is held morally responsible for his or her action. There is no problem
with that. In this case the point of Aquinas is applicable and his judgments mustbe
held to be true.
On the other hand, the writer questions whether this is always the case. Is it
at all times applicable? Recent studies on suicide which are found on Chapter II
reveal that suicide cases are done impulsively due to emotional, relational,
physiological, financial and psychological problems which may cause a person to
be depressed and desperate. If the action is done impulsively, then the act of
suicide is done with lack of the faculty of intellect and will. This implies that these
kinds of suicide are not human acts but acts of man. It is only by committing
human acts that a person is to be held morally responsible for his or her actions.

70

The writer tries to present his argument not just for the sake of questioning
whether Aquinas notion on suicide is applicable at all times nor just to present a
new perspective on viewing suicide, rather, he calls for a public awareness and
change of attitude towards suicide. The advancements of science show us that
suicide must not be solely viewed as a mortal sin or sign of abnormality, rather,
this is a both a philosophical, medical and societal problem that needs to be
addressed and solved. The writer believes that the first step of solving this problem
is the change of attitude towards suicide. The reason why some people commit
suicide is that they cant express the terrible feeling inside them because of the
fear of being stigmatized and ostracized by the society.
According to the 2014 journal of World Health Organization entitled,
Preventing Suicide: A Global Imperative, one of the myths that people usually
believe is that talking about suicide is a bad idea and it can be interpreted as an
encouragement. But what is factual is that given the widespread stigma around
suicide, most people who are contemplating suicide do not know who to speak to.
Rather than encouraging suicidal behavior, talking openly can give an individual
other options or the time to rethink his/her decision, thereby preventing suicide.63
If the public will have a change of attitude towards suicide, though this is
not really the solution to the problem, but, this is the first step towards it, since one
63 Margaret Chan, Preventing Suicide: A Global Imperative, (Geneva: World Health
Organization Publication. 2014), 66.

71

of the reasons why those who are thinking about suicide cannot open-up is the fear
of being ostracized. This same attitude towards suicide is the reason why only few
are willing to help people who are in crisis 64. They fear or feel morbid talking
about it which goes to prove that indeed, the mentality of most of the people is still
similar to the traditional way of understanding suicide. If a person thinking of
suicide does not have the fear of being ostracized and the public is more openminded towards subject matter, chances are, the person contemplating about
harming himself will have more time thinking about it an considering other
options. The feeling that someone cares or ready to listen to their problems is
already a great help. The stigma and taboo surrounding suicide maybe can be
helpful since in one way, especially in a religious perspective, it can be a good
prevention since the dreads of hell is enough to prevent some but this is not
enough nowadays. On the other hand, this same stigma prevents a person seeking
for help, the WHO says that not all suicidal behaviors are caused by mental
disorder, rather, unhappiness. A lot of person with mental disorder have no suicidal
behaviors and a lot of suicide victims have no mental disorder.
Upon showing all these facts, the writer can say that the first step to solve
this problem is to change ones attitude towards suicide; one must not always
consider them morally responsible and stigmatized them as crazy or damned souls

64Ibid.

72

burning in hell. Luther is right in saying that they are victims killed by the robber
in the woods. Those who contemplate, attempted suicide and their bereaved family
need a community who is ready to listen, accept, and show friendship and
compassion to them. This may not be a concrete solution but it gives the person a
sense of warmth and security that may somehow, ease the pain he or she is
experiencing right now. Marcia Naomi Berger MSW, LCSW, a well-known
psychotherapist and counselor at Marin Suicide Prevention wrote in her blog that:
a smile would have most definitely helped in my case. If the smile is
genuine and caring, and it looks like the person is approachable, that person
could have such an impact on a suicidal person at the moment of desperation.
They could well save a life.65
Using the Human Act of St. Thomas Aquinas, the writer proved that not all
the case, a person who commits suicide is morally accountable for his actions
since he or she did the act out of pain, despair or suffering. Pain, despair and
suffering impair the capacity of intellect and will. Because of this, their action is
not considered as human act and thus their action is non-moral. If a person did or
attempted to do the act with full deliberation of intellect and will, then Aquinas is
right in saying that they are morally responsible with his or her action. Being
aware that not all those who attempted or committed suicide did not really
65http://marcianaomiberger.com/mental-health/preventing-suicide/ accessed last November 4,
2015

73

intentionally harmed themselves, the first step of solving the problem is to avoid
stigmatization on them and see them not as unrepentant sinners but a person who
needs support friendship, affection and understanding.

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Did you really want to die?"
"No one commits suicide because they want to die."
"Then why do they do it?"
"because they want to stop the pain.
Tiffanie DeBartolo,

A. Summary of the Paper

The act of self-harm, also known as suicide is always present in the history
of human race. From the earliest writings in the ancient period, the Bible until in
the most recent news, we can hear stories of suicide. According to the World
Health Organization, a person dies of suicide every 40 seconds somewhere in the
world and there are more cases of attempted suicide.
Albert Camus mentioned that suicide is a philosophical problem. This made
the subject matter really controversial that philosophers throughout history have

74

something to say on suicide. The Ancient Greek and Hellenistic Philosophers are
divided, the Stoics, Epicureans and Seneca supported suicide while Pythagoras,
Aristotle and Plato considered suicide morally unacceptable. The majority of the
medieval philosophers since this period of thought is theocentric disagree on
suicide since this is an act against the law of God. Suicide can be acceptable if it is
martyrdom as Eusebius said. It is also in this period wherein suicide is totally
unacceptable in the society that even the remains of the person who committed
suicide is desecrated and punished. The Modern Philosophy is ambivalent since it
is the period the recovery of the classics, the reason why this period shares the
same view with the ancient. The Contemporary period had been more lenient on
suicide.The Contemporary Philosophers is more lenient and open to suicide since
the old religious and social groupings that had objected suicide gradually loses
their power. But this does not mean that they totally accepted suicide since the
philosophy of pessimism is prevalent in this period.
The second chapter of this paper also mentioned that not all suicide is
intentional since there are cases wherein the act is done due to depression, pain,
despair, and unhappiness. Extreme cases of these are unbearable for some, the
reason why they think of nothing but to escape this predicament by cessation of
their existence. The World Health Organization said that most cases of suicide are
done impulsively. This goes to prove that suicide is at all times fully intended.

75

In the next chapter, the discussion was about the Human Action of Saint
Thomas Aquinas, a great Dominican theologian which is considered as the Angelic
Doctor and Prince of Scholasticism. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, an action is
considered human if it is done with the deliberation of intellect and will. The will
is a blind mouth that hungers for goodness, but must relyon the intellect to make
judgments about what is good. When the intellect presents thewill with something
as good, the will chooses it.
These are the only actions which we can subject to moral inquiry otherwise
the action is only an act of man. Acts of man cannot be subjected to ethical inquiry
since these actions are not done by the deliberation of intellect and will.
Using Aquinas notion of human act, the writer questioned whether a
person who committed suicide is morally responsible for his actions. This chapter
tried to defend the claim by saying that not all who committed suicide are morally
responsible for their actions since some acts of suicide can be considered as acts of
man and therefore can be considered as non-moral. Some people who attempted or
committed suicide are not deserving of being ostracized or stigmatized by the
society, rather what they need is professional help and awareness about their
plight. The first step of solving the problem of suicide is the change of attitude.

B. Findings

76

On this part, the writer will now try to answer the three questions which are the
main points of inquiry of this paper.

1. What is suicide?
Suicide is an intended act of self-harm which had been prevalent
throughout the history of human race in all parts of the world. The history of
Philosophy tells us that the act of killing ones self had always been a topic to
debate on. The turn of the times defined the view on suicide; the ambivalent view
on suicide due to different schools of thought in ancient period, the absolute
condemnation on the theocentric medieval period, and the more liberal,
anthropocentric discussions of suicide during the modern and contemporary
philosophy. Some commit this for honor while some are done due to duty altruism,
political, hopelessness, and the most common is despair and depression.

2. What is Aquinas Notion of Human Act?

The Human Action according to Saint Thomas Aquinas is an act that a
moral agent performs using his/her intellect and will. The will is a blind mouth

77

that hungers for goodness, but must rely on the intellect to make judgments about
what is good. When the intellect presents thewill with something as good, the will
chooses it. When the intellect and/or will is impeded due to either/both ignorance
and/or passion, then, it will be considered as acts of man.
Between act of man and human act, it is only human act which can be
judged as moral or immoral. Acts of man are non-moral.

3. Using the perspective of Aquinas, Human Acts, should one consider all those
who commit suicide as fully and morally accountable in their action?
According to Aquinas notion of human acts, a person is morally
accountable for his actions if theyare performed withintellect and will.If suicide is
done with intellect and will, the actor is held morally responsible for his or her
actions. If suicide is done out of pain, despair or suffering, then it lacks the faculty
of reason and will. If a person who commits suicide is in suffering and pain, his
faculty of intellect and will is impaired. Therefore, some of those who committed
suicide are not morally responsible for their actions since moral accountability is
applicable only on human actions, which is a product of intellect and volition.

C. Recommendations

78

Based on the findings mentioned above the writer would like to recommend
the following:
1. Suicide should not be always seen in the lens of morbidity and prejudice which
is similar to the medieval view. Suicide is notalways a human act since some
arenot done out of proper deliberation of intellect and will, because some are
caused by mental diseases, extreme suffering or depression. The writer would also
recommend that some of those who committed suicide should be considered as
victims and not as unrepentant sinners. The change of view on suicide and the
suicide victims is definitely not the solution to this problem but it is the first step.
Emillie Autumn said;
Nothing in my life has ever made me want to commit suicide more than peoples
reaction to my trying to commit suicide.

2. One should not believe that talking about suicide is an encouragement

and thus one must avoid it.Given the widespread stigma around suicide, most
people who arecontemplating suicide do not know who to speak to. Rather than
encouraging suicidal behavior, talking openly can give an individual other options
or the time to rethink his/her decision, thereby preventing suicide.
3. Health-care services need to include suicide prevention as a core
component since it is the problem which is least addressed. Mental disorders and
harmful use of alcohol contribute to manysuicides around the world. Early

79

identification and effective management are keys to ensuring that people receive
the care they need. Improving the quality of care for people and seeking help
canensure that early interventions are effective. Improved qualityof care is the key
to reducing suicides that arise as a result of mental and alcohol use disorders and
other risk factors.
4. Communities play a critical role in suicide prevention.They can provide
social support to vulnerable individuals and engage in follow-up care, fight stigma
and support those bereaved by suicide. In all countries, particularly those with
limited resources, theimportance of communities and their support programs
insuicide prevention cannot be overstated. Effective social support within
communities and individual resilience can help protect vulnerable persons from
suicide by building and improving social connectedness and skills to cope with
difficulties. Specifically, the community can provide help incrisis situations, keep
in regular contact with people who have attempted suicide, and support persons
bereaved by suicide.

D. Implications to the Catholic Church

Regarding suicide, this is what the Catechism of the Catholic Church
teaches:
Everyone is responsible for his life before God who has given it
to himWe are stewards, not owners, of the life God has entrusted to us.
It is not oursto dispose of. Suicide contradicts the natural inclination of

80

the human being to preserve and perpetuate his life.It is gravely contrary
to the just love of self. It likewise offends love of neighbor because it
unjustlybreaks the ties of solidarity with family, nation, and other human
societies to which we continue to have obligations. Suicide is contrary to
love for the living God. Grave psychological disturbances, anguish, or
grave fear of hardship, suffering, or torture can diminishthe responsibility
of the one committing suicide.We should not despair of the eternal
salvation of persons who have taken their own lives. By ways known to
Him alone, God can provide the opportunity for salutary repentance. The
Church praysfor persons who have taken their own lives.
-Catechism of the Catholic Church2280-2283

On the contrary to the common belief that the Church strongly condemns
all those who commit suicide to hell, She recognizes that though taking ones life
is a grave sin against God, self and community, some suicide cases which are done
out of grave psychological disturbances, anguish, or grave fear of hardship,
suffering, or torture can diminish the responsibility of the one committing suicide
and even emphasizes that the living should hope that Eternal Salvation is possible
for them since God can provide salutary repentance for them. In other words, the
Church teaches us that one should not condemn these victims and like Her, one
should pray for them. These people should not be viewed as people condemned to
the fires of hell, rather, these are our brothers and sisters who needs our help and
understanding. Those who attempted to commit suicide and the bereaved family
needs care from the community and this care will only spring from the awareness
and better understanding on how suicide should be evaluated.

81

E. Areas for Further Research

The researcher has just presented one perspective of inquiry on suicide
which is ethical. For those who want to investigate more on suicide, he
recommends to explore the notion of suicide in other philosophical perspectives
such as epistemological, phenomenological and metaphysical inquiry on suicide.
One may also explore suicide in a non-theistic perspective since this paper
already presented a theistic perspective; especially this is in line with a Catholic
saint and thinker- St. Thomas Aquinas.
Another suggestion is that one may also investigate on the impact of suicide
from the perspective of the ones who are left behind by the person who killed
himself. What can be the effects of suicide in the society?
These are but few of the topics that one can research on suicide. As it was
mentioned on the first chapter, there is much more to understand in the act of
suicide and this paper is just a very small part of it.

82

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