Inventors and Inventions of Scientific Instruments - EnchantedLearning

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InventorsandInventions:
ScientificInstrumentsandIndustrialMachines
ANEMOMETER
Theanemometerisadevicethatmeasuresthespeedofthewind(orotherairflow,likeinawind
tunnel).Thefirstanemometer,adiscplacedperpendiculartothewind,wasinventedin1450bythe
ItalianarchitectLeonBattistaAlberti.RobertHooke,anEnglishphysicist,laterreinventedthe
anemometer.In1846,JohnThomasRomneyRobinson,anIrishphysicist,inventedthespinningcup
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/inventors/science.shtml
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anemometer.Inthisdevice,cupsareattachedtoaverticalshaft;whenthecupsspininthewind,it
causesageartoturn.
ARCHIMEDES
Archimedes(287212BC)wasaprolificancientGreekmathematician.Archimedesinventedthewater
screw,adeviceforraisingwaterusinganencasedscrewopenatbothends.Thescrewissetananangle,
andasthescrewturns,waterfillstheairpocketsandistransportedupwards.TheArchimedesscrewis
stillinusetoday.Amonghismanyaccomplishmentswasthefirstdescriptionofthelever(around260
BC).Leversareoneofthebasictools;theywereprobablyusedinprehistorictimes.Manyofourbasic
toolsuselevers,includingscissors(twoclass1levers),pliers(twoclass1levers),hammerclaws(one
class1lever),nutcrackers(twoclass2levers),andtongs(twoclass3levers).
AClass1Lever.
AClass2Lever.
AClass3Lever.
ASSEMBLYLINE
Primitiveassemblylineproductionwasfirstusedin1901byRansomeEliOlds
(18641950),anearlycarmaker(hemanufacturedtheOldsmobile,thefirst
commerciallysuccessfulAmericancar).HenryFord(18631947)usedthefirst
conveyorbeltbasedassemblylineinhiscarfactoryin191314inFord'sHighlandPark,Michiganplant.
Thistypeofproductiongreatlyreducedtheamountoftimetakentoputeachcartogether(93minutes
foraModelT)fromitsparts,reducingproductioncosts.Assemblylinesarenowusedinmost
manufacturingprocesses.
BAEKELAND,L.H.
LeoHendrikBaekeland(November14,1863February23,1944)wasaBelgianborn
AmericanchemistwhoinventedVeloxphotographicpaper(1893)andBakelite(1907),an
inexpensive,nonflammable,versatile,andverypopularplastic.
FormoreinformationonBaekeland,clickhere.
BAKELITE
Bakelite(alsocalledcatalin)isaplastic,adensesyntheticpolymer(aphenolicresin)
thatwasusedtomakejewelry,gamepieces,engineparts,radioboxes,switches,and
many,manyotherobjects.Bakelitewasthefirstindustrialthermosetplastic(a
materialthatdoesnotchangeitsshapeafterbeingmixedandheated).Bakeliteplasticismadefrom
carbolicacid(phenol)andformaldehyde,whicharemixed,heated,andtheneithermoldedorextruded
intothedesiredshape.
Bakelitewaspatentedin1907bytheBelgianbornAmericanchemistLeoHendrikBaekeland
(November14,1863February23,1944).TheNobelPrizewinningGermanchemistAdolfvonBaeyer
hadexperimentedwiththismaterialin1872,butdidnotcompleteitsdevelopmentorseeitspotential.
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BaekelandoperatedtheGeneralBakeliteCompanyfrom1911to1939(inPerthAmboy,N.J.,USA),and
produceduptoabout200,000tonsofBakeliteannually.Bakelitereplacedtheveryflammablecelluloid
plasticthathadbeensopopular.Thebraceletaboveismadeof"butterscotch"bakelite.
BAROMETER
Abarometerisadevicethatmeasuresair(barometric)pressure.Itmeasurestheweightofthecolumn
ofairthatextendsfromtheinstrumenttothetopoftheatmosphere.Therearetwotypesofbarometers
commonlyusedtoday,mercuryandaneroid(meaning"fluidless").Earlierwaterbarometers(also
knownas"stormglasses")datefromthe17thcentury.Themercurybarometerwasinventedbythe
ItalianphysicistEvangelistaTorricelli(16081647),apupilofGalileo,in1643.Torricelliinverteda
glasstubefilledwithmercuryintoanothercontainerofmercury;themercuryinthetube"weighs"the
airintheatmosphereabovethetube.Theaneroidbarometer(usingaspringbalanceinsteadofa
liquid)wasinventedbytheFrenchscientistLucienVidiein1843.
BATTERY
Abatteryisadevicethatconvertschemicalenergyintoelectricalenergy.Eachbatteryhastwo
electrodes,ananode(thepositiveend)andacathode(thenegativeend).Anelectricalcircuitruns
betweenthesetwoelectrodes,goingthroughachemicalcalledanelectrolyte(whichcanbeeitherliquid
orsolid).Thisunitconsistingoftwoelectrodesiscalledacell(oftencalledavoltaiccellorpile).
Batteriesareusedtopowermanydevicesandmakethesparkthatstartsagasolineengine.
AlessandroVoltawasanItalianphysicistinventedthefirstchemicalbatteryin1800.
Storagebatteriesareleadbasedbatteriesthatcanberecharged.In1859,theFrenchphysicistGaston
Plante(18341889)inventedabatterymadefromtwoleadplatesjoinedbyawireandimmersedina
sulfuricacidelectrolyte;thiswasthefirststoragebattery.
Thedrycellisaanimprovedvoltaiccellwithacylindricalzincshell(thezincactsasboththecathode
andthecontainer)thatislinedwithanammoniumchloride(theelectrolyte)saturatedmaterial(and
notaliquid).Thedrycellbatterywasdevelopedinthe1870s1870sbyGeorgesLeclancheofFrance,
whousedanelectrolyteintheformofapaste.
Edisonbatteries(alsocalledalkalinebatteries)areanimprovedtypeofstoragebatterydevelopedby
ThomasEdison.Thesebatterieshaveanalkalineelectrolyte,andnotanacid.
Formoreinformationonthebattery,clickhere.
BUNSENBURNER
ThelaboratoryBunsenburnerwasinventedbyRobertWilhelm
Bunsenin1855.Bunsen(18111899)wasaGermanchemistand
teacher.HeinventedtheBunsenburnerforhisresearchinisolating
chemicalsubstancesithasahighintensity,nonluminousflamethat
doesnotinterferewiththecoloredflameemittedbychemicalsbeing
tested.
FormoreinformationonBunsen,clickhere.
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CASSEGRAINTELESCOPE
ACassegraintelescopeisawideanglereflecting
telescopewithaconcavemirrorthatreceiveslightand
focusesanimage.Asecondmirrorreflectsthelight
throughagapintheprimarymirror,allowingthe
eyepieceorcameratobemountedatthebackendof
thetube.TheCassegrainreflectingtelescopewas
developedin1672bytheFrenchsculptorSieur
GuillaumeCassegrain.Acorrectingplate(alens)wasaddedin1930bytheEstonianastronomerand
lensmakerBernardSchmidt(18791935),creatingtheSchmidtCassegraintelescopewhichminimized
thesphericalaberrationoftheCassegraintelescope.
CELLOPHANE
Cellophaneisathin,transparent,waterproof,protectivefilmthatisusedinmanytypesofpackaging.It
wasinventedin1908byJacquesEdwinBrandenberger,aSwisschemist.Hehadoriginallyintended
cellophanetobebondedontofabrictomakeawaterprooftextile,butthenewclothwasbrittleandnot
useful.Cellophaneprovedveryusefulallaloneasapackagingmaterial.ChemistsattheDupontcompany
(wholaterboughttherightstocellophane)madecellophanewaterproofin1927.
CELSIUS,ANDERS
AndersCelsius(17011744)wasaSwedishprofessorofastronomywhodevisedthe
Celsiusthermometer.HealsoventuredtothefarnorthofSwedenwithanexpeditionin
ordertomeasurethelengthofadegreealongameridian,closetothepole,later
comparingitwithsimilarmeasurementsmadeintheSouthernHemisphere.Thisconfirmed
thatthattheshapeoftheearthisanellipsoidwhichisflattenedatthepoles.Healsocataloged300stars.
WithhisassistantOlofHiorter,Celsiusdiscoveredthemagneticbasisforauroras.
COMPOUNDMICROSCOPE
ZachariasJanssenwasaDutchlensmakerwhoinventedthefirstcompoundmicroscopein1595(a
compoundmicroscopeisonewhichhasmorethanonelens).Hismicroscopeconsistedoftwotudes
thatslidwithinoneanother,andhadalensateachend.Themicroscopewasfocusedbyslidingthe
tubes.Thelensintheeyepiecewasbiconvex(bulgingoutwardsonbothsides),andthelensofthefar
end(theobjectivelens)wasplanoconvex(flatononesideandbulgingoutwardsontheotherside).
Thisadvancedmicroscopehada3to9timespowerofmagnification.ZachariasJanssen'sfatherHans
mayhavehelpedhimbuildthemicroscope.
DAVINCI,LEONARDO
LeonardodaVinci(14521519)wasanItalianinventor,artist,architect,and
scientist.DaVincihadaninterestinengineeringandmadedetailedsketchesofthe
airplane,thehelicopter(andotherflyingmachines),theparachute,thesubmarine,
thearmoredcar,theballista(agiantcrossbow),rapidfireguns,thecentrifugalpump
(designedtodrainwetareas,likemarshes),ballbearings,thewormgear(asetof
gearsinwhichmanyteethmakecontactatonce,reducingthestrainontheteeth,
allowingmorepressuretobeputonthemechanism),andmanyotherincredible
ideasthatwerecenturiesaheadofdaVinci'stime.
ForsomedaVinciartcoloringpages,clickhere
FormoreinformationondaVinci,clickhere.
DAVY,HUMPHRY
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SirHumphryDavy(17781829)wasanEnglishscientistwhoinventedthefirstelectriclightin
1800.Heexperimentedwithelectricityandinventedanelectricbattery.Whenheconnectedwires
fromhisbatterytotwopiecesofcarbon,electricityarcedbetweenthecarbonpieces,producingan
intense,hot,andshortlivedlight.Thisiscalledanelectricarc.Davyalsoinventedaminer'ssafety
helmetandaprocesstodesalinateseawater.Davydiscoveredtheelementsboron,sodium,aluminum
(whosenamehelaterchangedtoaluminium),andpotassium.
EDISON,THOMASALVA
ThomasAlvaEdison(18471931)wasanAmericaninventor(alsoknownasthe
WizardofMenloPark)whosemanyinventionsrevolutionizedtheworld.His
workincludesimprovingtheincandescentelectriclightbulbandinventingthe
phonograph,thephonographrecord,thecarbontelephonetransmitter,andthe
motionpictureprojector.
Edison'sfirstjobwasasatelegraphoperator,andinthecourseofhisduties,he
redesignedthestocktickermachine.TheEdisonUniversalStockPrintergavehimthe
capital($40,000)tosetupalaboratoryinMenloPark,NewJersey,toinventfulltime(withmany
employees).
Edisonexperimentedwiththousandsofdifferentlightbulbfilamentstofindjusttherightmaterialsto
glowwell,belonglasting,andbeinexpensive.In1879,Edisondiscoveredthatacarbonfilamentinan
oxygenfreebulbglowedbutdidnotburnupforquiteawhile.Thisincandescentbulbrevolutionizedthe
world.
FormoreinformationonEdison,clickhere.
ELION,GERTRUDE
GertrudeBelleElion(January23,1918February21,1999)wasaNobelPrizewinningbiochemistwho
inventedmanylifesavingdrugs,including6mercaptopurine(Purinethol)and6thioguanine(which
fightleukemia),Imuran,Zovirax,andmanyothers.ElionworkedatBurroughsWellcome(nowcalled
GlaxoWellcome)fordecades(beginningin1944)withGeorgeHitchingsandSirJamesBlack,with
whomshesharedtheNobelPrize.Sheisnamedon45patentsfordrugsandherworkhassavedthelives
ofthousandsofpeople.
ENIAC
ENIACstandsfor"ElectronicNumericalIntegratorandComputer."Itwasoneofthefirstallpurpose,all
electronicdigitalcomputers.ThisroomsizedcomputerwasbuiltbythephysicistJohnWilliamMauchly
(Aug.30,1907Jan.8,1980)andtheelectricalengineerJohnPresperEckert,Jr.(April9,1919June3,
1995)attheUniversityofPennsylvania.TheycompletedthemachineinNovember,1945.
FormoreinformationonENIAC,clickhere.
FARNSWORTH,PHILOT.
PhiloTaylorFarnsworth(19061971)wasanAmericaninventor.Farnsworthinvented
manymajormajorcomponentsofthetelevision,includingpower,focusingsystems,
synchronizingthesignal,contrast,controls,andscanning.Healsoinventedtheradar
systems,coldcathoderaytube,thefirstbabyincubatorandthefirstelectronic
microscope.Farnsworthheldover300patents.
FOUCAULT,JEAN
JeanBernardLonFoucault(18191868)wasaFrenchphysicistwhoinventedthegyroscope
(1852)andtheFoucaultpendulum(1851).Agyroscopeisessentiallyaspinningwheelsetina
movableframe.Whenthewheelspins,itretainsitsspatialorientation,anditresistsexternal
forcesappliedtoit.Gyroscopesareusedinnavigationinstruments(forships,planes,and
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rockets).Foucaultwasthefirstpersontodemonstratehowapendulumcouldtracktherotationofthe
Earth(theFoucaultpendulum)in1851.Healsoshowedthatlighttravelsmoreslowlyinwaterthanin
air(1850)andimprovedthemirrorsofreflectingtelescopes(1858).
FRANKLIN,BENJAMIN
BenjaminFranklin(January17,1706April17,1790)wasanAmerican
statesman,writer,printer,andinventor.Franklinexperimentedextensivelywith
electricity.In1752,hisexperimentswithakiteinathunderstorm(neverdothis,many
peoplehavediedtryingit!)ledtothedevelopmentofthelightningrod.Franklinstarted
thefirstcirculatinglibraryinthecoloniesin1731.Healsoinventedbifocalglassesandthe
Franklinstove.TheideaofdaylightsavingstimewasfirstproposedbyBenjaminFranklinin1784.
FormoreinformationonFranklin,clickhere.
GALILEI,GALILEO
GalileoGalilei(15641642)wasanItalianmathematician,astronomer,andphysicist.
Galileofoundthatthespeedatwhichbodiesfalldoesnotdependontheirweightanddid
extensiveexperimentationwithpendulums.
In1593Galileoinventedthethermometer.
In1609,Galileowasthefirstpersontouseatelescope
toobservetheskies(after
hearingaboutHansLippershey'snewlyinventedtelescope).GalileodiscoveredtheringsofSaturn
(1610),wasthefirstpersontoseethefourmajormoonsofJupiter(1610),observedthephasesof
Venus,studiedsunspots,anddiscoveredmanyotherimportantphenomena.
FormoreinformationonGalileo,clickhere.
GEIGERCOUNTER
TheGeigercounter(sometimescalledtheGeigerMullercounter)isadevicethatdetectsionizing
radioactivity(includinggammaraysandXrays)itcountstheradioactiveparticlethatpassthrough
thedevice.TheGermannuclearphysicistHansWilhelmGeiger(Sept.30,1882Sept.24,1945)
developedthedevicefrom190812.Atthattime,GeigerwasanassistanttotheBritishphysicistErnest
Rutherford(18711937).[Geiger'sworkhelpedRutherforddiscoverthatradioactiveelementscan
transformintootherelementsandthatatomshaveanucleus].In1928,theGeigercounterwas
improvedbytheGermanphysicistE.WaltherMuller.
GREGORY,JAMES
JamesGregory(16381675),aScottish
mathematician,inventedthefirstreflecting
telescopein1663.Hepublishedadescriptionof
thereflectingtelescopein"OpticaPromota,"
whichwaspublishedin1663.Heneveractuallymadethe
telescope,whichwastohaveusedaparabolicandan
ellipsoidalmirror.
GODDARD,ROBERT
RobertHutchingsGoddard(October5,1882August10,1945)wasanAmericanphysicistandinventor
whoisknownasthefatherofmodernrocketry.In1907,Goddardprovedthatarocket'sthrustcan
propelitinavacuum.In1914,GoddardreceivedtwoU.S.patents:forliquidfueledrocketsandfortwo
tothreestagerocketsthatusesolidfuel.In1919,Goddardwroteascientificarticle,"AMethodof
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ReachingExtremeAltitudes,"describingahighaltituderocket;itwaspublishedinaSmithsonian
report.Goddard'smanyinventionswerethebasisuponwhichmodernrocketryisbased.
Aftermanyyearsoffailedattemptsandpublicridicule,Goddard'sfirstsuccessfulrocketwaslaunched
onMarch16,1926fromarelative'sfarminAuburn,Massachusetts.Itwasaliquidfueled10ft.rocket
thathecalledNell.Theflightlasted21/2seconds;therocketflewadistanceof184feetandachieved
analtitudeof41feet.
GoddardsoonmovedtoRoswell,NewMexico,wherehedevelopedmoresophisticatedmultistage
rockets,rocketswithfins(vanes)tosteerthem(1932),agyrocontroldevicetocontroltherocket
(1932),andsupersonicrockets(1935).In1937,Goddardlaunchedthefirstrocketwithapivotable
motorongimbalsusinghisgyrocontroldevice.Altogether,RobertGoddardhad214patents.
FormoreinformationonGoddard,clickhere.
GYROSCOPE
Agyroscopeisessentiallyaspinningwheelsetinamovableframe.Whenthewheelspins,it
retainsitsspatialorientation,anditresistsexternalforcesappliedtoit.Gyroscopesareusedin
navigationinstruments(forships,planes,androckets).JeanBernardLonFoucault(1819
1868),aFrenchphysicist,inventedthegyroscopein1852.
HERON
ThesteamenginewasinventedbyHeron,anancientGreekgeometerandengineerfrom
Alexandria.HeronlivedduringthefirstcenturyADandissometimescalledHero.Heron
madethesteamengineasatoy,andcalledhisdevice"aeolipile,"whichmeans"windball"
inGreek.Thesteamwassuppliedbyasealedpotfilledwithwaterandplacedoverafire.
Twotubescameupfromthepot,lettingthesteamflowintoasphericalballofmetal.The
metallicspherehadtwocurvedoutlettubes,whichventedsteam.Asthesteamwent
throughtheseriesoftubes,themetalsphererotated.Theaeolipileisthefirstknown
devicetotransformsteampowerintorotarymotion.TheGreeksneverusedthis
remarkabledeviceforanythingbutanovelty.Asteamenginedesignedforworkwasn't
builtuntil1698(builtbytheBritishinventor,ThomasSavery).Wattlaterimprovedthesteamengine.
HUYGENS,CHRISTIAN
ChristianHuygens(16291695)wasaDutchphysicistandastronomerwho
developednewmethodsforgrindingandpolishingglasstelescopelenses(about
1654).Withhisnew,powerfultelescopes,heidentifiedSaturn'sringsand
discoveredTitan,thelargestmoonofSaturnin1655.Huygensalsoinventedthe
pendulumclockin1656(eliminatingsprings),wrotethefirstworkonthe
calculusofprobability(DeRatiociniisinLudoAleae,1655),andproposedthe
wavetheoryoflight(Traitdelalumiere,1678).
HYDE,IDAHENRIETTA
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IdaHenriettaHyde(18571945)wasanAmericanphysiologistwho
inventedthemicroelectrodeinthe1930's.Themicroelectrodeisasmall
devicethatelectrically(orchemically)stimulatesalivingcellandrecords
theelectricalactivitywithinthatcell.Hydewasthefirstwomantograduatefrom
theUniversityofHeidelberg,todoresearchattheHarvardMedicalSchoolandto
beelectedtotheAmericanPhysiologicalSociety.
INTERCHANGEABLEPARTS
Clockmakersusedtheideaofinterchangeablepartssincetheearly1700's.In1790,theFrench
gunsmithHonorBlancdemonstratedhismusketsentirelymadefrominterchangeableparts;the
Frenchgovernmentdidn'tliketheprocess(sincewiththisprocess,anyonecouldmanufactureitems,
andthegovernmentlostcontrol),soitwasstopped.Theideaofinterchangeablepartswasintroduced
toAmericangunmanufacturingbyEliWhitney(17651825)in1798.Theconceptofinterchangeable
manufacturingpartshelpedmodernizethemusketindustry(andmassproductioningeneral).Whitney
madetemplatesforeachseparatepartofthemusket(anearlygun).Theworkersthenusedthe
templatewhenchiselingthepart.WhitneywasanAmericaninventorandengineerwhoalsoinvented
thecottongin.
JANSKY,KARL
KarlGotheJansky(19051949)wasanAmericanradioengineerwhopioneeredand
developedradioastronomy.In1932,hedetectedthefirstradiowavesfromacosmic
sourceinthecentralregionoftheMilkyWayGalaxy.
JANSSEN,ZACHARIAS
ZachariasJanssenwasaDutchlensmakerwhoinventedthefirstcompoundmicroscopein1595(a
compoundmicroscopeisonewhichhasmorethanonelens).Hismicroscopeconsistedoftwotudes
thatslidwithinoneanother,andhadalensateachend.Themicroscopewasfocusedbyslidingthe
tubes.Thelensintheeyepiecewasbiconvex(bulgingoutwardsonbothsides),andthelensofthefar
end(theobjectivelens)wasplanoconvex(flatononesideandbulgingoutwardsontheotherside).
Thisadvancedmicroscopehada3to9timespowerofmagnification.ZachariasJanssen'sfatherHans
mayhavehelpedhimbuildthemicroscope.
KARLE,ISABELLAL.
IsabellaHelenLugoskiKarle(1921)isaAmericanphysicalchemistwhoinventednewmethodsofX
rayCrystallography.Sheusedelectrondiffractionandthenxraydiffractiontostudythestructureof
molecules.Karledevelopedathreedimensionalmodelingprocess,enablinghertoidentifyandshow
thestructuresofhundredsofcomplexandimportantmolecules(includingalkaloids,ionophores,
steroids,toxins,andpeptides[aminoacidcompounds]).BecauseofKarle'sprocess,thenumberof
publishedmolecularanalyseshasjumpedfromabout150toover10,000peryear.Karlereceivedthe
NationalMedalofSciencein1995.KarleisaseniorscientistandheadoftheNavalResearch
Laboratory's(NRL)xraydiffractionsectionintheLaboratoryfortheStructureofMatter.Karle's
husband,JeromeKarle,isaNobelPrizewinnerinchemistry.
KELVIN
LordKelvin(WilliamThomson,18241907)designedtheKelvinscale,inwhich0Kis
definedasabsolutezeroandthesizeofonedegreeisthesameasthesizeofonedegree
Celsius.Waterfreezesat273.16K;waterboilsat373.16K.
FormoreinformationonKelvin,clickhere.
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LATIMER,LEWISH.
LewisHowardLatimer(18481928)wasanAfricanAmericaninventorwhowasamemberof
Edison'sresearchteam,whichwascalled"Edison'sPioneers."Latimerimprovedthenewly
inventedincandescentlightbulbbyinventingacarbonfilament(whichhepatentedin1881).
FormoreinformationonLewisHowardLatimer,clickhere.
LEVERS
Leversareoneofthebasictools;theywereprobablyusedinprehistorictimes.Leverswerefirst
describedabout260BCbytheancientGreekmathematicianArchimedes(287212BC).Manyofour
basictoolsuselevers,includingscissors(twoclass1levers),pliers(twoclass1levers),hammerclaws
(oneclass1lever),nutcrackers(twoclass2levers),andtongs(twoclass3levers).
AClass1Lever.
AClass2Lever.
AClass3Lever.
LIGHTBULB
Thefirstincandescentelectriclightwasmadein1800byHumphryDavy,anEnglishscientist.He
experimentedwithelectricityandinventedanelectricbattery.Whenheconnectedwirestohis
batteryandapieceofcarbon,thecarbonglowed,producinglight.Thisiscalledanelectricarc.
Muchlater,in1860,theEnglishphysicistSirJosephWilsonSwan(18281914)wasdeterminedto
deviseapractical,longlastingelectriclight.Hefoundthatacarbonpaperfilamentworkedwell,but
burnedupquickly.In1878,hedemonstratedhisnewelectriclampsinNewcastle,England.
TheinventorThomasAlvaEdison(intheUSA)experimentedwiththousandsofdifferentfilamentsto
findjusttherightmaterialstoglowwellandbelonglasting.In1879,Edisondiscoveredthatacarbon
filamentinanoxygenfreebulbglowedbutdidnotburnupfor40hours.Edisoneventuallyproduceda
bulbthatcouldglowforover1500hours.Theincandescentbulbrevolutionizedtheworld.
Formoreinformation,clickhere.
LIPPERSHEY,HANS
HansLippershey(1570?1619)wasaGermanbornDutchlens
makerwhodemonstratedthefirstrefractingtelescopein1608,
madefromtwolenses;heappliedforapatentforthisoptical
refractingtelescope(using2lenses)in1608,intendingitforuse
asamilitarydevice.
McCOY,ELIJAH
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ElijahMcCoy(1843or18441929)wasamechanicalengineerandinventor.McCoy's
highqualityindustrialinventions(especiallyhissteamenginelubricator)werethebasis
fortheexpression"therealMcCoy,"meaningthereal,authentic,orhighqualitything.
FormoreinformationonElijahMcCoy,clickhere.ForaclozeactivityonMcCoy,click
here.
METER(andtheMETRICSYSTEM)
ThemetricsystemwasinventedinFrance.In1790,theFrenchNationalAssemblydirectedthe
AcademyofSciencesofParistostandardizetheunitsofmeasurement.AcommitteeefromtheAcademy
usedadecimalsystemanddefinedthemetertobeone10millionthsofthedistancefromtheequatorto
theEarth'sPole(thatis,theEarth'scircumferencewouldbeequalto40millionmeters).Thecommittee
consistedofthemathematiciansJeanCharlesdeBorda(17331799),JosephLouisComtedeLagrange
(17361813),PierreSimonLaplace(17491827),GaspardMonge(17461818),andMarieJean
AntoineNicholasCaritat,theMarquisdeCondorcet(17431794)
ThewordmetercomesfromtheGreekwordmetron,whichmeansmeasure.Thecentimeterwas
definedasonehundredthofameter;thekilometerwasdefinedas1000meters.Themetricsystemwas
passedbylawinFranceonAugust1,1793.In1960,thedefinitionofthemeterchangedto1,650,763.73
wavelengthsofoftheorangeredradiationofkrypton86.In1983,themeterwasredefinedas
1/299,792,458ofthedistancethatlighttravelsinonesecondinavacuum.
Forthemetricunitofmass,thegramwasdefinedasthemassofonecubiccentimeterofpurewaterata
giventemperature.Incommonusageandincommerce,gramsareusedasaunitofweight.
MICROELECTRODE
IdaHenriettaHyde(18571945)wasanAmericanphysiologistwho
inventedthemicroelectrodeinthe1930's.Themicroelectrodeisasmall
devicethatelectrically(orchemically)stimulatesalivingcellandrecords
theelectricalactivitywithinthatcell.Hydewasthefirstwomantograduatefrom
theUniversityofHeidelberg,todoresearchattheHarvardMedicalSchoolandto
beelectedtotheAmericanPhysiologicalSociety.
MICROSCOPE
ThemicroscopemayhavebeeninventedbyeyeglassmakersinMiddelburg,TheNetherlands,
inventedsometimebetween1590and1610.HansandhissonZachariasJanssenarementioned
inthelettersofWilliamBoreel(theDutchenvoytotheCourtofFrance)ashavinginventeda
20Xmagnificationmicroscope.
RobertHookeusedanearlymicroscopetoobserveslicesofcork(barkfromtheoaktree)usinga30X
powercompoundmicroscope.Hepublishedhisobservationsin"Microgphia"in1665.In1673,Antony
vanLeeuwenhoekdiscoveredbacteria,freelivingandparasiticmicroscopicprotists,spermcells,blood
cells,etc.,usinga300Xpowersinglelensmicroscope.
Clickhereforamicroscopeprintouttolabel.Clickhereforamicroscopedefinitionworksheettoprint.
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NOBEL,ALFRED
AlfredBernhardNobel(18331896)wasaSwedishinventorand
industrialist.Nobelinventedmanypowerfulandrelativelysafeexplosivesand
explosivedevices,includingthe"Nobelpatentdetonator"(itdetonatednitroglycerin
usingastrongelectricalshockinsteadofheat,1863),dynamite(1867),blasting
gelatin(guncottonplusnitroglycerin,1875),andalmostsmokelessblastingpowder
(1887).Nobelalsomadeinventionsinthefieldsofelectrochemistry,optics,biology,
andphysiology.Nobelleftmuchofhisfortunetoawardprizes(theNobelprizes)
eachyeartopeoplewhomadeadvancementsinPhysics,Chemistry,
Physiology/Medicine,Literature,andPeace.
PASTEUR,LOUIS
LouisPasteur(18221895)wasaFrenchchemistandinventor.Pasteurstudiedtheprocessof
fermentation,andpostulatedthatfermentationwasproducedbymicroscopicorganisms(otherthan
yeast),whichPasteurcalledgerms.Hehypothesizedthatthesegermsmightberesponsibleforsome
diseases.Pasteurdisprovedthenotionof"spontaneousgeneration"whichstatedthatorganismscould
springfromnothing;Pasteurshowedthatorganismscameformother,preexistingorganisms.Applying
histheoriestofoodsanddrinks,Pasteurinventedaheatingprocess(nowcalledpasteurization)which
sterilizesfood,killingmicroorganismsthatcontaminateit.
RADIOTELESCOPE
Aradiotelescopeisametaldishthatgathersradiowavesfromspace.Radioastronomy
involvesexploringspacebyexaminingradiowavesfromouterspace.Radioastronomy
waspioneeredbyKarlG.Jansky,whoin1932firstdetectedradiowavesfromacosmic
sourceinthecentralregionoftheMilkyWayGalaxy.GoteReber(ahamradiooperator)madethefirst
trueradiotelescope(usinga32footdiameterparabolicdishtofocustheradiowaves)afterreadingof
Jansky'sdiscoveries.OneexampleofaradiotelescopeistheVeryLargeArray(VLA)inNewMexico.
REFLECTINGTELESCOPE
Areflecting(orNewtonian)telescopeusestwomirrorsto
magnifywhatisviewed.Thereflectingtelescopewasfirst
describedbyJamesGregoryin1663.
REFRACTINGTELESCOPE
Arefractingtelescopeusestwolensestomagnifywhatisviewed;
thelargeprimarylensdoesmostofthemagnification.Thefirst
refractingtelescopewasinventedbyHansLippersheyin1608.
ROENTGEN,WILHELMVON
Xrayswerediscoveredin1895byWilhelmKonradvonRoentgen(18451923).Roentgenwasa
Germanphysicistwhodescribedthisnewformofradiationthatallowedhimtophotograph
objectsthatwerehiddenbehindopaqueshields.Heevenphotographedpartofhisownskeleton.Xrays
weresoonusedasanimportantdiagnostictoolinmedicine.Roentgencalledthesewaves"Xradiation"
becausesolittlewasknownaboutthem.
SCHMIDTCASSEGRAINTELESCOPE
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9/24/2015
ASchmidtCassegraintelescope(SCT)isawideangle
reflectingtelescopewithacorrectinglensthat
minimizessphericalaberrationandaconcavemirror
thatreceiveslightandfocusesanimage.Asecond
mirrorreflectsthelightthroughagapintheprimary
mirror,allowingtheeyepieceorcameratobemounted
atthebackendofthetube.TheCassegraintelescope
(namedfortheFrenchsculptorSieurGuillaume
Cassegrain)wasdevelopedin1672;thecorrecting
plate(alens)wasaddedin1930bytheEstonian
astronomerandlensmakerBernardSchmidt(18791935).
STEAMENGINE
ThesteamenginewasinventedbyHeron,anancientGreekgeometerandengineerfrom
Alexandria.HeronlivedduringthefirstcenturyADandissometimescalledHero.Heron
madethesteamengineasatoy,andcalledhisdevice"aeolipile,"whichmeans"windball"
inGreek.Thesteamwassuppliedbyasealedpotfilledwithwaterandplacedoverafire.
Twotubescameupfromthepot,lettingthesteamflowintoasphericalballofmetal.The
metallicspherehadtwocurvedoutlettubes,whichventedsteam.Asthesteamwent
throughtheseriesoftubes,themetalsphererotated.Theaeolipileisthefirstknown
devicetotransformsteampowerintorotarymotion.TheGreeksneverusedthis
remarkabledeviceforanythingbutanovelty.Asteamenginedesignedforworkwasn't
builtuntil1698(builtbytheBritishinventor,ThomasSavery).Wattlaterimprovedthesteamengine.
SWAN,JOSEPHWILSON
Thefirstpracticalelectriclightbulbwasmadein1878
simultaneously(andindependently)byJosephWilson
SwanandThomasAlvaEdison.
SirJosephWilsonSwan(18281914)wasanEnglishphysicist
whowasdeterminedtodeviseapractical,longlasting
electriclight.Aftermanyyearsofexperimentation,hefound
thatacarbonpaperfilamentworkedwell,butburnedup
quickly.In1878,hedemonstratedhisnewelectriclampsin
Newcastle,England.
TELESCOPE
Atelescopeisadevicethatletsusviewdistantobjects.Earlytelescopes(andmost
today)usedglasslensesand/ormirrorstodetectvisiblelight.Somemoderntelescopesgatherimages
fromdifferentpartsoftheelectromagneticspectrum,fromradiowavestogammarays.Mosttelescopes
arelocatedonEarth,butothersareinspace.
Foramoreinformationontelescopes,clickhere.
TESLA,NIKOLA
12/16
9/24/2015
NikolaTesla(18561943)wasaSerbianAmericaninventorwhodevelopedtheradio,
fluorescentlights,theTeslacoil(anaircoretransformerthatgeneratesahugevoltage
fromhighfrequencyalternatingcurrent),remotecontroldevices,andmanyother
inventions;Teslaheld111patents.Tesladevelopedandpromotedtheusesof
alternatingcurrent(asopposedtodirectcurrent,whichwaspromotedfiercelyby
ThomasEdisonandGeneralElectric).TeslabrieflyworkedwithThomasEdison.The
unitofmagneticinductionisnamedforTesla;atesla(abbreviatedT)isequaltoone
weberpersquaremeter.
ForapageonTesla,clickhere.
THERMOMETER
TheThermometerwasinventedbyGalileoGalileiin1593.Histhermometerconsistedof
waterinaglassbulb;thewatermovedupanddownthebulbasthetemperature
changed.
Thesealedthermometerwasinventedin1641bytheGrandDukeFerdinandII.Heuseda
glasstubecontainingalcohol,whichfreezeswellbelowthefreezingpointofwater(alcohol
freezesat175F=115C).Hesealedthetubetoexcludetheinfluenceofairpressure.
Galileo
Galilei
Mercurywaslatersubstitutedforthealcohol,andthenDanielGabrielFahrenheit(16861736),a
Germanphysicist,usedmercuryplusachemicalsolutionthatkeptthemercuryfromstickingtothe
tubeofthethermometer(in1714).Fahrenheitalsoexpandedthethermometer'sscale(in1724);onhis
scale,thetemperatureofboilingwateris212Fandthefreezingpointofwateris32F.
AndersCelsius,aSwedishastronomer,inventedtheCelsius(orCentigrade)scalein
1742,puttingthefreezingpointofwaterat0andtheboilingpointat100.
Anders
Celsius
LordKelvin(WilliamThomson,18241907)designedtheKelvinscaleinwhich0Kis
definedasabsolutezeroandthesizeofoneunitisthesameasthesizeofonedegree
Celsius.Waterfreezesat273.16;K;waterboilsat373.16K.
LordKelvin
TORRICELLI,EVANGELISTA
EvangelistaTorricelli(16081647)wasanItalianphysicistwhoinventedthemercurybarometer(in
1643)andmadeimprovementstothemicroscope.TorricelliwasapupilofGalileo.Torricelliinverteda
glasstubefilledwithmercuryintoanothercontainerofmercury;themercuryinthetube"weighs"the
airintheatmosphereabovethecontainer.Abarometerisadevicethatmeasuresair(barometric)
pressure.Itmeasurestheweightofthecolumnofairthatextendsfromtheinstrumenttothetopofthe
atmosphere.Therearetwotypesofbarometerscommonlyusedtoday,mercuryandaneroid(meaning
"fluidless").
VIDIE,LUCIEN
LucienVidiewasaFrenchscientistwhoinventedtheaneroidbarometerin1843.Abarometerisa
13/16
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devicethatmeasuresair(barometric)pressure.Itmeasurestheweightofthecolumnofairthat
extendsfromtheinstrumenttothetopoftheatmosphere.Therearetwotypesofbarometers
commonlyusedtoday,mercuryandaneroid(meaning"fluidless").Theaneroidbarometerusesaspring
balanceinsteadofaliquid;itiseasytotransportandeasytoconstruct.
VONROENTGEN,WILHELM
WATT,JAMES
JamesWatt(17361819)wasaScottishinventorandengineer.In1765,Watt
revolutionizedthesteamengine,redesigningitsothatitwasmuchmoreefficient
andfourtimesaspowerfulastheoldNewcomensteamengines.Watt'senginesdid
notwastesteam(heat),andhadaseparatecondenser.Wattpartneredwiththe
businessmanandfactoryownerMatthewBoultonin1772,helpingtopromote
Watt'sideascommercially.Wattalsoinventedamethodforconvertingtheupand
downpistonmovementintorotarymotion(the"sunandplanet"gear),allowinga
greaternumberofapplicationsfortheengine.Wattproducedthisrotarymotionsteamenginein1781;
itwasusedformanyapplications,includingdrainingmines,poweringloomsintextilefactories,
poweringbellows,papermills,etc.IthelpedpowertheIndustrialRevolution.Wattcoinedtheterm
"horsepower,"whichheusedtoconveythepowerofhisengines;Wattcalculatedhowmanyhorsesit
wouldtaketodotheworkofeachengine.Onehorsepowerequals33,000footpoundsofworkper
minute;itisthepowerrequiredtoliftatotalof33,000poundsonefootinoneminute.Parliament
grantedWattapatentonhissteamenginein1755,makingWattaverywealthyman.In1882(long
afterWatt'sdeath),theBritishAssociationnamedtheunitofelectricalpowerthe"watt."
WU,CHIENSHIUNG
Dr.ChienShiungWu(Shanghai,China,May31,1912NewYork,USA,February16,1997)wasa
nuclearphysicistwhostudiedbetadecay(aweakinteractioninwhichoneoftheneutronsinthe
nucleusofanatomdecaysintoaprotonandanelectron;theprotonentersthenucleus,formingan
isotope,andtheelectronisemittedasabetaparticle).In1956,MadamWudidexperimentsshowing
thatparityisnotconservedinweakinteractions(demonstratingparityviolationinthenuclearbeta
decayincobalt60).HerexperimentssupportedT.D.LeeandC.N.Yang'srevolutionaryideathatparity
wasnotconservedinweakinteractions(parityconservationhadbeenabasicassumptioninphysics).
MadamWuworkedontheManhattanProject(asecretUSprojectduringWorldWar2todevelopan
atomicbombinordertodefeatHitler),developingaprocessforseparatingtheuraniumisotopesU235
andU238bygaseousdiffusion.ShealsohelpeddevelopmoresensitiveGeigercounters(devicesthat
detectradiation).MadamWualsostudiedthemolecularchangesinhemoglobinassociatedwithsickle
cellanemia.
XRAY
YALEJR.,LINUS
14/16
9/24/2015
LinusYaleJr.(18211868)wasanAmericanmechanical
engineerandmanufacturerwhodevelopedthecylinderpin
tumblerlock(andotherkeyandcombinationlocks).Yale's
father,LinusYale,hadinventedanearlierpintumblerlock
in1848;theson'slockusedasmaller,flatkeywithserrated
edges(liketheoneswestillusetoday).Thereisno
connectionbetweenLinusYaleandYaleUniversity.
FormoreinformationonLinusYale,Jr.,clickhere.
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