14

CHAPTER 3
TRANSMISSION LINE TOWER -DESIGN CONCEPTS

3.1

INTRODUCTION
The

purpose

of a transmission line

tower

is

to

support conductors carrying electrical power and one or two

ground wires at suitable distances above the ground level
and

from

each other.

The transmission line

towers

cost

about 35 to 45 per cent of the total cost of the

transmission line. A transmission tower is a space truss
and is an indeterminate structure.
This
stipulations
transmission
rules

chapter covers certain basic

principles

and

to be followed in the analysis and design of

line towers, incorporating Indian electricity

(1956), Manual on transmission line

towers

(1977),

IS:802 (1977) and draft revision of IS:802 (1989).

3.2

TOWER CONFIGURATION
Depending upon the requirements of the transmission

system,
ranging
vertical

various line configurations have to be considered

from single circuit horizontal to double circuit
structures

and with single or V strings

in

all

phases, as well as any combination of these.

The configuration of a transmission line tower depends
the following factors:
1.

The length of the insulator assembly.

on

15

2.

The

minimum clearances to be maintained

3.

conductors, and between conductor and tower.

The location of ground wire or wires with respect

4.

to the outermost conductor.

The
mid-span
clearance
consideration

of

the

dynamic

between

required

from

behaviour

of

conductors and lightning protection of the line.

5.

The

minimum

clearance of the

lowest

conductor

above ground level.

The

tower configuration is determined

essentially

by three factors:

3.3

(a)

Tower height.

(b)

Base-width.

(c)

Top hamper-width.

DETERMINATION OF TOWER HEIGHT

The factors governing height of a tower are :

1. Minimum permissible ground clearance (hi).
2. Maximum sag (h2)
3. Vertical spacing between conductors (h3).
4. Vertical

clearance between ground wire and

top

conductor (h4).
Thus the total height of tower is given by :
H= h1+h2+h3+h4
Figure 3.1 shows the parameters h3, h2, h3 and
in a transmission line tower.

h4

16

Figure 3.1 - Determination of tower height

[Source: Reference(37)J

17

3.4

CLEARANCES

3.4.1

General Remarks

Power conductors along the entire route of the

transmission line should maintain requisite clearance to
ground over open country, national highways, important
roads, electrified and unelectrified tracks, navigable and
non-navigable rivers, telecommunication and power lines
etc. as laid down in the various national standards

issued

by the respective authorities.

3.4.2

Ground Clearance
Indian

electricity rules (1956), under

Clause

(incorporating amendments), stipulates clearance above

77
the

ground of the lowest point of the conductor.

For Extra
High Voltage (EHV) lines, this clause stipulates that the
clearance above the ground shall not be less than 5.1 m
plus 0.3 m for every 33,000 volts or part thereof by which
the

voltage

of

the

line

exceeds

33,000

volts.

The

permissible minimum ground clearance for different voltages

adopted in India are furnished in Table 3.1, and these are
applicable for transmission lines running in the open
country.
3.4.3

Horizontal Clearance
Clause

stipulates
nearest
based

80(2)

that

the

of Indian electricity

rules

horizontal

between

clearance

conductor and any part of the structure

on

maximum

deflection due to

wind

should not be less than the values shown

corresponding to the voltage.

(1956)

shall

pressure.
in

Table

the
be
It
3.2,

18

TABLE 3.1 MINIMUM GROUND CLEARANCE

Voltage of the line

(Kv)

Permissible minimum ground

Clearance
(mm)

66

5490

132
220

6100

1
|

400

7016
8840

19

TABLLE 3.2 HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE

a.
b.

For high voltage lines upto and

including 11,000 volts

..........
1.219 m

For high voltage above 11,000 volts

and upto and including 33,000 volts
1.829 m

c.

For Extra High Voltage Lines (EHV)

(plus 0.305 m for every additional
33,000 volts or part thereof)
1.829 m

20

3.5

CRITICAL PARAMETERS OF TOWER

The following aspects are considered essential

fixing the tower outline:

3.5.1

a.

Maximum sag of lower conductor.

b.

Height and location of ground wire.

c.
d.

Length of cross arm and conductor spacing.

Minimum mid-span clearance.

e.

Tower width at base and at top hamper.

Maximum Sag of Lower Conductor

The

size

and type of

conductor,

wind,

conditions of the region and span determines the

sag

for

and

tension.

consideration.

Span length

is

fixed

climatic
conductor

from

economic

The maximum sag for conductor span

occurs

at the maximum temperature and still wind conditions.

The
maximum value of sag is taken into consideration in fixing
the overall height of the steel tower structure.
In
regions prone to snowfall, the maximum sag may occur at 0,
with
the conductor loaded with ice, in still
wind
condition.
While working out tension for arriving at the
maximum sag, the following stipulations laid down in Indian
electricity rules (1956) are to be satisfied.
a.

The

minimum

factor of safety shall be

two

based

on

their ultimate tensile strength.

b.

Conductor
external
percentage

tension
load
of

at 32

shall

Centigrade

not

exceed

the ultimate tensile

conductor.
i)
Initial unloaded tension
ii) Final unloaded tension

(90F)
the

without
following

strength

of

35 percent

25 percent

the

21

In

accordance with this stipulation,

the

maximum

working tension under stringent loading condition shall not

exceed 50%
conductor.

of the ultimate tensile

Sag tension computation

strength of
the
made
for
final

stringing of the conductor therefore must ensure that

factor of safety of 2 and 4 is obtainable under respective
loading condition.
3.5.2

Height and Location of Ground Wire

stroke

direct
Ground wire provides protection against
of lightening. It intercepts the direct lightning

strokes

and

conducts

the charge to

the

nearest

ground

connections.
The height and location of overhead ground
wires shall be such that the line joining the ground wire
to
the outer most conductor shall make
angles
of
approximately 20 to 30 degrees with the vertical. The angle
is called shield angle.

The practice is to specify 30 for

66 kV and 110 kV, 25 to 30 degrees for 220 kV.

A lower
angle of 20 is suggested for 400 kV. The protective value
against
100
is

direct strokes to the phase conductors

approaches

percent, if the shield angle is less than 20, but

not

advisable

considerations.
conductor

On

spacing,

to keep smaller

angles

extra high voltage lines

the

use of two

earth

from

economic

having
wires

it
wide

provide

better protection.
3.5.3

Minimum Mid-Span Clearance

In case of direct lightning stroke on the

mid-span

of over head ground wires, the critical condition occurs at

the
mid

mid-span during the

span 'flash over'

conductor,

before

propagation of surge current and

may occur from ground wire to

the current is discharged

through

the

22

tower. The mid-span clearance between the earth wires and

conductor is therefore, kept more than the clearance at the
tower.

The usual practice in this regard is

to

maintain

the sag of ground wire at least 10 % less than that of

conductor,
at

under all temperature conditions in still

the normal spans, so as to give a mid

greater

span

the
wind

separation

than that at the supports. However, it is

ensured

that under the minimum temperature and maximum

wind
conditions, the sag of the ground wire does not exceed the
sag of the power conductor.

ground

In the case of stroke to mid-span, on one of the

wires, when two ground wires are used,
it is

preferable, if the striken ground wire flashes over to

the

second ground wire instead of to the conductor.

Therefore
it is necessary that the spacing between the two ground
wire is less than the mid-span clearance between ground
wire and conductor. Mid-span clearance vary with the span
length. Increased spans, increases the mid span clearance.
The design span normally adopted are 250 m for 66 kV, 305
to 335 m for 110 kV, 350 m for 220 kV, 350 to 400 m for 400
kV lines. The vertical clearance generally adopted at the
middle of the span between the ground wires and

conductors

are given in Table 3.3.

3.5.4

Spacing of Conductors

Considerable differences are found in the conductor

spacings adopted in different countries and on different
transmission line systems in the same country. The spacing
of

conductors is determined by considerations,

partly

which

are

electrical and partly mechanical. The material

and

diameter of the conductors should also be considered,

deciding

the

spacing,

because

smaller

when

conductor,

23

TABLE 3.3 MID-SPAN CLEARANCE

Span
(m)
299

Vertical Clearance permissible at the 1

middle of the span (mm)
|
4000

300

5500

400

7000

600

8500

especially

made

of aluminium, having a

small

weight

relation to the area presented to a cross-wind, will

in

swing

out of vertical plane farther than a conductor of larger

cross-section. Usually, conductors will swing synchronously
(in

phase)

wires,

there

swinging

is

always a possibility

non-synchronously,

maximum
are

with the wind, but with long spans

and

the

of

the

and

conductor

conductor

sag at the centre of the span are

small

and

factors,

the
which

taken into account in determining the distance

apart,

at which they are strung.

There
deduced
operated

are a number of empirical formulae

in

use,

from spacings, which have been

successfully
in practice, while research continues on minimum

spacings,
horizontal

which
and

could

be employed.

vertical,

between

The

spacings,

conductors

both

commonly

adopted on typical transmission lines in India are given in

Table 3.4.
3.5.5

width

Tower Width at the Base

Spacing between the tower footings, i.e., the base

at the concrete level (or at the foot of the bottom

panel)

is the distance from the centre of gravity

corner leg to the centre of gravity of the adjacent

leg.

one

corner

This width depends upon the height, magnitude of

physical
size,

of

the

loads imposed upon the tower calculated from

the

type of conductors and wind loads and also upon

the

height of application of external loads from ground level.

Towers with larger base result in low footing costs and
lighter main leg member at the expense of longer bracing
members. There is a particular base width, which gives the
best compromise for the total cost of the tower to be
minimum. Through experience expanded over a number of

TABLE 3.4 SPACING OF CONDUCTORS

Type of tower
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Vertical spacing
between
conductors
(mm)

Horizontal
spacing between
conductors
(mm)

66 kV single circuit
A(0-2)
B(2-30)
C(30-60)

1030
1030
1220

4040
4270
4880

66 kV Double Circuit
A(0-2)
B(2-30)
C(30-60)

2170
2060
2440

4270
4880
6000

132 kV Single Circuit

A(0-2)
B(2-15)
C( 15-30)
D(30-60)

4200
4200
4200
4200

7140
6290
7150
8820

132 kV Double circuit

A(0-2)
B(2-15)
C( 15-30)
D(30-60)

3965
3965
3965
4270

7020
7320
7320
8540

220 kV Single circuit

A(0-2)
B(2-15)
C( 15-30)
D(30-60)

5200
5250
6700
7800

8500
10500
12600
14000

220 kV Double
Circuit
A(0-2)
B(2-15)
C( 15-30)
D(30-60)

5200
5200
5200
6750

9900
10100
10500
12600

7800
7800
7800
8100

12760
12640
14000
16200

400 kV Single Circuit

horizontal
configuration
A(0-2)
B(2-15)
C( 15-30)
D(30-60)

2b

years, certain empirical relations have also been developed

for base widths. The ratio between total height of the
tower uptc the lower cross arm and base width is generally
between 2.8 and 4.4.
3.5.6

Width at the Top Hamper

Top

hamper-width is the width of the tower at

level of the lower cross arm in the case of barrel type

the
of

towers (In double circuit towers it may be at middle cross

arm level) and waist line in case of towers with horizontal
configuration of conductors. The width of the top hamper is
mainly
loading.

decided based on resistance required for

torsional

The torsional stresses are evenly distributed

on

the four faces of a square tower.

The top hamper width is generally found to be about
one-third to one-half of the base width for tangent and
light angle towers and about 1/3.5 of the base width for
medium and large angle towers.
3.6
3.6.1

TYPES OF TOWER
Classification according to Number of Circuits

The
transmission

majority of high voltage double

circuit
lines employ a vertical configuration of

conductor
and single circuit transmission
lines,
a
triangular arrangement of conductors. Single circuit lines,
particularly
400 kV and above, generally employ
a
horizontal arrangement of conductors. The number of ground
wires used on the line depends on the iso-ceraunic level of
the area, importance of the line and the angle of
desired.

coverage

27

3.6.2

Classification according to use

Towers are classified according to

independent of the number of conductors they

their use,
support. A

tower has to withstand the loadings ranging from

runs
an

straight-

to varying angles. To simplify the design and

overall economy in cost and maintenance, tower

ensure
designs

are generally confined to a few standard types as follows :

(1)

Tangent (suspension) towers

Suspension towers are used primarily on tangents, but
often are designed to withstand angles in the line
upto

in

conductor

addition to the wind,

loads.

ice,

If the transmission line

relatively flat, featureless terrain,

of

the

Thus,

and

the

greatest

design

of

tangent

traverses

ninety

line may be composed of this type

tower

broken
percent

of

tower.

provides

opportunity for the structural

the

engineer

to

minimize the total weight of steel required.

(2)

Angle towers
Angle towers, sometimes called semi-anchor towers, are
used

where the line makes a horizontal angle

than

(Figure

transverse
tension

load

induced

3.2).
from

As
the

they

must

components

by this angle, in

greater

resist

of

addition

the

a
line

to

the

usual wind, ice and broken conductor loads, they are

necessarily heavier than suspension towers.
Unless
restricted

by

site

conditions,

or

influenced

conductor tensions, angle should be located in such

manner

that

the axis of the cross-arms

angle formed by the conductors.

bisects

by
a
the

28

9
T
P,

m Angle of deflection of line

Tension in conductor
a Transverse load due to component of

conductor tension = T sin &2

P2 Longitudinal load due to component of lire
tension
= T cos 02

Figure 3.2 - Orientation of tower in an angle

lSource: Reference(37)]

29

Theoretically,
different

towers,

different

but

line

angles

for economy there

is

require

limiting

number of different types of towers used. This number is a

function of all the factors, which make up the total
erected

cost

of a tower line.

However,experience

shownthat the
following angle
suitable for most of the lines:
1. Light

angle - 2 to

towers

are

has

generally

15

degrees line deviation.

2. Medium angle - 15 to 30

degrees line deviation.

3. Heavy

degrees line deviation

angle - 30 to 60

and dead ends.

While

the

angles of line deviation

are

for

the

normal span, the span may be increased upto an optimum

limit by reducing the angle of line deviation and vice
versa.
IS: 802
classification.

(Part

I)-1977

recommends

the

above

It would be uneconomical to use 30 angle towers in

locations where angles higher than 2 and smaller than
are

encountered.

There are limitations to the use

of

30
2

angle towers at higher angles with reduced spans and the

use of 30angle towers with smaller angles and increased
spans.

The

introduction

of a

15

tower

would

effect

sizable economy.
3.7
3.7.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
General Remarks
Transmission

line

tower

consists

of

linear

structural members rigidly connected to one another

welding or bolting. For the purposes of analysis,
it
idealized

as

space

truss.

A space

truss

is

by
is
3-D

30

assemblage
hinges.

of
Space

line members, each member being

truss idealization lead to

joined

the

by

following

assumptions:
1.

The
influence of gusseted
connection
transmitting moment is neglected.

2.

Leg

members

that are continuous

are

in

assumed

to be hinged at the nodal points.

3.

Loads are assumed to act only at the joints.

The use

of high speed computers

has

enabled

the

analysis of large structural systems to be carried out more

easily and accurately.

Among the various methods available

for the truss analysis, the matrix formulation has the

advantage over other methods, since the operation of matrix
algebra

can be provided in the form of a 'routine' in

computer

program.

idealization

Figure

consisting

3.3
of

shows

the

foundation

space
leg

the
truss

members,

horizontal and diagonal braces.

3.7.2

Matrix Structural Analysis

Every structure must fulfill the dual

requirements

of equilibrium and compatibility. The stiffness method

maintains the compatibility of the structures and makes use
of equilibrium conditions for the solution.
For solving
pin-jointed
to

trusses, the stiffness method generally

fewer equations.

Hence, the stiffness method

is

leads
used

for the analysis of transmission line towers.

Let (Xjj and
{8denote the nodal
displacement vector of the ith member in

force and
the local

31

>?1'0h-(6

800416

Figure 3.3 - Space truss idealization

LSource: Referencel37)]

32

co- ordinate system as

shown

in

Figure

3.4. The

member

stiffness equation is written as :

{*i)

(3.1)

E*jJ {**}

Where

{Xi>T = (XiL,
{6L)

ZiL,

(3.2)

= (UiL,ViL,WiL,UiR,ViR,WiR)

(3.3)

and [kj^] is the member stiffness matrix given by

[*]

Ei Ai

10

0-1

-10

(3.4)

In equation (3.4)
and
indicate the modulus of
elasticity and length of the i*"*1 member respectively.
The
stiffness

in

the

similar manner and they are transformed from the local

co

ordinate
stiffness

equation

of all the members are formed

system to the global.

matrix is

Then

generated

the total

structure

bysuperimposing

the

individual member stiffness matrices. Thus,

[K]

{d} =

(L)

(3.5)

Where
{d>

=Nodal

displacement

vector

to global coordinate system

{L}

Vector of external loads

referred

33

Figure 3.4 - The global and local co-ordinate system

34

Total structure stiffness matrix

[K]
[K]

In

equation

matrix

and

member

stiffness

Equation

n
S
i=l

[Ti]T [ki]

(3.6),

(T3

[ TjJ

the

is

the summation sign denotes

matrices of all

(3.5)

with

(d)

the

respect to

(3. C)

transformation

superimposing
members.
nodal

the

the

Solving

displacement

vector.
(K)-1 (L)

(3.7)

[Ki]"1 (L)

(3.8)

then
(di)
where

(di)

= Nodal

displacement

vector

of

the

ith

member

referred to Global Coordinate Systems (GCS).

[Kjj"1 = Matrix formed by extracting the rows corresponding
to the vector {d^} from the matrix [K]1.

The
member

nodal

displacement

vector {<5^}

of

referred to the Local Coordinate Systems

i th

the
(LCS)

is

related to {d^ through the transformation matrix [Tj_].

{Si> = [Ti]

From equations (3.1) and (3.9),

the
vector {Xj} of the ith member is given by :

{Xj_} =

(3.9)

{dL)

[CL] (L)

nodal

force

(3.10)

Where

[Ci]

= [kiHTiHKi] -1

(3.11)

35

3.8

TOWER DESIGN

3.8.1

General Remarks

Once the external loads acting on the tower are

determined, one proceeds with an analysis of the forces in
various
Axial

members

with

a view to fixing

up

their

sizes.

force is the primary force for a truss element

and

therefore, the member is designed for either compression or

tension. When there are multiple load conditions, certain
members

may be subjected to both compressive

and

tensile

forces under different loading conditions.

Hence, these
members are designed for both compression or tension acting
separately.
3.8.2

Bracing Systems

Once the width of the tower at the top and also the
level at which the batter should start are determined, the
next step is to select the system of braces. The following
bracing systems are usually adopted for transmission line
towers.
(i)

Single web system

This system shown in Figure 3.5(a) is

particularly

used for narrow-based towers, in cross arm

and for portal type of towers. Except for
single circuit towers, this system has

girders
66 kV
little

application for towers at higher voltages.

(ii)

Double web or Warren system

This

system shown in Figure 3.5(b), is made up

of

3b

diagonal cross braces. Shear is equally distributed

between

the two diagonals, one in compression and

tne other in tension. Both the diagonals are
designed for compression and tension in order to
permit

reversal of externally applied shears.

diagonal braces are connected at cross

Since the shear per face is carried by two

The

points.
members

and critical length is approximately half that of a

corresponding

single

web system, it

is

apparent

that the individual members will be smaller than in

the single web system. This system is used for both
large

and

adopted

small towers and

can

be

economically

throughout the shaft except in

the

one or two panels, where diamond or portal

of braces is more suitable.
(iii)

lower
system

Pratt system
This

system shown in Figure 3.5 (c) also

diagonal
horizontal

cross

braces

and in

contains

addition,

struts. These struts are

it

has

subjected

to

compression and the shear is taken entirely by

diagonal
redundant
Pratt

one

in tension. The other diagonal acts as

member.

braces

It is often economical

for bottom two or three

to

use

panels

and

Warren system for the rest of the tower.

(iv)

Portal system
The diagonals are necessarily designed for
tension
and compression, and therefore,
arrangement provides more stiffness than the

both
this
Pratt

system. The advantage of this system is that the

horizontal struts are supported at mid-length by

37

the

diagonals

[Figure 3.5 (d)].

Like

the

Pratt

system, this arrangement is also used for

bottom two or three panels in conjunction with
Warren
system for the other panels.
It

the
the
is

especially useful for heavy river crossing towers.

(v)

Offset or Staggered bracing system

This bracing arrangement can be derived from the
Portal system and Warren system. The longitudinal
face is similar to that of Warren system
transverse
face consist of staggered

and the
bracing

arrangement

The

as shown in Figure 3.5 (e).

leg

members are thus supported at alternate points in

two directions. All diagonals are designed for
tension

and

compression and they

share

the

web

shear. This arrangement has the advantage that

the

struts carry no primary loads and are designed as

redundant members. The increased efficiency in the
legs, however,
is obtained at the expense of
increasing the number of different diagonals and
correspondingly

reducing

the advantages

of

mass

production methods.
3.8.3

Determination of Member Sizes

The practices followed with regard to the

angle sizes and minimum thickness of steel members
in

the

designs, based on experience

and

minimum
adopted

judgement,

are

briefly described below:

(a)

Minimum angle size

The

present

practice is not to

allow

angle

leg

38

(a) Single web

system

(d) Portal system

Longitudinal face

Transverse face

(e) Offset or staggered bracing system

Figure 3.5 - Bracing systems

[Source:

Reference(37)3

39

width less than 45 nun through which a bolt of 16 nun

diameter passes.
braces,

This results in a number of

cross-arm

braces

and

almost

all

redundant members of the tower being of this

even

though

a smaller size may be

stress requirements.

main
the
size,

adequate

from

Unequal angle size 45 x 30

5 nun can be used in place of equal angle 45 x 45

5 nun for a number of braces and for almost all

the

redundant members.
(b)

Minimum thickness and Slenderness ratio

IS:802-1977, code of practice for use of structural

steel

in

specifies

overhead
the

transmission

minimum

line

thicknesses

towers,
which

is

reproduced in Table 3.5. The limiting values of the

slenderness

ratio for the design

tower members is shown in Table

3.9

of

transmission

3.6.

CONCLUSION
The various aspects described in this chapter

have

been incorporated in the expert system program. The minimum

requirements

based

on experience and practice

used

as constraints in the optimization

the

implementation

of

these

have

program.

practical

been

Without

requirements,

optimization of tower weight will at best be, a theoretical

exercise.

40

TABLE 3.5 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF TOWER MEMBERS

Minimum thickness (mm)

Galvanised

Painted

Leg members and

lower members of
cross arms in
compression

Other members

41

TABLE 3.6 SLENDERNESS RATIO-LIMITING VALUES

Leg members and main members

in the cross-arm in compression

150

Members carrying computed

stresses

200

Redundant members and those

carrying nominal stresses

250

Tension members

350