Installation of Solar Power Plant

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant
ENERGY
1.1. Introduction
Energy plays a pivotal role in our daily activities. The degree of development and
civilization of a country is measured by the amount of utilization of energy by human
beings. Energy demand is increasing day by day due to increase in population,
urbanization and industrialization. The world's fossil fuel supply viz. coal, petroleum and
natural gas will thus be depleted in a few hundred years. The rate of energy consumption
increasing, supply is depleting resulting in inflation and energy shortage. This is called
energy crisis. Hence alternative or renewable sources of energy have to be developed to
meet future energy requirement.
1.2. Energy Classification

Energy can be classified into 3 types. Those are
1. Primary and Secondary Energy
2. Commercial and Non Commercial Energy
3. Renewable and Non renewable Energy
1.2.1. Primary and Secondary Energy
Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature.
Common primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood).
Other primary energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive
substances, thermal energy stored in earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's
gravity. The major primary and secondary energy sources are Coal, hydro power, natural
gas, petroleum etc.
Primary energy sources are mostly converted in industrial utilities into secondary
energy sources for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity. Primary
energy can also be used directly. Some energy sources have non-energy uses, for example
coal or natural gas can be used as a feedstock in fertilizer plants.
Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 1

1.2.2. Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known
as commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are
electricity, coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of
industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern world. In
the industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for
economic production, but also for many household tasks of general population.
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are
classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such
as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not
bought at a price used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional
fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
1.2.3. Renewable and Non- Renewable Energy
All forms of energy are stored in different ways, in the energy sources that we use
every day. These sources are divided into two groups -- renewable (an energy source that
we can use over and over again) and nonrenewable (an energy source that we are using
up and cannot recreate in a short period of time).
Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources can be used to produce secondary
energy sources including electricity and hydrogen. Renewable energy sources include
solar energy, which comes from the sun and can be turned into electricity and heat. Wind,
geothermal energy from inside the earth, biomass from plants, and hydropower and ocean
energy from water are also renewable energy sources.
Figure 1.1: Renewable Energy Sources and Non-Renewable Energy Sources

However most of our energy from non-renewable energy sources, which include
the fossil fuels - oil, natural gas, and coal. They're called fossil fuels because they were
formed over millions and millions of years by the action of heat from the Earth's core and
pressure from rock and soil on the remains (or "fossils") of dead plants and animals.
Another nonrenewable energy source is the element uranium, whose atoms we split
(through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat and ultimately electricity.
All these energy sources to generate the electricity for our homes, businesses,
schools, and factories. Electricity "energizes" our computers, lights, refrigerators,
washing machines, and air conditioners, to name only a few uses. The energy to run our
cars and trucks. Both the gasoline used in our cars, and the diesel fuel used in our trucks
are made from oil. The propane that fuels our outdoor grills and makes hot air balloons
soar is made from oil and natural gas.
1.3. Energy Scenario

The present energy scenario is discussed under categorical division of India,
Andhra Pradesh.
1.3.1. Energy Scenario in India
The utility electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 288 GW as of 31
January 2016. Renewable Power plants constituted 28% of total installed capacity and

Non-Renewable Power Plants constituted the remaining 72%. The gross electricity
generated by utilities is 1,106 TWh (1,106,000 GWh) and 166 TWh by captive power
plants during the 201415 fiscal. The gross electricity generation includes auxiliary
power consumption of power generation plants. India became the world's third largest
producer of electricity in the year 2013 with 4.8% global share in electricity generation
surpassing Japan and Russia.
During the year 2014-15, the per capita electricity generation in India was 1,010
kWh with total electricity consumption (utilities and non utilities) of 938.823 billion or
746 kWh per capita electricity consumption. Electric energy consumption in agriculture
was recorded highest (18.45%) in 2014-15 among all countries. The per capita electricity
consumption is lower compared to many countries despite cheaper electricity tariff in
India. Sources of electricity in India by Installed Capacity as of 2016. By the end of
calendar year 2015, despite poor hydro electricity generation, India has become power
surplus country with huge power generation capacity idling for want of electricity
demand.
The calendar year 2016 started with steep fall in the international price of energy
commodities such as coal, diesel oil, naphtha, bunker fuel and LNG which are used in
electricity generation in India. Earlier many of the power stations which are using fuels
other than coal are unable to operate due to high cost of LNG and petro products. This
situation has changed due to glut in petroleum products globally.
The prices are falling to such an extent that these fuels have become cheaper to
give competition for pit head coal based power generators. Many of the stranded gas and
liquid fuel based power stations would be competing with indigenous coal based power
stations in an electricity market where demand growth is not encouraging.
Figure 1.1: Power generation capacity in India by source, 2015
All the segments of the electricity sector such as fuel suppliers, fuel transporters
(railways, harbours, pipelines, etc.), Electricity generators, electricity transmission
companies and distribution companies would be facing severe competition to cut down
the prices and improve their operating efficiency in a final consumer dictated market. If
Discoms, keep on charging exorbitant tariffs to bulk consumers, they would be opting for
solar/wind power plants or take over an existing power plant to meet their captive
consumption. Due to tepid growth in electricity consumption, coal stocks are
continuously building up at power stations as well as coal mines.
1.3.2. Andhra Pradesh Energy Scenario
Andhra Pradesh receives some of the highest irradiation in India. The state has
significant renewable purchase obligations (RPO) stemming from its high power demand.
In addition, Andhra Pradesh has Indias best performing state power utility (State
Electricity Board, SEB). The state has announced its solar policy recently. Andhra
Pradesh receives a global horizontal irradiation (GHI) of 1,900 2,000 KWh/m2/Year.
Andhra Pradesh has a significant total solar RPO requirement of 551MW until
2016. Solar projects worth 100 MW have already been allocated or are in the process of
allocation to meet these obligations. The long-term power scenario of Andhra Pradesh
provides an opportunity for solar energy. The state currently has a total power demand of

51,563 GWh and a peak load demand of 13,177 MW, the second highest in the country,
after Maharashtra.
This demand is expected to grow by 48% in next five years as compared to a
range of growth of 32% to 72% in rest of the states. Currently there is a total deficit of
2,519 GWh and peak load deficit of 1,586 MW in meeting the power requirements of the
state. The peak load deficit is higher than the national average (~9.8%). Solar availability
is the highest at the peak load time in hot weather conditions.
1.4. Energy and Pollution

The usage of conventional energy resources in industry leads to environmental
damages by polluting the atmosphere. Few of examples of air pollution are Sulphur
dioxide (SO2), Nitrous oxide (NOX) and Carbon oxides (CO, CO2) emissions from boilers
and furnaces, chloro fluro carbons (CFC) emissions from refrigerants use, etc. In
chemical and fertilizers industries, toxic gases are released. Cement plants and power
plants spew out particulate matter and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). But most of
the renewable energy is pollution free.
1.5. Energy from Sun

Various types of non conventional energy sources are such as geothermal ocean
tides, wind and sun. All non conventional energy sources have geographical limitations.
but Solar energy has less geographical limitation as compared to other non conventional
energy sources because solar energy is available over the entire globe, and only the size
of the collector field needs to be increased to provide the same amount of heat or
electricity. It is the primary task of the solar energy system designer to determine the
amount, quality and timing of the solar energy available at the site selected for installing
a solar energy conversion system so among all these solar energy seems to hold out the
greatest promise for the mankind.

It is free, inexhaustible, non-polluting and devoid of political control. Solar water
heaters, space heaters and cookers are already on the market and seem to be economically
viable. Solar photo voltaic cells, solar refrigerators and solar thermal power plants will be
'technically and economically viable in a short time. It is optimistically estimated that
50% of the world power requirements in the middle of 21st century will come only from
solar energy. Enough strides have been made during last two decades to develop the
direct energy conversion systems to increase the plant efficiency 60% to 70% by avoiding
the conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy. Still this technology is on the
threshold of the success and it is hoped that this will also play a vital role in power
generation in coming future.
In one minute, the sun provides enough energy to supply the world's energy needs
for one year. In one day, it provides more energy than the world's population could
consume in 27 years. The energy is free and the supply is unlimited. All this needed to do
is find a way to use it. The largest solar electric generating plant in the world produces a
maximum of 354 megawatts (MW) of electricity and is located at Kramer Junction,
California. Since India has abundant sources of RE especially sunlight, it can cater to all
the energy needs of the country. The country receives an average radiation of 5 KWh per
square meter (m) per day and with 2300 to 3200 sunshine hours per year. The potential of
solar photovoltaic has therefore been estimated at 20 MW per square km and that of solar
thermal applications at 35 Mw per sq m.
1.6. Ways for Converting Solar Energy into Electrical Energy

There are two ways by which we can convert solar energy into electrical energy.
These are as shown in figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Ways to convert solar energy into Electrical Energy

Solar Thermal: The solar collectors concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer
fluid to a high temperature. The hot heat transfer fluid is then used to generate
steam that drives the power conversion subsystem producing electricity. Thermal
energy storage provides heat for operation during periods without adequate
sunshine.
Figure 1.4: Solar Thermal
Solar Photovoltaic: Another way to generate electricity from solar energy is to

use photovoltaic cells, magic slivers of silicon that converts the solar energy

falling on thermal directly into electricity. Large scale applications of
photovoltaic for power generation, either on the rooftops of houses or in large
fields connected to the utility grid are promising as well to provide clean, safe
and strategically sound alternatives to current methods of electricity generation.
Figure 1.5: Solar Photovoltaic
1.7. Comparison between Solar Photovoltaic Plant and Solar Thermal

Power Plant
Many people associate solar energy directly with photovoltaic and not with solar
thermal power generation. In contrast to photovoltaic's plants, solar thermal power plants
are not based on the photo effect, but generate electricity from the heat produced by
sunlight. A fossil burner can drive the water-steam cycle during periods of bad weather or
at night. In contrast to photovoltaic's systems, solar thermal power plants can guarantee
capacity. Due to their modularity, photovoltaic operation covers a wide range from less
than one Watt to several megawatts and solar thermal power plants are small units in the
kilowatt range. On the other hand, Global solar irradiance consists of direct and diffuse
irradiance. When skies are overcast, only diffuse irradiance is available. While solar
thermal power plants can only use direct irradiance for power generation, photovoltaic
systems can convert the diffuse irradiance as well. That means, they can produce some
electricity even with cloud-covered skies. From economical point of view market
introduction of photovoltaic systems is much more aggressive than that of solar thermal
power plants, cost reduction can be expected to be faster for photovoltaic systems. But

even if there is a 50% cost reduction in photovoltaic systems and no cost reduction at all
in solar thermal power plants.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY

2.1. Introduction
Photovoltaic's offer consumers the ability to generate electricity in a clean, quiet
and reliable way. Photovoltaic systems are comprised of photovoltaic cells, devices that
convert light energy directly into electricity. Because the source of light is usually the
sun, they are often called solar cells. The word photovoltaic comes from photo meaning

light and voltaic which refers to producing electricity. Therefore, the photovoltaic
process is producing electricity directly from sunlight. Photovoltaic are often referred to
as PV.
2.2. Brief History

In 1839 Edmond Becquerel accidentally discovered photovoltaic effect when he
was working on solid-state physics. In 1878 Adam and Day presented a paper on
photovoltaic effect. In 1883 Fxitz fabricated the first thin film solar cell. In 1941 Ohl
fabricated silicon PV cell but that was very inefficient. In 1954 Bell labs Chopin, Fuller,
Pearson fabricated PV cell with efficiency of 6%. In 1958 PV cell was used as a backup
power source in satellite Vanguard-1. This extended the life of satellite for about 6 years.
2.3. Photovoltaic Cell

A device that produces an electric reaction to light, producing electricity. PV cells
do not use the sun's heat to produce electricity. They produce electricity directly when
sunlight interacts with semiconductor materials in the PV cells.
Figure 2.1: Photovoltaic cell

A typical PV cell made of crystalline silicon is 12 centimeters in diameter and
0.25 millimeters thick. In full sunlight, it generates 4 amperes of direct current at 0.5
volts or 2 watts of electrical power.
2.3.1. Basic Theory of Photovoltaic Cell
Photovoltaic cells are made of silicon or other semi conductive materials that
are also used in LSIs and transistors for electronic equipment. Photovoltaic

cells use two types of semiconductors, one is P-type and other is N-type to
generate electricity.
When sunlight strikes a semiconductor, it generate pairs of electrons (-) and
protons (+).
Figure 2.2: Basic theory of Photovoltaic cell 1
When an electron (-) and a proton (+) reach the joint surface between the two
types of semiconductors, the former is attracted to N-type and the latter to the Ptype semiconductor. Since the joint surface supports only one way traffic, they are
not able to rejoin once they are drawn apart and separated.

Since the N-type semiconductor now contains an electron (-), and P-type
semiconductor contains a proton (+), an electromotive (voltage) force is
generated. Connect both electrodes with conductors and the electrons runs from
N- type to P-type semiconductors, and the proton from P-type to N-type
semiconductors to make an electrical current.

2.3.2. Series and Parallel Connection of PV Cells
Solar cells can be thought of as solar batteries. If solar cells are connected in
series, then the current stays the same and the voltage increases.
Figure 2.5: Series connection of cells

If solar cells are connected in parallel, the voltage stays the same, but the current
increases.
Figure 2.6: Parallel connection of cells

Solar cells are combined to form a" module" to obtain the voltage and current
are desired.
2.3.3. Types of Photovoltaics Cells
There are essentially two types of PV technology, crystalline and thin-film.
1. Crystalline can again be broken down into two types:
Mono crystalline Cells - These are made using cells cut from a single cylindrical
crystal of silicon. While mono crystalline cells offer the highest efficiency

(approximately
18%
conversion
of
incident
sunlight),
their
complex
manufacturing process makes them slightly more expensive.

Polycrystalline Cells - These are made by cutting micro-fine wafers from ingots
of molten and recrystallized silicon. Polycrystalline cells are cheaper to produce,
but there is a slight compromise on efficiency (approximately 14% conversion of
incident sunlight).
2. Thin film PV is made by depositing an ultra thin layer of photovoltaic material

onto a substrate. The most common type of thin-film PV is made from the
material a-Si (amorphous silicon), but numerous other materials such as CIGS
(copper indium/gallium dieseline) CIS (copper indium solenoid), CdTe (Cadmium
Teluride), dye-sensitized cells and organic solar cells are also possible.
2.4. Photovoltaic Modules

PV cells are the basic building blocks of PV modules. For almost all applications,
the one-half volt produced by a single cell is inadequate. Therefore, cells are connected
together in series to increase the voltage. Several of these series strings of cells may be
connected together in parallel to increase the current as well.
These interconnected cells and their electrical connections are then sandwiched
between a top layer of glass or clear plastic and a lower level of plastic or plastic and
metal. An outer frame is attached to increase mechanical strength, and to provide a way
to mount the unit. This package is called a "module" or "panel". Typically, a module is
the basic building block of photovoltaic systems. PV modules consist of PV cells
connected in series (to increase the voltage) and in parallel (to increase the current), so
that the output of a PV system can match the requirements of the load to be powered. The
PV cells in a module can be wired to any desired voltage and current.
The amount of current produced is directly proportional to the cell's size,

conversion efficiency, and the intensity of light. Groups of 25 series connected PV cells
are packaged together into standard modules that provide a nominal 900 volts.
2.5. Describing Photovoltaic Module Performance

To insure compatibility with storage batteries or loads, it is necessary to know the
electrical characteristics of photovoltaic modules. As a reminder, "I" is the abbreviation
for current, expressed in amps. "V" is used for voltage in volts, and "R" is used for
resistance in ohms.
2.5.1. The Standard V-I Characteristic Curve of Photovoltaic Module
A photovoltaic module will produce its maximum current when there is
essentially no resistance in the circuit. This would be a short circuit between its positive
and negative terminals. This maximum current is called the short circuit current,
abbreviated Isc. When the module is shorted, the voltage in the circuit is zero.
The maximum voltage is produced when there is a break in the circuit. This is
called the open circuit voltage, abbreviated Voc. Under this condition the resistance is
infinitely high and there is no current, since the circuit is incomplete.
These two extremes in load resistance and the whole range of conditions in
between them are depicted on a graph called V-I (current-voltage) curve. Current,
expressed in amps, is on the vertical Y-axis. Voltage, in volts, is on the horizontal X-axis
as shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7: The standard V-I characteristic curve of Photovoltaic Module

The short circuit current occurs on a point on the curve where the voltage is zero.
The open circuit voltage occurs where the current is zero. The power available from a
photovoltaic module at any point along the curve is expressed in watts. Watts are
calculated by multiplying the voltage times the current (watts = volts amps).
At the short circuit current point, the power output is zero, since the voltage is
zero.
At the open circuit voltage point, the power output is also zero, but this time it is
because the current is zero.
The power, expressed in watts, at the maximum power point is described as peak,
maximum, or ideal, among other terms. Maximum power is generally abbreviated as "I
(mp)." Various manufacturers call it maximum output power, output, peak power, rated
power, or other terms. The voltage& Current (V-I) curve is based on the module being
under standard conditions of sunlight and module temperature. It assumes that there is no
shading on the module.
2.5.2. Impact of Solar Radiation on V-I Characteristic Curve of Photovoltaic Module
Standard sunlight conditions on a clear day are assumed to be 1000 watts of solar
energy per square meter (1000 W/m2) sometimes this called "one sun" or a "peak sun".
Less than one sun will reduce the current output of the module by a proportional amount.

For example, if only one-half sun (500 W/m2) is available, the amount of output current
is roughly cut in half.
Figure 2.8: Change in Photovoltaic module voltage and current on change in solar
radiation
For maximum output, the face of the photovoltaic modules should be pointed as
straight toward the sun as possible.
2.6. Types of Photovoltaic System

PV technology was first applied in space, by providing electricity to satellites.
Today, PV systems can be used to power just about anything on Earth. On the basis
working operation PV systems operate in four basic forms.
Grid Connected PV Systems - These systems are connected to a broader

electricity network. The PV system is connected to the utility grid using a high
quality inverter, which converts DC power from the solar array into AC power
that conforms to the grid's electrical requirements. During the day, the solar
electricity generated by the system is either used immediately or sold off to
electricity supply companies. In the evening, when the system is unable to supply
immediate power, electricity can be bought back from the network.
Figure 2.9: Grid Connected PV Systems
Standalone Systems: PV systems not connected to the electric utility grid are
known as Off Grid PV Systems and also called "stand-alone systems". Direct
systems use the PV power immediately as it is produced, while battery storage
systems can store energy to be used at a later time, either at night or during cloudy
weather. These systems are used in isolation of electricity grids, and may be used
to power radio repeater stations, telephone booths and street lighting. PV systems
also provide invaluable and affordable electricity in developing countries like
India, where conventional electricity grids are unreliable or non-existent.
Figure 2.10: Off Grid PV Systems
Hybrid System: A hybrid system combines PV with other forms of power

generation, usually a diesel generator and Biogas is also used. The other form of
power generation is usually a type which is able to modulate power output as a
function of demand. However more than one form of renewable energy may be
used e.g. wind and solar. The photovoltaic power generation serves to reduce the
consumption of nonrenewable fuel.
Figure 2.11: Hybrid System

Grid Tied with Battery Backup PV system: Solar energy stored in batteries can
be used at night time. Using net metering, unused solar power can be sold back to
the grid. With this system, you will have power even if your neighborhood has
lost power.
2.7. Grid Connected PV System

Because as day by day the demand of electricity is increased and that much
demand cannot be meeting up by the conventional power plants. And also these plants
create pollution. The renewable energy it will be better but throughout the year the
generation of all renewable energy power plants. Grid tied PV system is more reliable
than other PV system. No use of battery reduces its capital cost so we go for the grid
connected topology. If generated solar energy is integrated to the conventional grid, it
can supply the demand from morning to afternoon (total 6 hours mainly in sunny
days) that is the particular time range when the SPV system can fed to grid. As no
battery backup is there, that means the utility will continue supply to the rest of the
time period. Grid-connected systems have demonstrated an advantage in natural
disasters by providing emergency power capabilities when utility power was
interrupted. Although PV power is generally more expensive than utility-provided
power, the use of grid connected systems is increasing.
SOLAR PARAMETERS
3.1. Fill Factor
The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage are the maximum current
and voltage respectively from a solar cell. However, at both of these operating points, the
power from the solar cell is zero. The "fill factor", more commonly known by its
abbreviation "FF", is a parameter which, in conjunction with V oc and Isc, determines the
maximum power from a solar cell. The FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum power
from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc. Graphically, the FF is a measure of the
"squareness" of the solar cell and is also the area of the largest rectangle which will fit in
the V-I curve. The FF is illustrated below.
Figure 3.1: Short circuit current and open circuit voltage characteristics
Graph of cell output current (red line) and power (blue line) as function of
voltage. Also shown are the cell short-circuit current (I sc) and open-circuit voltage (Voc)
points, as well as the maximum power point (Vmp, Imp).
As FF is a measure of the "squareness" of the V-I curve, a solar cell with a higher
voltage has a larger possible FF since the "rounded" portion of the V-I curve takes up less
area. The maximum theoretical FF from a solar cell can be determined by differentiating
the power from a solar cell with respect to voltage and finding where this is equal to zero.
Hence
.(3.1)
Giving:
...(3.2)

However, the above technique does not yield a simple or closed form equation.
The equation above only relates Voc to Vmp, and extra equations are needed to find I mp and
FF. A more commonly used expression for the FF can be determined as
..(3.3)
Fill Factor Calculator 1:

Open Circuit Voltage=0.63 v
V Ideality Factor n= 1
Temperature T= 300 K
V Fill Factor= 72.3 FF
However, large variations in open-circuit voltage within a given material system
are relatively uncommon. For example, at one sun, the difference between the maximum
open-circuit voltage measured for a silicon laboratory device and a typical commercial
solar cell is about 120 mV, giving maximum FF's respectively of 0.85 and 0.83. However,
the variation in maximum FF can be significant for solar cells made from different
materials. For example, a GaAs solar cell may have a FF approaching 0.89.
The above equation also demonstrates the importance of the ideality factor, also
known as the "n-factor" of a solar cell. The ideality factor is a measure of the junction
quality and the type of recombination in a solar cell. For the simple recombination
mechanisms discussed in Types of Recombination, the n-factor has a value of 1.
However, some recombination mechanisms, particularly if they are large, may introduce
recombination mechanisms of 2. A high n-value not only degrades the FF, but since it will
also usually signal high recombination, it gives low open-circuit voltage.
Limitations in the equation described above is that they represent a maximum
possible FF, although in practice the FF will be lower due to the presence of parasitic

resistive losses, which are discussed in Effects of Parasitic Resistances. Therefore, the FF
is most commonly determined from measurement of the V-I curve and is defined as the
maximum power divided by the product of Voc & Isc.
.(3.4)
Fill Factor Calculator 2:

Open-circuit voltage, Voc =36 V
Short-circuit current, Isc = 8.6 A
Voltage at max power, Vmp =30 V
Current at max power, Imp = 8.33A
Resulting fill factor, FF =80.2 %
3.2. Efficiency
The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance
of one solar cell to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the
solar cell to input energy from the sun. In addition to reflecting the performance of the
solar cell itself, the efficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity of the incident
sunlight and the temperature of the solar cell. Therefore, conditions under which
efficiency is measured must be carefully controlled in order to compare the performance
of one device to another. Terrestrial solar cells are measured under AM1.5 conditions and
at a temperature of 25C. Solar cells intended for space use are measured under AM0

conditions. Recent top efficiency solar cell results are given in the page Solar Cell
Efficiency Results.
The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power
which is converted to electricity and is defined as:
(3.5)
.(3.6)
Where Voc is the open-circuit voltage.
Isc is the short-circuit current.
FF is the fill factor.
is the efficiency.
Efficiency Calculator:
Open Circuit Voltage, VOC =0.63V
Short Circuit Current, ISC = 9.24A
Fill Factor, FF =72.33 %
Input Power, Pin = 4.02W
Maximum Power, Pmax= 4.2 W
Efficiency, n= 17.39%
3.3. Short Circuit Current

The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell when the voltage
across the solar cell is zero (i.e., when the solar cell is short circuited). Usually written as
ISC, the short-circuit current is shown in figure 3.2.
Figure3.2: V-I characteristics of solar cell with short-circuit current.

The short-circuit current is due to the generation and collection of light-generated
carriers. For an ideal solar cell at most moderate resistive loss mechanisms, the shortcircuit current and the light-generated current are identical. Therefore, the short-circuit
current is the largest current which may be drawn from the solar cell.
When comparing solar cells of the same material type, the most critical material
parameter is the diffusion length and surface passivation. In a cell with perfectly
passivated surface and uniform generation, the equation for the short-circuit current can
be approximated as:
(3.7)
Where G is the generation rate, and L n and Lp are the electron and hole diffusion
lengths respectively. Although this equation makes several assumptions which are not
true for the conditions encountered in most solar cells, the above equation nevertheless
indicates that the short-circuit current depends strongly on the generation rate and the
diffusion length.

Silicon solar cells under an AM1.5 spectrum have a maximum possible current of
46 mA/cm2. Laboratory devices have measured short-circuit currents of over 42 mA/cm 2,
and commercial solar cell have short-circuit currents between about 28 mA/cm 2 and 35
mA/cm2.
Figure 3.3: Vsc as function of band gap

3.3.1. Illuminated Current and Short Circuit Current
IL is the light generated current inside the solar cell and is the correct term to use
in the solar cell equation. At short circuit conditions the externally measured current is
Isc. Since Isc is usually equal to IL, the two are used interchangeably and for simplicity and
the solar cell equation is written with I sc in place of IL. In the case of very high series
resistance (> 10 cm2) Isc is less than IL and writing the solar cell equation with Isc is
incorrect.
Another assumption is that the illumination current IL is dependent on the
incoming light and is independent of voltage across the cell. However, I L varies with
voltage in the case of drift-field solar cells and where carrier lifetime is a function of
injection level such as defected multi crystalline materials.
3.4. Open Circuit Voltage

The open-circuit voltage, VOC, is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell,
and this occurs at zero current. The open-circuit voltage corresponds to the amount of
forward bias on the solar cell due to the bias of the solar cell junction with the lightgenerated current. The open-circuit voltage is shown in figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: V-I characteristics of solar cell with open circuit voltage.
An equation for Voc is found by setting the net current equal to zero in the solar cell
equation.
(3.8)
The above equation shows that Voc depends on the saturation current of the solar
cell and the light-generated current. While Isc typically has a small variation, the key
effect is the saturation current, since this may vary by orders of magnitude. The saturation
current, I0 depends on recombination in the solar cell. Open-circuit voltage is then a
measure of the amount of recombination in the device. Silicon solar cells on high quality
single crystalline material have open-circuit voltages of up to 730 mV. under one sun and

AM1.5 conditions, while commercial devices on multi crystalline silicon typically have
open-circuit voltages around 600 mV.
The VOC can also be determined from the carrier concentration:
(3.9)
Where kT/q is the thermal voltage, N A is the doping concentration, n is the
excess carrier concentration and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration. The determination
of VOC from the carrier concentration is also termed Implied VOC.
Voc as a Function of Band gap, EG
Where the short-circuit current (ISC) decreases with increasing band gap, the opencircuit voltage increases as the band gap increases. In an ideal device the VOC is limited
by radiative recombination and the analysis uses the principle of detailed balance to
determine the minimum possible value for J0.
The minimum value of the diode saturation current is given by:
(3.10)
Where q is the electronic charge.
is the StefanBoltzmann constant.
k is Boltzmann constant.
T is the temperature and

Evaluating the integral in the above equation is quite complex.
Figure 3.5: Diode saturation current as a function of band gap.

The J0 calculated above can be directly plugged into the standard solar cell
equation given at the top of the page to determine the V OC so long as the voltage is less
than the band gap, as is the case under one sun illumination.
Figure 3.6: VOC as function of band gap for a cell with AM 0 and AM 1.5.
The VOC increases with band gap as the recombination current falls. There is drop
off in VOC at very high band gaps due to the very low ISC.
College management wants to install 100kw roof top solar power plant in our
college and call for quotation. Based on the college requirement the companies which are
mentioned below submitted their proposals.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
RADIUM SOLAR
ARGO SOLAR PRIVATE LIMITED
VARSHNI POWER
TRANS SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES
ORB ENERGY AND
SIRIUS SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM
Finally college management decided to give plant contract to Sirius solar
energy system.
Steps involved in plant construction are
1. Panel making
2. Solar plant installation
3. Grid connection
These steps are explained in next chapters.
PANEL MAKING
4.1. Introduction
In solar power plant main functioning part is Solar panel. The information about
solar panel making process is given in this chapter in detailed.
4.2. Physical Size

Length and Width: Although length and width varies slightly, most companies
are manufacturing solar panels in standard sizes. The most typical size used for
installations is 65 inches by 39 inches, while the common size for commercial
applications is 77 inches by 39 inches. The smaller size is a better fit for
residential projects to maximize available roof space. Most commercial projects
have hundreds of panels and this is the slightly larger panel is a more ideal choice.
Depth: The depth of solar panels range between 1.4 inches to 1.8 inches, although
we are seeing more manufacturers move to a 1.8 inch depth.
Weight: Residential solar panels weigh about 40 pounds while the slightly wider
commercial
panels weigh closer to 50 pounds. The weight of the solar panels
may be important in scenarios where reinforcement is needed and there is no

access to the framing.
PV cells are working element in solar panel. PV cells are not made in India so we
import the PV cells in the form of sheets from Taiwan and Arab countries. This is one of
the reason for high cost of solar panels. The imported PV cell sheet is shown in figure
4.1.
Figure 4.1: PV cell sheet

The imported solar PV cell sheet is cut in to small PV cells by using laser cutting
in size of 156mm x 156 mm. The equipment used in cutting is shown in figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Laser cutting equipment

After cutting the cells in required size we test the V-I characteristics of the PV cell
as shown in figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: PV Cell performance testing equipment and V-I Characteristics

After testing of cells we choose the required number of cells based on the panel
rating we want. Normally there are three types of voltage rating panels (24v, 36v, 60v). In
this plant 36v PV panels are used. For making 36v panel 60 PV cells are needed. Each
cell having 0.6voltage rating so for 36v (60*0.6=36).
4.3. Soldering Process

The 60 PV cells are connected in series by using soldering process. The materials
used in soldering process are:
1. Soldering Iron
2. Soldering Iron Stand
3. 3mm tabbing wire-pre soldier coated
4. 5mm tabbing wire-pre soldier coated
5. Scissors
6. Ruler
7. Holding Tool
8. Solder Pen
9. Solder Paste-Only used to tin the Solder Iron
10. Solder wire-Only used to tin the Solder Iron
11. Solar Cell
Soldering process is shown in figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4: Soldering process of PV Cells.

Solar cells are connected in series i.e positive and negative connection by tin leads
through soldering process. These tin leads are act as buses. After soldering process the pv
cells are placed on a EVA sheet as shown in figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5: EVA sheet with PV cells.
4.4. EVA Sheets

Solar EVA is brand name of ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) base encapsulating
sheet. The various characteristic properties from EVA resin provide excellent features as
described below, and some additional features, such as high temperature resistance and

weather resistance, were added for use in severe environments with sunshine. Excellent
durability (high temperature, high humidity, and weather resistance)
Excellent adhesive bonding to glass, cell, and back side film (back sheet)
Excellent encapsulating properties during the lamination process
Excellent optical transmission and transparency
Excellent flexibility, protecting cells from physical stress during the lamination
process.
This EVA sheet with PV cells is placed in a Aluminum frame and finally it is
covered with trephine glass. This glass protects the PV cells from atmospheric conditions.
Figure 4.6: Aluminum frame and glass arrangement

Glass has several strong points concerning optical properties:
-It can be produced in large and homogeneous panes
-Its optical properties are not affected by ageing
- It is produced with perfectly flat and parallel surfaces
The main characteristics of glass are transparency, heat resistance, pressure and
breakage resistance and chemical resistance.
4.5. Refractive Index

If light from an optically less dense medium (air) meets an optically denser
medium (glass), then the light ray is split at the surface interfaces. The measure of
deflection determines the refractive index. For float glass, this refractive index is n=1.52.
Aluminum extrusion provides a clear economic advantage in the product of solar
application. The lower weight of aluminum (1/3rd of steel) allows far more material to be
used at a lower cost. Because of its recyclability, light weight, high strength and high
corrosion resistance, it has become a preferred material. By using aluminum is saving on
costs of solar panel and transportation.
After connecting PV cells in series we get two leads out of the frame in these two
leads one act as a positive and other act as a negative lead .they are shown in figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7: Solar panel terminals.

For protection of Solar panel we use the two types of diodes the function of these
diodes is explained below.
The P-N junction diode acts like solid state one way electrical valve that only
allows electrical current to flow through them in one direction only. The advantage of this
is that diodes can be used to block the flow of electric current from other parts of an
electrical solar circuit. When used with a photovoltaic solar panel, these types of silicon
diodes are generally referred to as Blocking Diodes.

Bypass Diodes are used in parallel with either a single or a number of
photovoltaic solar cells to prevent the current(s) flowing from good, well-exposed to
sunlight solar cells overheating and burning out weaker or partially shaded solar cells by
providing a current path around the bad cell. Blocking diodes are used differently than
bypass diodes.
Bypass diodes in solar panels are connected in parallel with a photovoltaic cell
or panel to shunt the current around it, whereas blocking diodes are connected in series
with the PV panels to prevent current flowing back into them.
The connection of diodes is shown in figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8: Diode connection in solar panel
4.5. Panel Testing

Panel testing process is done in two ways .One is temperature testing and other is
electrical testing.
In temperature testing we test the panel under 1000 degree centigrade. it gives the
result how much temperature it will bear.
Figure 4.9: Temperature testing equipment.

In electrical testing the performance characteristics of the solar panel are tested. In
this test the rating of the panel like rated voltage, current and short circuited current are
observed. It shows in figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10: Electrical testing equipment.

Table 4.1: Solar panel specifications
Rated Power (P Max)
Open Circuit Voltage
Short Circuit Current (I Sc)
Rated Voltage (V Max)
Rated Current (Imp)
Power Tolerance
Specification are at STC
Cell Temperature
250W
36.00V
8.60A
30.00V
8.33A
3%
2
1000W/m Insulation, AM 1.5
250
SOLAR POWER PLANT INSTALLATION

5.1. Introduction

Solar modules are installed on rooftops where there is danger of personnel falling
off of the roof. Scaffolding, stepladders, and ladders may be dangerous and require
caution. The installation of solar modules involves work in high places, take extreme
precautions to avoid falling from roof. To prevent accidents, safety regulations must be
observed. Always take the following precautions to prevent accidents and injury.
1. Take the following precautions before starting work.
Plan the job and visit the site before starting work.
On site, do not work alone. Always work with atleast one other person.
Inspect power tools before using them.
2. When conditions make it necessary, tell workers to stop working.
When it is raining, or there is a strong probability that it will start raining.
Immediately after rain, and when work areas are slippery.
When high wind conditions exist, or are expected, or when a high wind warning
has been issued.
When it is snowing, or when there is snow underfoot.
When the condition of the scaffolding and ladders are not satisfactory.
3. Wear appropriate work clothes and protective equipment.
Work clothes for both the upper and lower body should fit well and allow you to
move freely.
Always wear protective equipment such as harnesses and lifelines.
Wear a helmet and secure it correctly.
Wear non-slip shoes. Shoes get dirty when worn on a roof, so keep the soles
clean.
4. Observe safety regulations for ascending and descending ladders and stepladders.
Before use, always inspect ladders and stepladders to makes sure they are in
good condition.
Choose a safe spot to anchor ladders and stepladders.
Always work with a partner. One person should hold the ladder steady.
Ladders from a first-story roof to a second-story roof are very dangerous. Do not
set up a ladder on a roof. When there is no other choice, straddle the ridge and

lay down a rubber anchor mat, and secure the ladder to the mat. Always
one person hold the ladder firmly.
have
When you use a two-stage ladder, secure it with ropes or stays to prevent it from
sliding sideways, and have two persons hold the ladder steady.
Use ladders with steps broad enough to permit safe work.
5. When working in high places wear harnesses and use scaffolding.
When working at heights of 6 ft or more, use scaffolds or other equipment to
ensure a stable work platform.
Scaffolds should be designed and erected by a qualified person.
When it is difficult to erect a stable work platform, install safety nets, wear
harnesses, and take other measures to prevent falls.
Regulations mandate the use of harnesses. Fasten harnesses securely, and check
that the length of lifelines is 6 ft or less.
Attach the primary support line securely to a metal fixture installed for that
purpose on a ridge or beam.
6. Install enclosures and covers.
Install enclosures, guardrails, or covers at the end of work decks that are 10 ft or
more above ground, at openings, and at other dangerous locations.
When it is extremely difficult to install enclosures, guardrails, or covers, or
when they must be removed to work in that location, install a safety net,
wear
harnesses, and take other measures to prevent falls.
7. Protect against falling objects.

When objects are thrown down from a height of 6 ft or more, appoint a
surveillance person on the ground and warn others about falling objects.
Do not allow third parties to enter the work area during construction.
Arrange tools and materials neatly and secure them with ropes, or use bags or
other measures to prevent falling objects.
8. Other
When there are electric power lines near the roof or eaves, request the power
utility to take advance measures to prevent shock.

Check the health of workers before starting work.
Lift packaged modules by grasping both sides of the package. Do not lift by
grasping the band, as the band can break.
Never step or sit on the glass surface of a solar module.
5.2. Points to Check When Selecting The installation Location

Check the following items before starting installation work.
Refer to the inverter installation manual for more information about inverter installation
and electrical work.
5.2.1. Condition of Building Where Solar Power System Is To Be Installed
Inspection of Roof Structure
It is important to inspect the structural integrity of the roof and the durability of
the roof materials. The SRS mounting structure and solar modules require a strong base
for durable and reliable operation in local environments.
Always wear a safety harness when working on the roof. Inspect the roof surface
in the area of the installation for cracks, water leakage, and roofing material quality and
uniformity. This is especially important if the roof is older than 14 years.
Inspect the roof for sags and other abnormalities. A sag or deep depression in the
roof may indicate a structural weakness in the support system that may require correction.
The following illustrations detail typical roof construction as well as old roof problems.
.
Figure 5.1: Site selection of Rooftop Solar power plant
5.2.2. Inspection of the Roof Support System

This may require access to the attic. Check that all rafters, trusses and other
materials are in good condition. Check for indication of previous water leaks. Measure
the spacing of the rafters or trusses to confirm the dimensions and prepare for the system
layout. Determine the location of the electrical roof penetration and wire run, if wiring is
planned for this area.
5.2.3. Checking the Solar Power System Installation Location Code Compliant
Installation
Determine the wind loads for the installation site. Check with your local building
and safety department for the specific requirements.
Make certain that the roof structure can support the live and dead loads resulting
from the installation of the PV array.
Consult with a professional engineer if additional assistance is required.
Determine the basic wind speed from the IBC wind speed chart (for US
locations).
Determine the exposure category A through D (get latest definitions from IBC or
local building code).
Determine total pressure by compiling basic wind speed, exposure and roof
height. Check with Sharp technical support if your total pressure exceeds 45 PSF.
Reference the chart wind speeds to determine your design wind pressure (PSF).
Determine exposure categories A through D for various roof heights.
Based on the loading in step 7, makes certain that the roof structure can support
the load.
The modules and system are UL listed to standard 1703. The UL 1703 test is
performed at 1.5 times the design load of 30 lbs per square foot, or 45 lbs per
square foot. The system has been load tested by Sharp to 50 PSF use in locations
subject to higher values.
Building departments often require a design safety factor of 1.5 or greater for
structures. The maximum structural loading listed in this guide, does not include
an added safety factor.
To achieve maximum loading, use at least the same number of sliders as modules
on each rail.

Install solar modules facing south, if possible. Installations facing east and west
are also possible, although the amount of power generated will be lower.
Check the roof from a southern orientation, and check for obstacles that will cast
a shadow. These factors will lower the amount of power generated. Explain this to
the users and obtain their consent.
Install in a location that has good sun exposure throughout the year. Less power is
generated in shaded locations.
5.3. System Sizing

The system sizing and specifications for the 100 KW power plant unit is shown below:
Site Information
Proposal site for The Plant is Rajampet in kadapa district, India. Its co-ordinates are:
Latitude
: 14o 18888 N
Longitude
: 79o 166 E
One way to describe locations on Earth is by latitude and longitude. Latitude is a

measure of how far north or south a place is from the Equator. Because the Equator is at
the midpoint of Earth, its latitude is 0. All other locations are measured starting from the
Equator and moving north or south. To measure distance east or west you would use
longitude lines. The starting point for measuring longitude is called the Prime Meridian.
It goes through Greenwich, England. Similar to the Equator, its longitude is 0. Longitude
lines run between the geographic North and South Poles. To describe the position of a
place on Earth you would use both latitude and longitude. By locating where a location's
latitude and longitude intersect, you can easily find it on a map. Both latitude and
longitude are measured in degrees.
Table 5.1: Plant details
DESCRIPTION
DETAILS
UNITS

Plant size, wattage
Project cost in Rs
Technology type
Mounting type
Space Required
100
71-10.65=60.35
multi crystalline
SEASONAL TILT
1400
Kw
Lakhs
Wp
------Sq Ft.
Figure 5.2:100 KW Rooftop Solar power plant model diagram
5.4. Installation Work

Before starting installation work we need to mark on the roof top. Based on the
building position we give the markings. In this project distance between the two lines is
18 meters.
5.4.1. Checking Layout

Before installing sliders, check layout of rails and splices.
Place sliders on all tiles that were identified to be drilled for tile standoffs.
Pre-assemble rails and splices.
Figure 5.3: Bolt Tightening

Place rails with splices into position. Ensure slider locations do not overlap
splices.
If these overlap or seem too close, shift rails horizontally or move sliders to next
rafter or remove splices to switch the long and short rails to opposite sides.
Reattach splices after rails are switched and recheck for overlap.
Figure 5.4: Distance between two supporting poles
5.4.2. Installing the Flashings (Optional)

Flashings can improve water and ice management on the roof by directing the
water around the rail slider assembly. It is ideal for use in new construction, reroof, and in
locations with significant precipitation. The flashings are installed below the standard
slider assembly. Each flashing is similar in size to the slider assembly. The flashing has a
large flange around its perimeter to allow for integration with the surrounding shingles.

There are 3 alignment marks on the flashing and identification for the orientation of the
part.
Confirm the locations of each standard slider assembly. Follow the same rules for
installation as the slider foot. The flashings located on the bottom rail (close to
the eave), should be aligned with the chalk lines created in the roof layout.
Flashings used to support the center rails, should be centered on the rail line. The
flashings located at the top rail (close to the ridge), should have minimal exposure
beyond the rail.
Dry fit the flashing in the location marked for installation. Use a utility knife to
cut the surrounding shingles to assure a flush and water resistant fit. Install
flashing over a layer of shingles to insure water Resistance.
Figure 5.5: Marking of drilling holes

Invert the flashing, peel off the protective backing paper and apply a bead of
roofing silicone along the top and sides in the flange area. Leave the bottom
flange clear for water drainage. Make sure that the shingles are at room
temperature, ~68F. When shingles are cold, they become brittle and are difficult
to work with. Use a putty knife to lift the shingles and slide in the flashing.
Apply a bead of silicone on the top and sides of the flange that contact the
surrounding shingles. Press the area to create tight seal.
Peel off the backing paper from the standard slider. Place the standard slider
assembly on the flashing and secure with the supplied flashing screws 110 mm.
Figure 5.6: Bead silicon fills in hole

5.4.3. Installing Tile Slider Assembly
Identify the locations for the roof tile sliders so that each slider is located in the
valley of the tile.
Number two tiles, one above the other. The lower tile will be removed to install
the aluminum support plate.
Mark the edge of the upper tile on the lower tile to insure proper alignment upon
assembly.
Figure 5.7: Covered with concrete mixture

Remove the lower tile from the roof.
Place the roof tile slider on the lower tile and align with the horizontal line
marked above. Mark two holes for roof tile standoff.
Drill 2 holes using the Sharp supplied drill bit (AE112). A high speed drill
(approximately 1000 rpm) is required for this process. Exert a pressure of 40 to 50
lb. Make certain to dip the tip of the drill in water after drilling each hole. This
will cool the drill bit. Clean any debris and dust after drilling.
Locate the rafter and place the aluminum support plate on the deck. Install two 80
mm screws through the plate, spaced ~ 5" apart, into the rafter. Install four 35 mm

screws through the plate and into the deck. The screws should be spaced equally
along the upper and lower edges of the plate.
Place 2 butyl pads under the holes drilled in the tile. The butyl should be located
on the underside of the tile. Reinstall the tile on to the roof, minding the locations
marked previously.
Inject Sharp supplied silicone caulk, AE107 into the holes to form a dome. The
dimensions of the dome are ~ 0.75" in height and 1.5" in diameter.
Insert 2 top butyl pads onto the tile standoff legs.
Figure 5.8: The tile standoff legs

Insert the tile roof stand off into the drilled holes until it rests on top of the
aluminum support plate.
Place the tile slider over the standoff and secure with two 135 mm screws.
Push the top butyl pad into the silicone dome. Make certain that the silicone caulk
forms a bead around the butyl pad.
Figure 5.9: the top butyl pad into the silicone dome
Insert the roof tile slider bracket into the slider and prepare for rail installation.
5.4.4. System Protection

Grounding

Upon completion of the array ground wire, bring to the rooftop junction box. Use
at least a 10 AWG ground wire for this purpose. The ground will continue down to the
DC disconnect and to the inverter. The inverter must be grounded to a ground rod. All of
the Rails in an installation shall be provided with protective earth grounding wires when
installed. Drill 6 holes each whole 10 ft depth. These holes are filled with carbon powder.
Accomplishing a code compliant grounding system is critical to the safety of the
system. Continuous grounding of all modules and mounting system components is
required.
1. Install outdoor rated ground lugs or ring terminals with ground wire (per above
drawings). Use the marked ground hole on either end of the rail.
2. Connect a minimum solid conductor, copper, ground wire to the ground lug or ring
terminal.
3. Land the end of the ground wire in the array junction box.
Lightning Arresters and Over Voltage Protection
Solar PV systems will be provided with lighting and over voltage protection
through proper earth marts. The lightning conductors will be provided to protect the
entire solar array field from lightning strikes. The lightning conductors shall be earthed
through flats and connected to earth marts with earth pits. The earth pits are provided
with masonry enclose with cast iron cover plate having locking arrangement, watering
pipe using charcoal and salt.

Figure 5.10: Grounding arrangement and lightning arrester
5.4.5. Installing Module Support Rails
Create appropriate rail length by incorporating rail splice kit. Place splice under
rails to be joined and fasten using 4 M8 bolts. Hand tighten 5 turns and use a 13
mm socket wrench to tighten to appropriate torque.
Place rail on standard slider top bracket.
Insert M8 bolts through AD804 dock washer and fasten to standard slider bottom
bracket.
Use shim kit to level the height of the rail on the roof. Place shim between rail and
standard slider top bracket. Slide the shim into the bolt so that it is fully engaged.
5.4.6. Installing Front Cover
Prior to the installation of the bottom row of modules (located close to the eave of
the roof) a front cover is installed to provide a finished appearance.
1. Place each front cover over the top of the support rail as shown in figure 5.11.
Figure 5.11: Place rail on standard slider top bracket

2. Place a module mounting clip, AD801 into the support rail. Make certain that
the lip of the module clip captures the front cover as shown. Each module clip
should be located approximately 8" (200 mm) in from the edge of the solar
module.
5.4.7. Installing Side Cover
Attach the side covers to the open ends of the rail covers.

Use two side cover screws to secure each cover. To save time, install side covers
prior to installing rail covers.
5.4.8. Arrangement of Modules
For placing solar modules first we construct the solar array frame as shown in the
Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.12: Module structure

Based on the no. of panels placing we construct the solar array frame. in this plant
we fix the 10 solar modules in frame. For constructing the frame we use the molding steel
rods. This frame is fixed on the two legs as shown in figure 5.13 solar modules are
arranged in the array manner.
Figure 5.13: solar array fixed in the frame
5.5. Connecting the Solar Modules

Connect each array according to the solar array connection examples.
There is a cable + (positive) and a cable - (negative) on the rear side of each solar
module. Connect the waterproof connectors on these cables, making sure to push
the connectors all the way in.
Figure 5.14: Connection of positive and negative cables

On the first solar module, connect the positive home run cable to the positive
array output cable, and connect the negative cable to the positive cable of the
second solar module. On the second solar module, connect the negative cable to
the positive cable of the third solar module. Continue until you have series
connected the appropriate number of modules for the desired voltage.
When you have made direct connections between the specified number of solar
modules, use a digital multimeter to measure the voltage and current output of the
array. Do this for each string, and record the measurement results.
This information is needed to check for solar module wiring mistakes, and it will
also be needed by the electrician who makes the connections to the inverter.
Organize the cables between solar modules. Bundle the cables so that they do not
touch the roof, and use cable clips to fasten them to the rear side of the module
frame. Leaves and other debris can be caught around cables that are allowed to
touch the roof, and over the years loose dirt can build up, potentially causing the
roof to leak. Use cable clips to secure wire to the module frame. Push clips onto
the module frame where needed. Push wire into clip to secure.

Tape the output cables for each array together, and write the number of solar
modules in the array on the tape, so that it can be understood by the electrician
who makes the connections to the inverter.
Figure 5.15: String number indicating

Tape the + (positive) and - (negative) cable ends separately.
Always protect the array output cables with conduit wherever they touch the roof
or are exposed to sunlight.
Figure 5.16: Strings arrangement
5.6. Testing Module Strings for Correct Voltage

For an array of 25 modules directly connect the Junction box and measure in the
following order.
Measure the voltage of the 25 solar modules. As shown in figure 5.17.
Figure 5.17: Measurement of voltage and Junction box connection

Switch the tester to DC and measure. The voltage will vary depending on the
amount of sunlight, but the value should be from 800 to 900 VDC.
The voltage will vary depending on the amount of sunlight, but it should measure,
about 814 V.
Be careful of shock. Check the measurements
a. For the 100kWp plant required no. of PV panels = 400.
b. Multiply the value measured for a single solar module in step (1) by the
number of solar modules.
c. Compare this value to the measured value (814V) for the whole array. The
string wiring is correct if the difference is 86 V or less.
d. Total output voltage is from solar photovoltaic
structure = 1000 V.
e. Total output current is from solar photovoltaic
structure=8*8=64 A.
5.7. Inverter Connection

Solar inverters are also called as photovoltaic solar inverters. These devices can
help you save lot of money. The small-scale grid one have just two components i.e. the
panels and inverter while the off grid systems are complicated and consists of batteries
which allows users to use appliances during the night when there is no Sunlight available.
Figure 5.18: Advanced energy AE 3TL 8 Inverter

The solar panel and the batteries that are placed on rooftops attract Sun rays and
then convert the Sunlight into electricity. The batteries too grab the extra electricity so
that it can then be used to run appliances at night.
5.7.1. WORKING OF SOLAR INVERTER
Now after knowing what a solar inverter is, lets talk about its working. Solar
panels produce direct electricity with the help of electrons that are moving from negative
to positive direction. Most of the appliances that we use at home work on alternative
current. This AC is created by the constant back and forth of the electrons from negative
to positive. In AC electricity the voltage can be adjusted according to the use of the
appliance. As solar panels only produce Direct current the solar inverter is used to
convert the DC to AC.
An inverter produces square waves or a sine wave which can be used for running
lights, televisions, lights, motors etc. However these inverters also produce harmonic
distortion. Expensive inverters make use of lots of steps to produce a sine wave and thus
are found in residential solar inverters. Basically inverters should be a large one so that it
supplies enough power to all the necessary appliances.
An inverter s easy to buy but choosing the right solar inverter for your appliance
is more important. Thus you must always consult a solar professional before buying on.
We know that the energy derived from sun is solar energy which is one of the cleanest
sources of energy. Also it can be used to provide lighting to houses.

The photovoltaic tiles that attract energy from Sun and converts it into a clean
form of electricity which can be used to light, houses, industries and companies. The
cells of photovoltaic consist of positive and negative silicon that is placed underneath a
slice of glass. When the protons of the Sunlight hit the PV cells they knock the neutrons
present in the silicon. Now the negative charged neutrons get attracted to the silicon but
then are held inside a magnetic field. The wires attached on the silicon catch hold of these
neutrons and while connecting to the circuit, current is formed. This then gives space for
direct electricity and for converting that into alternate electricity an inverter is used so
that the house appliances can run. As mentioned before major of the house appliances
work on alternate current hence an inverter is used to convert DC to AC.
5.7.2. Commissioning
Before commissioning the inverter, be sure the following steps have been
complicated.
Confirm the correct power supply connection
Confirm the correct connection of PV strings
Confirm that connections are protected such that they cannot be pulled off
inadvertently.
Turning on the device
Verify that devices connected to line voltage. If not, insert the external power fuse
or turn on the circuit breaker.
Create voltage by connecting the DC circuit breaker. The inverter only starts if there
is sufficient voltage available.
Setting the country abbreviation and the menu language
When switching on for the first time an initial configuration is necessary. When
country abbreviation defines the country-specific grid monitoring parameters. The menu
language is automatically set when the country abbreviation is selected. The menu

language can subsequently be selected as desired at any time, independent of the country
abbreviation set in the menu. The country abbreviation is not set on delivery.
5.7.3. Set Country Code/Grid Guideline
The following window appears on the display after initial switch on of the DC
voltage and prompts you to set the country code as such is not displayed in the menu.
The display is illuminated after you press the first k
Configuaration
Einsatzlan
Cyprus
Denmark
Germany
F1-MENU
1. Use the ^ and keys to select the country code which is specific for your
country and collocation. The menu language is selected simultaneously with the
country code. However, the menu language can later be changed independently of
the country code.
2. Press OK to confirm.
Then the grid feed guideline given by the energy supplier must be selected.
Configuration
Einsatzand
Germany
VDE 0126
MSR
AR-N 4105
F1-MENU
1. Select valid grid feed guideline with ^ and v buttons.

2. Press OK to confirm.
Accepting the country code

To be certain, you will be queried whether you wish to accept the country code. After
accepting the country code it can only be charged within 40 hours.
Umstellen auf
Germany-VDE 0126?
JA = REF
Nein=ESC
Only confirm the country code if you are absolutely sure it is correct.
If you are not sure, press ESC to cancel your selection. In this device cannot be
operated.
If the country code is to be accepted, then confirm with OK.
A restart then takes place:
ERROR and GROUND FAULT status LEDs flash red alternately,
PAC
0W
VAC
0V
UDC
18V
E TAG
0.0KWH
F1-MENU

5.7.4. Device Start
Table 5.1: Meaning of the abbreviations on the display
PAC
UAC
UDC
Y DAY
Feed power in watts(w)

Line voltage in volts(v)
Solar cell voltage in volts(v)
Yields of the day(kwh)
Solar modules are irradiated with sufficient sunlight.

Country code is set.
The following procedure follows:
Self-test
All status LEDs are lit for approx, 6seconds
Performing selftests
BF_011.04.24.00
Check
start status LED Lights orange.
PAC
0W
VAC
402V
UDC
431V
E TAG
2706KWh
F1-MENU
Activation
Start status LED lights orange/LEDON flashes green.
Pac
0w
VAC
403V
UDC
730V
E DAY
27.6KWh
Activating
F1-MENU
This process can take several minutes.

Feed in
ON status LED lights green/normally all other status LEDs are off.
Table 5.2: key words on inverter

F1
F2
<>
Menu display
In basic display: reboot if display.
yield normalised on the display input of standardized data.
Function in the menu: Navigatioin within the menu level (previous menu,
next menu).
Function whilw parameters are edited: digit to the left, digit to the
^v
ESC
right(decade jump)
Selection within the menu.
Acknowledge failures and exit from menu level, exit from input menu without
OK
entering data.
Confirm the selected menu (next menu level) and entered data.
Basic screen display

PAC
4334V
VAC
403V
UDC
656V
E DAY
27.6KWh
Feeding
F1-MENU
PAC
=current feed power in watts (w).
UAC = line voltage in volts (v).

UDC =solar cell voltage in volts.
E DAY=yield of the day in KWh.
Graphical display
Press the < arrow key once to display the development of the days feed power.
Press the v arrow key to display the development of the previous days
Press the ESC key to return to the basic screen display.
Yield data display
Press the > arrow key, then the varrow key to display the development of standardized
yield data.
ENERGY ABSOLUTE
day :
10.1KWh
Month:
80.1 KWh
Year
738.1 KWh
Total :
3986.4 KWh
Standardized yield data displayENERGY NORMALIZED

Day
:
0.7KWh
Press the > key, then the v arrow key to display the development of standardized yield
Month:
5.3KWh
data.
Year
49.2KWh
Total
265.8KWh
F1-MENU
Press the ESC key to return to the basic screen display.

Input of standardized data
To change the normalization, press the F2 key and enter the currently connected
PV generator power follows:
< > keys: pressing the < key: selection of the place before the point.
Pressing the > key: selection of the place after the point.
^ key: whenever you press this key, the number at the digit selected is incremented by1.
V key: whenever you press this key, the number at the digit selected is decremented by 1.
P1155.00
GENETATED POWER:
15.0KWh
F1-Menu
Press the ok key to apply the set value.

Press the ESC key to discard the value and display the previous normalized yield level.
Press the F1 key to display the menu.
5.7.5. Solar Inverter Advantages
After knowing in detail what a solar inverter is and how different useful it is to
make appliances work at residential and industrial levels we must discuss about the many
advantages of the device.
Solar energy has always helped in reducing global warming and green house
effect.
Also use of solar energy helps in saving money many people have started using
solar based devices.
A solar inverter helps in converting the Direct current into batteries or alternative
current. This helps people who use limited amount of electricity.
There is this synchronous solar inverter that helps small homeowners and power
companies as they are large in size.
Then there is this multifunction solar inverter which is the best among all and
works efficiently. It converts the DC power to AC very carefully which is perfect
for commercial establishments.
This inverter is cost effective i.e. less expensive than generators.
Apart from solar inverters there are other devices too that make use of solar
energy namely, solar cooker, heater.
Solar inverters are the best way and they are better than the normal electric ones.
Also their maintenance does not cost much money.

5.7.6. Solar Inverter Disadvantages
Initially you need to shell out a lot of money for buying a solar inverter.
It will work effectively and produce direct current only when the Sunlight is
strong.
The solar panels that are used to attract Sunlight requires lots of space.
The device can work efficiently only if the presence of the Sun is strong.
Solar Inverters can work when there is no Sunlight but provided their battery is
charged fully with the help of Sunlight.
After counting on some of the disadvantages of solar inverter state that when a
device is very useful at some point of time it too requires proper maintenance and when it
comes to a solar device the equipment of solar energy is must. So buy a solar device only
if you have plenty of solar energy available.
5.7.7. AC Panel
Solar panels are connected to inverter through junction box in the form of strings.
all inverters are connected parallel to the ac box as shown in figure 5.18.

Figure 5.19: AC Panel
In this ac box we get the values of real power ( kw),reactive power(kvar)
generations, and power factor value. it has the control of strings i.e it consists of ON and
OFF switches. if any fault occur in any string we can OFF the switch in ac box.
GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEM

6.1. Introduction
Grid interconnection of photovoltaic (PV) power generation system has the
advantage of more effective utilization of generated power. However, the technical
requirements from both the utility power system grid side and the PV system side need to
be satisfied to ensure the safety of the PV installer and the reliability of the utility grid.
Clarifying the technical requirements for grid interconnection and solving the problems
are therefore very important issues for widespread application of PV systems.
Grid interconnection of PV systems is accomplished through the inverter, which
convert DC power generated from PV modules to AC power used for ordinary power

supply for electrical equipments. Inverter system is therefore very important for grid
connected PV systems.
Inverter technology is very important to have reliable and safety grid
interconnection operation of PV system. It is also required to generate high quality power
to AC utility system with reasonable cost. To meet with these requirements, up to date
technologies of power electronics are applied for PV inverters. By means of high
frequency switching of semiconductor devices with PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
technologies, high efficiency conversion with high power factor and low harmonic
distortion power can be generated. Reduction of inverter system cost is to be
accomplished.
The greatest influence on system cost is the amount of PV modules installed.
Other factors include maximum power demand, location, type and quality of equipment,
extent of automatic controls and metering, provision of suitable accommodation for
equipment and the amount of wiring needed. The cost of grid connected PV systems
varies considerably.
As day by day the demand of electricity is increased and that much demand
cannot be meeting up by the conventional power plants. And also these plants create
pollution. If the nature of load demand curve it is found that demand is increased from
morning for different causes like opening the shops, markets, schools, colleges, offices
etc. and that increased demand remains up to around 5 pm. And from the study of PV
system it is found that, it is very much ideal to meet that increased energy demand by
using Grid Connected Photovoltaic System.
Figure 6.1: Grid connected PV system
6.2. Basic Components of Grid Connected PV System

The basic Grid Connected PV system design has the following components:
Figure 6.2: Block diagram Grid Connected System

PV Array: A number of PV panels connected in series and/or in parallel giving a DC
output out of the incident irradiance. Orientation and tilt of these panels are important
design parameters, as well as shading from surrounding obstructions.
Inverter: A power converter that 'inverts' the DC power from the panels into AC power.
The characteristics of the output signal should match the voltage, frequency and power
quality limits in the supply network.
Transformer: A transformer can boost up the ac output voltage from inverter when
needed. Otherwise transformer less design is also acceptable.

Load: Stands for the network connected appliances that are fed from the inverter, or,
alternatively, from the grid.
Meters: They account for the energy being drawn from or fed into the local supply
network.
Protective Devices: Some protective devices is also installed, like under voltage relay,
circuit breakers etc for resisting power flow from utility to SPV system.
Other Devices: Other devices like dc-dc boost converter, ac filter can also be used for
better performance.
Table 6.1: Grid specifications

System
3-
Voltage rating
415 V AC
Frequency
50 Hz
6.3 Conditions for Grid Interfacing

There are some conditions to be satisfied for interfacing or synchronizing the SPV
system with grid or utility. If proper synchronizing is not done then SPV potential cannot
be fed to the grid. The conditions for proper interfacing between two systems are
discussed below:
Phase sequence matching: Phase sequence of SPV system with conventional grid should
be matched otherwise synchronization is not possible. For a three phase system three
phases should be 120 deg phase apart from each other for both the system.
Figure 6.3: Phase sequence matching

Frequency matching: Frequency of the SPV system should be same as grid. Generally
grid is of 50 Hz frequency capacity, now if SPV systems frequency is slightly higher than
grid frequency (0.1 to 0.5) synchronization is possible but SPV system frequency should
not be less than grid frequency.
Voltage matching: One of the vital point is voltage matching. Voltage level of both the
system should same, otherwise synchronization is not possible.
Figure 6.4: Voltage matching
6.4. Working Principle of Grid Connected Photovoltaic System

Electricity is produced by the PV array most efficiently during sunny periods. At
night or during cloudy periods, independent power systems use storage batteries to
supply electricity needs. With grid interactive systems, the grid acts as the battery,
supplying electricity when the PV array cannot. During the day, the power produced by
the PV array supplies loads. An inverter converts direct current (DC) produced by the PV
array to alternating current (AC) and transformer stepped up the voltage level as need for
export to the grid. Grid interactive PV systems can vary substantially in size. However all
consist of solar arrays, inverters, electrical metering and components necessary for wiring
and mounting.
6.5 Advantages of Small Units Instead Of Single Large Unit

The design for a grid connected photovoltaic system can be done in various ways
like it can be made by small numbers of single phase units instead of single large three
phase unit. Because this type of designing have some advantages over a large system
design. The advantages are given below:
Efficiency of Operation: It is logical to operate a small unit delivering rated output when
the load demand is light. Then as load increases another unit is connected with the one
already in operation. This keeps the plant loaded up to their rated capacity and increases
efficiency of operation.
Reliability or Continuity of service: Several smaller units are more reliable than a large
single unit, since if one unit fails the continuity of supply can be maintained by remaining
units. On the other hand if the power stations consisted only of a single large unit, in the
event of breakdown, there will be complete shutdown (failure of supply).
Maintenance and repair: It is considered necessary to carry out regular inspection and
maintenance so as to avoid possibility of failure. This is possible only when the unit is
out of service which means that the remaining units should be capable to take care of
load. Repairing of a unit is also more convenient and economical if there are several
smaller units in the power station. Additions to power plant: The additional unit can be
installed as and when required with the growth of load on power plant.
6.6. Meter Arrangement

The transformer output wires connected to potential transformer. This transformer
used in electrical power system for stepping down the system voltage to a safe value
which can be fed to low ratings meters and relays. Commercially available relays and

meters used for protection and metering, are designed for low voltage. Potential
transformer fed to net metering. The arrangement as shown in figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5: Transformer connected to potential transformer
6.7. Types of Metering

In a solar powered system, usually following two types metering systems are
involved:
1. Gross metering
2. Net Metering
6.7.1. Gross Metering
In gross metering, entire energy generated by the solar PV system is fed back
directly into the utility grid. In this case, the owner gets incentives based on feed-in
tariffs proportional to the energy fed back to the grid. However, net metering takes into
account the difference of excess energy fed back to the grid and total energy consumed
from the grid by the system owner. A detailed explanation about net metering is given
below.

6.7.2. Net Metering
Net metering is an agreement that allows the solar PV system owner to sell excess
solar energy to the utility company or buy deficit energy from the utility company using a
meter to track this energy exchange. Following 2 cases take place in this scenario.
Case 1: If at any moment of time, if solar energy generation (kWh) is less than the load
requirement at that time, the difference of energy is taken from the main grid and the
meter runs forward, as usual. In this case, the system owner is charged for the units
(kWh) consumed from the main grid. E.g. During early morning or during late
evening/night.
Case 2: If at any moment of time, if solar energy generation (kWh) is more than the load
requirement at that time, the excess solar energy is fed back to the main grid and the
meter now runs backward. In this case, the system owner gets credit for the units (kWh)
fed back to the main grid. Eg. During peak sunshine hours (afternoon) When you
generate extra electricity (more than what you can use) the meter literally moves
backwards.
Figure 6.6: Back word direction of net metering

Thus, at the end of the billing period:
If case 1 > case 2, then the owner is charged for the difference of units as per
usual retail tariff. If case1 < case 2, then the difference of units is either carried forward to
the next billing period or the owner is paid for the difference of units as per the tariff

decided by the concerned utility. (kindly refer your state policy/utility company policy for
more information about tariff) In short, the owner pays/gains for the net energy used
over the designated period of time.
6.7.3 Meters Used In Net Metering
The use of meters in this case differs from State to State. Some states may require
only one meter that reads the net energy consumed by the system owner. However, few
other states may require two meters one to measure solar energy generation and the
second to measure the units consumed from the utility grid.
Figure 6.7: Different types of meter arrangements

6.7.4 Advantages of Net Metering
The 3 most important advantages of net metering are
Financial benefit for the system owner: Since the system owner is charged for the net
energy consumed from the utility grid, the owner gets financial benefits. Eg. If energy
generation < energy consumed: owner pays just for the net amount. If energy generation
> energy consumed: the owner gets credit for excess generation.
Avoid the use of batteries: In a grid connected solar pv system, any excess energy
generated can be fed back to local utility grid and can be taken back at later stage when
required. Thus, there is no need to store the surplus energy in batteries for later use, thus,
avoiding the heavy costs of batteries. Also, since batteries are eliminated, the

maintenance costs of the system also reduce to a great extent. Batteries may be required
only when there are frequent power fluctuations/outages. (please note, in a battery less
grid connected system, if there is an power outage and the grid fails, your solar power
system has to stop generating power to ensure safety of the wiremen working on the
failed gridlines.)
Produce more today, use that tomorrow: Typically, a solar power system produces more
energy in summer and comparatively less energy in winter. Eg. If in summer, solar power
generates 100 units and load requirement is 80 units, then 20 units can be fed back to the
grid. In winter, solar power generates only 60 units and load requirement is 80 units, then
20 units can be taken from the grid. Thus, overall excess generation from solar power
system is taken care of and net units consumed from the grid becomes zero.
6.8 .Advantages and Disadvantages of Grid Connection

The grid connection of solar power plant some of advantages and disadvantages
there those are explained in below
Advantages
Systems such as Net Metering and Feed-in Tariff which are offered by some
system operators can offset a customer's electricity usage costs. In some locations
though, grid technologies cannot cope with distributed generation feeding into the
grid, so the export of surplus electricity is not possible and that surplus is earthed.
Grid-connected PV systems are comparatively easier to install as they do not
require a battery system.
Grid interconnection of photovoltaic (PV) power generation systems has the
advantage of effective utilization of generated power because there are no storage
losses involved.
A photovoltaic power system is carbon negative over its lifespan, as any energy
produced over and above that to build the panel initially offsets the need for
burning fossil fuels. Even though the sun doesn't always shine, any installation
gives a reasonably predictable average reduction in carbon consumption.

Disadvantages
Grid-connected PV can cause issues with voltage regulation. The traditional grid
operates under the assumption of one-way, or radial, flow. But electricity injected
into the grid increases voltage, and can drive levels outside the acceptable
bandwidth of 5%.
Grid-connected PV can compromise power quality. PVs intermittent nature
means rapid changes in voltage. This not only wears out voltage regulators due to
frequent adjusting, but also can result in voltage flicker.
Connecting to the grid poses many protection-related challenges. In addition to
islanding, as mentioned above, too high levels of grid-connected PV result in
problems like relay desensitization, nuisance tripping, interference with automatic
recloses, and ferroresonance.
RESULTS
7.1. Testing Results

The approximate solar radiation data for the proposed location based on
metronome/ NREL is given in Table 7.1. The Average solar irradiance value that is of
importance for SPV technology is around 5.42 KWhr/m2/day for 100KWp and, as such,
the location can be considered to be an excellent location for development of SPV
project.
Table 7.1: Mean Global Solar Radiant Exposure and generation Rajampet,
Kadapa.
S .NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
MONTH
DAILY SOLAR RADIATION
ENERGY GENERATION FROM
JANUARY
FEBRUARY
MARCH
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
OCTOBER
NOVEMBER
DECEMBER
ANNUAL
TITLED (KWh/m2/day)
5.89
6.61
6.71
6.51
5.89
4.84
4.35
4.52
4.95
4.75
4.91
5.21
5.42
SOLAR (KWH)
15780
15700
17400
16380
15360
12440
11670
12140
12770
12770
12840
14080
169340
DAILY SOLAR
(KWh/m2/day)
JANUARYRADIATION
FEBRUARYTITLED
MARCH
ENERGY
GENERATION
FROMMARCH
SOLAR (KWh)
JANUARY
FEBRUARY
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
OCTOBER
NOVEMBER
DECEMBER
OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER
Table 7.2: Daily sheet of power generation and meter readings

DATE
DL
KWh
RC
DL
KVAh
RC
KVA
GEN
EX
SELF
SPDCL
P.F
KVA
TU
524
1040
128
1564
19.02.2016
86.5
7.2
86.6
19.5
0.16
524
P
0
20.02.2016
87.8
7.2
87.9
19.5
0.12
527
80
447
640
96
1087
21.02.2016
88.6
7.3
88.7
19.9
0.12
529
160
369
640
96
1009

22.02.2016
89.4
7.5
89.5
20.4
0.12
516
516
1360
96
1876
23.02.2016
91.1
7.5
91.2
20.4
0.15
527
527
1360
120
1887
24.02.2016
92.8
7.5
92.9
20.4
0.16
494
494
1360
128
1854
25.02.2016
94.5
7.5
94.6
20.4
0.16
474
80
394
1280
128
1674
26.02.2016
96
7.6
96.2
20.5
0.16
527
527
1120
128
1647
27.02.2016
97.5
7.6
97.6
20.6
0.16
520
520
800
128
1320
28.02.2016
98.5
7.6
98.6
20.6
0.16
394
394
720
128
1114
29.02.2016
99.4
7.6
99.5
20.8
0.16
436
436
1120
128
1556
01.03.2016
100.8
7.6
100.9
20.8
0.16
449
449
1360
128
1809
02.03.2016
102.4
7.6
102.6
20.9
0.17
428
428
1360
136
1788
03.03.2016
104.2
7.6
104.3
20.9
0.17
429
429
1280
136
1709
04.03.2016
105.8
7.6
105.9
20.9
0.17
500
500
1200
136
1700
05.03.2016
107.3
7.6
107.4
20.9
0.17
509
160
349
640
136
989
06.03.2016
108
7.8
108.2
21.2
0.17
522
80
442
480
136
922
07.03.2016
108.6
7.9
108.8
21.7
0.17
536
160
376
640
136
1016
08.03.2016
109.4
8.1
109.6
22.1
0.17
528
528
1120
136
1648
09.03.2016
110.9
8.1
111
22.1
0.17
534
534
1280
136
1814
10.03.2016
11.03.2016
112.5
113.9
8.1
8.1
112.6
114
22.1
22.1
0.17
0.17
434
535
0
0
434
535
1120
1040
1
1
136
136
1554
1575
12.03.2016
115.2
8.1
115.3
22.1
0.17
6480
-92240
136
-85760
Table 7.3: Comparison of Electricity Bills

MONTH
JAN'15
FEB'15
MAR'15
APR'15
MAY'15
JUN'15
JUL'15
AUG'15
SEP'15
OCT'15
NOV'15
DEC'15
JAN'16
FEB'16
UNITS
24736
36424
40444
44864
45540
30984
23044
33876
19620
21192
31720
23680
13680
26160
AMOUNT
247152
331972
366743
352325
420381
306227
316301
336006
234113
249676
331158
213903
134441
252832
The Table 7.3 represents comparison between without grid solar power plant and
with solar plant of Electricity bills and units used. The bold represents with solar power
plant connection to grid. After grid connection of plant decrease in Electricity bills.
7.2. Calculation of Payback period

Total capital cost for solar power plant
: 71 lakhs

Government subsidy
: 10.65 lakhs
Total capital expenditure
: 60.35 lakhs
Daily solar Generation
: 513 KWh
Energy bill savings (Daily)
: 513*5=RS. 2,565/-
Energy bill savings (Month-1)
: 2,565*30=RS. 76,950/-
Energy bill savings (year-1)
: 76,950*12=RS. 9, 23,400/-
Energy bill savings (year-7)
:9, 23,400*7= RS. 64, 63,800/-
Conclusion
: The capital expenditure is recovered in < 7

years
CONCLUSION
Installing Rooftop Solar power plant at Annamacharya Institute of Technology
and Sciences is an initiation towards generation of Green energy to reduce the over
criploitation of fossil fuels. This solar power plant meets nearly 40 percent of maximum

demand of the campus and even supplies the power to grid connection during the off peak
demand usually in holidays and overcome the problem of power cuts.
By participating in this installation process knowledge have gained about solar
panel making, solar plant construction and grid connection of solar power plant. Finally
calculated the payback period of the plant. This predicts that, after seven years AITS will
get power from solar plant at free of cost. In future the plant capacity may be increased to
meet the total demand of campus. Other educational institutions will also may initiate
installation of their own solar plants because of 30 percent subsidy offered by the union
government.
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renewable energy, Vol.31, Issue 8, Page(s): 1107-1128, July 2006.
9. Hironobu lgarashi and Shoichi Suenaga, Electromagnetic Noise from Solar
Cells. Photovoltaic Specialists IEEE Conference, Page(s): 1820 1822,2005.
10. [http:Energy Scenario] Solar PV Industry 2010 : Contemporary scenario and
emerging trends available at
11. www.isaonline.org/documents/ISA_SolarPVReport_May2010.pdf
12. [http:Energy Scenario] the solar PV landscape in India available at
www.solarindiaonline.com/.../The_Solar_PV_Landscape.pdf

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Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

1.2. Energy Classification

Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 1

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 2

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

Figure 1.1: Renewable Energy Sources and Non-Renewable Energy Sources

1.3. Energy Scenario

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 4

Figure 1.1: Power generation capacity in India by source, 2015

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

1.4. Energy and Pollution

1.5. Energy from Sun

Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 6

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

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Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

1.6. Ways for Converting Solar Energy into Electrical Energy

Figure 1.3: Ways to convert solar energy into Electrical Energy

Figure 1.4: Solar Thermal

Solar Photovoltaic: Another way to generate electricity from solar energy is to

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

Figure 1.5: Solar Photovoltaic

1.7. Comparison between Solar Photovoltaic Plant and Solar Thermal

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

2.2. Brief History

2.3. Photovoltaic Cell

Figure 2.1: Photovoltaic cell

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

Figure 2.2: Basic theory of Photovoltaic cell 1

Figure 2.3: Basic theory of Photovoltaic cell 2

Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 12

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

Figure 2.4: Basic theory of Photovoltaic cell 3

Figure 2.5: Series connection of cells

Figure 2.6: Parallel connection of cells

Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 13

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

manufacturing process makes them slightly more expensive.

2. Thin film PV is made by depositing an ultra thin layer of photovoltaic material

2.4. Photovoltaic Modules

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

2.5. Describing Photovoltaic Module Performance

Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 15

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

Figure 2.7: The standard V-I characteristic curve of Photovoltaic Module

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

2.6. Types of Photovoltaic System

Grid Connected PV Systems - These systems are connected to a broader

Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 17

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

Figure 2.9: Grid Connected PV Systems

Figure 2.10: Off Grid PV Systems

Hybrid System: A hybrid system combines PV with other forms of power

Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 18

Installation of 100 KW rooftop solar power plant

Figure 2.11: Hybrid System

2.7. Grid Connected PV System

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