Professional Documents
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ENERGY
1.1. Introduction
Energy plays a pivotal role in our daily activities. The degree of development and
civilization of a country is measured by the amount of utilization of energy by human
beings. Energy demand is increasing day by day due to increase in population,
urbanization and industrialization. The world's fossil fuel supply viz. coal, petroleum and
natural gas will thus be depleted in a few hundred years. The rate of energy consumption
increasing, supply is depleting resulting in inflation and energy shortage. This is called
energy crisis. Hence alternative or renewable sources of energy have to be developed to
meet future energy requirement.
All the segments of the electricity sector such as fuel suppliers, fuel transporters
(railways, harbours, pipelines, etc.), Electricity generators, electricity transmission
companies and distribution companies would be facing severe competition to cut down
the prices and improve their operating efficiency in a final consumer dictated market. If
Discoms, keep on charging exorbitant tariffs to bulk consumers, they would be opting for
solar/wind power plants or take over an existing power plant to meet their captive
consumption. Due to tepid growth in electricity consumption, coal stocks are
continuously building up at power stations as well as coal mines.
1.3.2. Andhra Pradesh Energy Scenario
Andhra Pradesh receives some of the highest irradiation in India. The state has
significant renewable purchase obligations (RPO) stemming from its high power demand.
In addition, Andhra Pradesh has Indias best performing state power utility (State
Electricity Board, SEB). The state has announced its solar policy recently. Andhra
Pradesh receives a global horizontal irradiation (GHI) of 1,900 2,000 KWh/m2/Year.
Andhra Pradesh has a significant total solar RPO requirement of 551MW until
2016. Solar projects worth 100 MW have already been allocated or are in the process of
allocation to meet these obligations. The long-term power scenario of Andhra Pradesh
provides an opportunity for solar energy. The state currently has a total power demand of
Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 5
When an electron (-) and a proton (+) reach the joint surface between the two
types of semiconductors, the former is attracted to N-type and the latter to the Ptype semiconductor. Since the joint surface supports only one way traffic, they are
not able to rejoin once they are drawn apart and separated.
Mono crystalline Cells - These are made using cells cut from a single cylindrical
crystal of silicon. While mono crystalline cells offer the highest efficiency
18%
conversion
of
incident
sunlight),
their
complex
These interconnected cells and their electrical connections are then sandwiched
between a top layer of glass or clear plastic and a lower level of plastic or plastic and
metal. An outer frame is attached to increase mechanical strength, and to provide a way
to mount the unit. This package is called a "module" or "panel". Typically, a module is
the basic building block of photovoltaic systems. PV modules consist of PV cells
connected in series (to increase the voltage) and in parallel (to increase the current), so
that the output of a PV system can match the requirements of the load to be powered. The
PV cells in a module can be wired to any desired voltage and current.
The amount of current produced is directly proportional to the cell's size,
Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 14
The maximum voltage is produced when there is a break in the circuit. This is
called the open circuit voltage, abbreviated Voc. Under this condition the resistance is
infinitely high and there is no current, since the circuit is incomplete.
These two extremes in load resistance and the whole range of conditions in
between them are depicted on a graph called V-I (current-voltage) curve. Current,
expressed in amps, is on the vertical Y-axis. Voltage, in volts, is on the horizontal X-axis
as shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.8: Change in Photovoltaic module voltage and current on change in solar
radiation
For maximum output, the face of the photovoltaic modules should be pointed as
straight toward the sun as possible.
Standalone Systems: PV systems not connected to the electric utility grid are
known as Off Grid PV Systems and also called "stand-alone systems". Direct
systems use the PV power immediately as it is produced, while battery storage
systems can store energy to be used at a later time, either at night or during cloudy
weather. These systems are used in isolation of electricity grids, and may be used
to power radio repeater stations, telephone booths and street lighting. PV systems
also provide invaluable and affordable electricity in developing countries like
India, where conventional electricity grids are unreliable or non-existent.
SOLAR PARAMETERS
3.1. Fill Factor
The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage are the maximum current
and voltage respectively from a solar cell. However, at both of these operating points, the
power from the solar cell is zero. The "fill factor", more commonly known by its
abbreviation "FF", is a parameter which, in conjunction with V oc and Isc, determines the
maximum power from a solar cell. The FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum power
from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc. Graphically, the FF is a measure of the
"squareness" of the solar cell and is also the area of the largest rectangle which will fit in
the V-I curve. The FF is illustrated below.
Figure 3.1: Short circuit current and open circuit voltage characteristics
Graph of cell output current (red line) and power (blue line) as function of
voltage. Also shown are the cell short-circuit current (I sc) and open-circuit voltage (Voc)
points, as well as the maximum power point (Vmp, Imp).
As FF is a measure of the "squareness" of the V-I curve, a solar cell with a higher
voltage has a larger possible FF since the "rounded" portion of the V-I curve takes up less
area. The maximum theoretical FF from a solar cell can be determined by differentiating
the power from a solar cell with respect to voltage and finding where this is equal to zero.
Hence
.(3.1)
Giving:
...(3.2)
..(3.3)
.(3.4)
3.2. Efficiency
The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance
of one solar cell to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the
solar cell to input energy from the sun. In addition to reflecting the performance of the
solar cell itself, the efficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity of the incident
sunlight and the temperature of the solar cell. Therefore, conditions under which
efficiency is measured must be carefully controlled in order to compare the performance
of one device to another. Terrestrial solar cells are measured under AM1.5 conditions and
at a temperature of 25C. Solar cells intended for space use are measured under AM0
.(3.6)
Where Voc is the open-circuit voltage.
Isc is the short-circuit current.
FF is the fill factor.
is the efficiency.
Efficiency Calculator:
Open Circuit Voltage, VOC =0.63V
Short Circuit Current, ISC = 9.24A
Fill Factor, FF =72.33 %
Input Power, Pin = 4.02W
Maximum Power, Pmax= 4.2 W
Efficiency, n= 17.39%
(3.7)
Where G is the generation rate, and L n and Lp are the electron and hole diffusion
lengths respectively. Although this equation makes several assumptions which are not
true for the conditions encountered in most solar cells, the above equation nevertheless
indicates that the short-circuit current depends strongly on the generation rate and the
diffusion length.
IL is the light generated current inside the solar cell and is the correct term to use
in the solar cell equation. At short circuit conditions the externally measured current is
Isc. Since Isc is usually equal to IL, the two are used interchangeably and for simplicity and
the solar cell equation is written with I sc in place of IL. In the case of very high series
resistance (> 10 cm2) Isc is less than IL and writing the solar cell equation with Isc is
incorrect.
Another assumption is that the illumination current IL is dependent on the
incoming light and is independent of voltage across the cell. However, I L varies with
voltage in the case of drift-field solar cells and where carrier lifetime is a function of
injection level such as defected multi crystalline materials.
Figure 3.4: V-I characteristics of solar cell with open circuit voltage.
An equation for Voc is found by setting the net current equal to zero in the solar cell
equation.
(3.8)
The above equation shows that Voc depends on the saturation current of the solar
cell and the light-generated current. While Isc typically has a small variation, the key
effect is the saturation current, since this may vary by orders of magnitude. The saturation
current, I0 depends on recombination in the solar cell. Open-circuit voltage is then a
measure of the amount of recombination in the device. Silicon solar cells on high quality
single crystalline material have open-circuit voltages of up to 730 mV. under one sun and
(3.9)
Where kT/q is the thermal voltage, N A is the doping concentration, n is the
excess carrier concentration and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration. The determination
of VOC from the carrier concentration is also termed Implied VOC.
Voc as a Function of Band gap, EG
Where the short-circuit current (ISC) decreases with increasing band gap, the opencircuit voltage increases as the band gap increases. In an ideal device the VOC is limited
by radiative recombination and the analysis uses the principle of detailed balance to
determine the minimum possible value for J0.
The minimum value of the diode saturation current is given by:
(3.10)
Where q is the electronic charge.
is the StefanBoltzmann constant.
k is Boltzmann constant.
T is the temperature and
Figure 3.6: VOC as function of band gap for a cell with AM 0 and AM 1.5.
The VOC increases with band gap as the recombination current falls. There is drop
off in VOC at very high band gaps due to the very low ISC.
College management wants to install 100kw roof top solar power plant in our
college and call for quotation. Based on the college requirement the companies which are
mentioned below submitted their proposals.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
RADIUM SOLAR
ARGO SOLAR PRIVATE LIMITED
VARSHNI POWER
TRANS SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES
ORB ENERGY AND
SIRIUS SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM
Finally college management decided to give plant contract to Sirius solar
energy system.
Steps involved in plant construction are
1. Panel making
2. Solar plant installation
3. Grid connection
These steps are explained in next chapters.
PANEL MAKING
4.1. Introduction
In solar power plant main functioning part is Solar panel. The information about
solar panel making process is given in this chapter in detailed.
This EVA sheet with PV cells is placed in a Aluminum frame and finally it is
covered with trephine glass. This glass protects the PV cells from atmospheric conditions.
250W
36.00V
8.60A
30.00V
8.33A
3%
2
1000W/m Insulation, AM 1.5
250
have
When you use a two-stage ladder, secure it with ropes or stays to prevent it from
sliding sideways, and have two persons hold the ladder steady.
Use ladders with steps broad enough to permit safe work.
5. When working in high places wear harnesses and use scaffolding.
When working at heights of 6 ft or more, use scaffolds or other equipment to
ensure a stable work platform.
Scaffolds should be designed and erected by a qualified person.
When it is difficult to erect a stable work platform, install safety nets, wear
harnesses, and take other measures to prevent falls.
Regulations mandate the use of harnesses. Fasten harnesses securely, and check
that the length of lifelines is 6 ft or less.
Attach the primary support line securely to a metal fixture installed for that
purpose on a ridge or beam.
6. Install enclosures and covers.
Install enclosures, guardrails, or covers at the end of work decks that are 10 ft or
more above ground, at openings, and at other dangerous locations.
When it is extremely difficult to install enclosures, guardrails, or covers, or
when they must be removed to work in that location, install a safety net,
wear
.
Figure 5.1: Site selection of Rooftop Solar power plant
5.2.2. Inspection of the Roof Support System
5.2.3. Checking the Solar Power System Installation Location Code Compliant
Installation
Determine the wind loads for the installation site. Check with your local building
and safety department for the specific requirements.
Make certain that the roof structure can support the live and dead loads resulting
from the installation of the PV array.
Consult with a professional engineer if additional assistance is required.
Determine the basic wind speed from the IBC wind speed chart (for US
locations).
Determine the exposure category A through D (get latest definitions from IBC or
local building code).
Determine total pressure by compiling basic wind speed, exposure and roof
height. Check with Sharp technical support if your total pressure exceeds 45 PSF.
Reference the chart wind speeds to determine your design wind pressure (PSF).
Determine exposure categories A through D for various roof heights.
Based on the loading in step 7, makes certain that the roof structure can support
the load.
The modules and system are UL listed to standard 1703. The UL 1703 test is
performed at 1.5 times the design load of 30 lbs per square foot, or 45 lbs per
square foot. The system has been load tested by Sharp to 50 PSF use in locations
subject to higher values.
Building departments often require a design safety factor of 1.5 or greater for
structures. The maximum structural loading listed in this guide, does not include
an added safety factor.
To achieve maximum loading, use at least the same number of sliders as modules
on each rail.
Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 43
: 14o 18888 N
Longitude
: 79o 166 E
DETAILS
UNITS
100
71-10.65=60.35
multi crystalline
SEASONAL TILT
1400
Kw
Lakhs
Wp
------Sq Ft.
Figure 5.9: the top butyl pad into the silicone dome
Insert the roof tile slider bracket into the slider and prepare for rail installation.
Now after knowing what a solar inverter is, lets talk about its working. Solar
panels produce direct electricity with the help of electrons that are moving from negative
to positive direction. Most of the appliances that we use at home work on alternative
current. This AC is created by the constant back and forth of the electrons from negative
to positive. In AC electricity the voltage can be adjusted according to the use of the
appliance. As solar panels only produce Direct current the solar inverter is used to
convert the DC to AC.
An inverter produces square waves or a sine wave which can be used for running
lights, televisions, lights, motors etc. However these inverters also produce harmonic
distortion. Expensive inverters make use of lots of steps to produce a sine wave and thus
are found in residential solar inverters. Basically inverters should be a large one so that it
supplies enough power to all the necessary appliances.
An inverter s easy to buy but choosing the right solar inverter for your appliance
is more important. Thus you must always consult a solar professional before buying on.
We know that the energy derived from sun is solar energy which is one of the cleanest
sources of energy. Also it can be used to provide lighting to houses.
Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 56
Before commissioning the inverter, be sure the following steps have been
complicated.
Confirm the correct power supply connection
Confirm the correct connection of PV strings
Confirm that connections are protected such that they cannot be pulled off
inadvertently.
Turning on the device
Verify that devices connected to line voltage. If not, insert the external power fuse
or turn on the circuit breaker.
Create voltage by connecting the DC circuit breaker. The inverter only starts if there
is sufficient voltage available.
Setting the country abbreviation and the menu language
When switching on for the first time an initial configuration is necessary. When
country abbreviation defines the country-specific grid monitoring parameters. The menu
language is automatically set when the country abbreviation is selected. The menu
The following window appears on the display after initial switch on of the DC
voltage and prompts you to set the country code as such is not displayed in the menu.
The display is illuminated after you press the first k
Configuaration
Einsatzlan
Cyprus
Denmark
Germany
F1-MENU
1. Use the ^ and keys to select the country code which is specific for your
country and collocation. The menu language is selected simultaneously with the
country code. However, the menu language can later be changed independently of
the country code.
2. Press OK to confirm.
Then the grid feed guideline given by the energy supplier must be selected.
Configuration
Einsatzand
Germany
VDE 0126
MSR
AR-N 4105
F1-MENU
Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 58
Only confirm the country code if you are absolutely sure it is correct.
If you are not sure, press ESC to cancel your selection. In this device cannot be
operated.
If the country code is to be accepted, then confirm with OK.
A restart then takes place:
ERROR and GROUND FAULT status LEDs flash red alternately,
PAC
0W
VAC
0V
UDC
18V
E TAG
0.0KWH
F1-MENU
0W
VAC
402V
UDC
431V
E TAG
2706KWh
F1-MENU
Activation
Start status LED lights orange/LEDON flashes green.
Pac
0w
VAC
403V
UDC
730V
E DAY
27.6KWh
Activating
F1-MENU
Menu display
In basic display: reboot if display.
yield normalised on the display input of standardized data.
Function in the menu: Navigatioin within the menu level (previous menu,
next menu).
Function whilw parameters are edited: digit to the left, digit to the
^v
ESC
right(decade jump)
Selection within the menu.
Acknowledge failures and exit from menu level, exit from input menu without
OK
entering data.
Confirm the selected menu (next menu level) and entered data.
4334V
VAC
403V
UDC
656V
E DAY
27.6KWh
Feeding
F1-MENU
PAC
Press the v arrow key to display the development of the previous days
Press the ESC key to return to the basic screen display.
Yield data display
Press the > arrow key, then the varrow key to display the development of standardized
yield data.
ENERGY ABSOLUTE
day :
10.1KWh
Month:
80.1 KWh
Year
738.1 KWh
Total :
3986.4 KWh
49.2KWh
Total
265.8KWh
F1-MENU
P1155.00
GENETATED POWER:
15.0KWh
F1-Menu
After knowing in detail what a solar inverter is and how different useful it is to
make appliances work at residential and industrial levels we must discuss about the many
advantages of the device.
Solar energy has always helped in reducing global warming and green house
effect.
Also use of solar energy helps in saving money many people have started using
solar based devices.
A solar inverter helps in converting the Direct current into batteries or alternative
current. This helps people who use limited amount of electricity.
There is this synchronous solar inverter that helps small homeowners and power
companies as they are large in size.
Then there is this multifunction solar inverter which is the best among all and
works efficiently. It converts the DC power to AC very carefully which is perfect
for commercial establishments.
This inverter is cost effective i.e. less expensive than generators.
Apart from solar inverters there are other devices too that make use of solar
energy namely, solar cooker, heater.
Solar inverters are the best way and they are better than the normal electric ones.
Also their maintenance does not cost much money.
5.7.7. AC Panel
Solar panels are connected to inverter through junction box in the form of strings.
all inverters are connected parallel to the ac box as shown in figure 5.18.
3-
Voltage rating
415 V AC
Frequency
50 Hz
Phase sequence matching: Phase sequence of SPV system with conventional grid should
be matched otherwise synchronization is not possible. For a three phase system three
phases should be 120 deg phase apart from each other for both the system.
Efficiency of Operation: It is logical to operate a small unit delivering rated output when
the load demand is light. Then as load increases another unit is connected with the one
already in operation. This keeps the plant loaded up to their rated capacity and increases
efficiency of operation.
Reliability or Continuity of service: Several smaller units are more reliable than a large
single unit, since if one unit fails the continuity of supply can be maintained by remaining
units. On the other hand if the power stations consisted only of a single large unit, in the
event of breakdown, there will be complete shutdown (failure of supply).
Maintenance and repair: It is considered necessary to carry out regular inspection and
maintenance so as to avoid possibility of failure. This is possible only when the unit is
out of service which means that the remaining units should be capable to take care of
load. Repairing of a unit is also more convenient and economical if there are several
smaller units in the power station. Additions to power plant: The additional unit can be
installed as and when required with the growth of load on power plant.
In gross metering, entire energy generated by the solar PV system is fed back
directly into the utility grid. In this case, the owner gets incentives based on feed-in
tariffs proportional to the energy fed back to the grid. However, net metering takes into
account the difference of excess energy fed back to the grid and total energy consumed
from the grid by the system owner. A detailed explanation about net metering is given
below.
Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 74
RESULTS
7.1. Testing Results
Department of EEE, AITS, RAJAMPET Page 78
MONTH
JANUARY
FEBRUARY
MARCH
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
OCTOBER
NOVEMBER
DECEMBER
ANNUAL
TITLED (KWh/m2/day)
5.89
6.61
6.71
6.51
5.89
4.84
4.35
4.52
4.95
4.75
4.91
5.21
5.42
SOLAR (KWH)
15780
15700
17400
16380
15360
12440
11670
12140
12770
12770
12840
14080
169340
DAILY SOLAR
(KWh/m2/day)
JANUARYRADIATION
FEBRUARYTITLED
MARCH
ENERGY
GENERATION
FROMMARCH
SOLAR (KWh)
JANUARY
FEBRUARY
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
OCTOBER
NOVEMBER
DECEMBER
DL
KWh
RC
DL
KVAh
RC
KVA
GEN
EX
SELF
SPDCL
P.F
KVA
TU
524
1040
128
1564
19.02.2016
86.5
7.2
86.6
19.5
0.16
524
P
0
20.02.2016
87.8
7.2
87.9
19.5
0.12
527
80
447
640
96
1087
21.02.2016
88.6
7.3
88.7
19.9
0.12
529
160
369
640
96
1009
89.4
7.5
89.5
20.4
0.12
516
516
1360
96
1876
23.02.2016
91.1
7.5
91.2
20.4
0.15
527
527
1360
120
1887
24.02.2016
92.8
7.5
92.9
20.4
0.16
494
494
1360
128
1854
25.02.2016
94.5
7.5
94.6
20.4
0.16
474
80
394
1280
128
1674
26.02.2016
96
7.6
96.2
20.5
0.16
527
527
1120
128
1647
27.02.2016
97.5
7.6
97.6
20.6
0.16
520
520
800
128
1320
28.02.2016
98.5
7.6
98.6
20.6
0.16
394
394
720
128
1114
29.02.2016
99.4
7.6
99.5
20.8
0.16
436
436
1120
128
1556
01.03.2016
100.8
7.6
100.9
20.8
0.16
449
449
1360
128
1809
02.03.2016
102.4
7.6
102.6
20.9
0.17
428
428
1360
136
1788
03.03.2016
104.2
7.6
104.3
20.9
0.17
429
429
1280
136
1709
04.03.2016
105.8
7.6
105.9
20.9
0.17
500
500
1200
136
1700
05.03.2016
107.3
7.6
107.4
20.9
0.17
509
160
349
640
136
989
06.03.2016
108
7.8
108.2
21.2
0.17
522
80
442
480
136
922
07.03.2016
108.6
7.9
108.8
21.7
0.17
536
160
376
640
136
1016
08.03.2016
109.4
8.1
109.6
22.1
0.17
528
528
1120
136
1648
09.03.2016
110.9
8.1
111
22.1
0.17
534
534
1280
136
1814
10.03.2016
11.03.2016
112.5
113.9
8.1
8.1
112.6
114
22.1
22.1
0.17
0.17
434
535
0
0
434
535
1120
1040
1
1
136
136
1554
1575
12.03.2016
115.2
8.1
115.3
22.1
0.17
6480
-92240
136
-85760
UNITS
24736
36424
40444
44864
45540
30984
23044
33876
19620
21192
31720
23680
13680
26160
AMOUNT
247152
331972
366743
352325
420381
306227
316301
336006
234113
249676
331158
213903
134441
252832
The Table 7.3 represents comparison between without grid solar power plant and
with solar plant of Electricity bills and units used. The bold represents with solar power
plant connection to grid. After grid connection of plant decrease in Electricity bills.
: 71 lakhs
: 10.65 lakhs
: 60.35 lakhs
: 513 KWh
: 513*5=RS. 2,565/-
: 2,565*30=RS. 76,950/-
: 76,950*12=RS. 9, 23,400/-
Conclusion
CONCLUSION
Installing Rooftop Solar power plant at Annamacharya Institute of Technology
and Sciences is an initiation towards generation of Green energy to reduce the over
criploitation of fossil fuels. This solar power plant meets nearly 40 percent of maximum
REFERENCES
1.
4.
5.