H2 Physics Compiled Notes (Formulae and Definitions)

Chong Yi An

Measurement

SI Base Quantities and Units

Quantity
Unit Name
Unit Symbol
Mass
Kilogram
Kg
Length
Metre
M
Time
Second
s
Electric Current
Ampere
A
Temperature
Kelvin
K
Amount of Substance
Mole
mol
All equations in Physics must be homogenous. However, a homogenous equation may not be
physically correct.
Common Prefixes
Prefix
Pico
Nano
Micro
Milli
Centi
Deci
Kilo
Mega
Giga
Tera

Symbol
p
n

m
c
d
K
M
G
T

Factor
10-12
10-9
10-6
10-3
10-2
10-2
103
106
109
1012

Scalar Quantity
A physical quantity that only has magnitude is a
scalar. E.g.: Speed, temperature.
Systematic Error
An error is systematic if repeating the measurement
under the same conditions yields readings with error
of the same magnitude and sign. All measurements
are either bigger or smaller than the true value.
Readings with systematic error change in a
predictable manner depending on the conditions.

Vector Quantity
A physical quantity that has magnitude and direction
is a vector. E.g.: Velocity, force.
Random Error
An error is random if repeating the measurement
under the same conditions yields readings with error
of different magnitude and sign. Readings with
random errors scatter about a mean value. They
have an equal chance of being negative or positive.
Caused by:
Diameter is different at different points
Fluctuation in the count-rate of radioactive
decay.
Precision
Precision refers to the degree of agreement among
a series of readings of the same quantity.

Caused by:
Instrument with zero error
Calibration error
Accuracy
Accuracy of a measurement is the degree of
agreement between the result of the measurement
and the true value.

Fractional uncertainty of R =

Percentage uncertainty of R =

If R is related to other physical quantities through addition or subtraction, then R is the sum of all the
individual actual uncertainties. ( = + )
If R is related to other physical quantities through multiplication or division, then
individual fractional uncertainties. ( =

, then

-End of Measurement-

is the sum of all the

H2 Physics Compiled Notes (Formulae and Definitions)

Kinematics

Distance
Measure of how far an object has travelled. It is a
scalar quantity that refers to how much ground an
object has covered.
Speed
Rate of change of distance moved by an object.
(Scalar)

Displacement
Distance of an object from a defined reference point
in a specified direction.
Velocity
Rate of change of displacement. (Vector)
Important Equations:
= +
=
+2
1
=
+
2
1
=
+
2

Forces

Hookes Law:

-End of Kinematics=

, where k is the force constant, x is the change in length.

Hookes Law states that the force applied to a material is directly proportional to its extension, if the limit of
proportionality is not exceeded.

Normal contact force is the perpendicular force exerted by the surface of one object on the surface of another
when they are in physical contact and it prevents the objects from passing through each other.
Frictional forces resist motion and are dissipative in nature.

Centre of gravity is the single point at which the entire weight of the body can be considered to act.

The moment of a force about a pivot is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the
pivot to the line of action of the force.
A couple is a pair of equal and opposite forces acting on a body, and the lines of action of these forces do not
coincide. Only rotation is produced, no linear motion.
Torque is the turning effect of a couple (Total moments)

For an object to be in equilibrium: No resultant force, no resultant torque about any point.
Pressure, p in fluid:

+ atmospheric pressure at fluid surface

Upthrust is the net upward force acting on a body when it is in a fluid.

H2 Physics Compiled Notes (Formulae and Definitions)

Archimedes principle: The upthrust acting on a body due to a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid it has
displaced.
-End of Forces-

Dynamics

Newtons first law of motion states that a body will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight
line unless a net external force acts on it.
Newtons second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the
resultant force that acts on it and has the same direction as the resultant force.
=

Impulse of a force is defined as the product of force and time of impact. =

Newtons third law of motion states that if body A exerts a force on body B, body B will exert the same type of
force of equal magnitude but opposite in direction on body A.
(For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.)

Mass is the property of a body which resists change in motion/ the measure of inertia in a body.

The principle of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of a system is constant,
provided no external resultant force acts on it.
+
=
+
Elastic collisions are those in which kinetic energy is conserved.

Inelastic collisions are those in which kinetic energy is not conserved.

-End of Dynamics-

Work, Energy and Power

Work done by a constant force on an object is defined as the product of the force and the displacement in
the direction of the force. (Unit: J, Scalar quantity)
=
Work done in stretching wire = Elastic potential energy stored in the wire =
Work done by gas:
=
Energy is the capacity to do work.
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed in any
process. It can only be transformed (converted) from one form to another or transferred from one body to
another, but the total amount in any isolated system must remain constant.
Efficiency=

x 100%

Kinetic energy,
, is a scalar quantity that represents the energy associated with the body due to its
motion.
Gravitational potential energy =

Power is defined as the work done per unit time OR the rate at which energy is transformed.
=
or
= , =
. SI Unit: Watt(W)
Electrical Energy Consumption Kilowatt hour (kWh): 1kWh = 1000W x 60min x 60 sec = 3.6MJ
-End of Work, Energy, and Power-

H2 Physics Compiled Notes (Formulae and Definitions)

Temperature and Ideal Gases

Temperature is the measure of the degree of hotness of a body as indicated on a calibrated scale.

Two objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium if there is no net exchange of thermal energy when they are
placed in thermal contact.
The absolute thermodynamic scale is a theoretical scale, independent of the thermometric properties of any
substance.
R
K
NA
N
n

Molar gas constant

Boltzmann constant
Avogadro number
Number of molecules
Amount of gas (number of moles)

8.31 Jmol-1K-1
1.38 x 10-23 JK-1
6.02 x 1023 mol-1
-

An ideal gas is a gas which obeys the equation of state.

=

If T is constant, pV is constant.
Different isotherms = Different temperature
Do not assume to be isotherms unless stated.

Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases

Large number of molecules in continuous random motion.
No intermolecular forces between molecules except during collisions between molecules.
The gas molecules undergo elastic collisions.
Duration of collisions is negligible compared with time between collisions.
Volume of gas molecules is negligible compared with the volume of the container.
=
Mean kinetic energy of a molecule =
Total kinetic energy of the molecules in the gas =

Root mean square speed = crms =

Boyles Law
For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the product of pressure and volume is constant.

Charles Law
For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to the temperature
measured in kelvin.
=
Pressure Law
For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional to the temperature
measured in kelvin.
=
-End of Temperature and Ideal Gases-

H2 Physics Compiled Notes (Formulae and Definitions)

First Law of Thermodynamics

Specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the heat (thermal energy) per unit mass required to raise
the temperature of the substance by one unit of temperature. =

Specific latent heat of a substance is the quantity of heat (thermal energy) required to change the phase of a
unit mass (1kg) of the substance. =
Internal energy of a system is the sum of a random distribution of kinetic and potential energies associated
with the molecules of a system.
Temperature of a gas is a measure of mean kinetic energy of particles in the gas.

For melting and boiling, the heat that flows into the boiling liquid increases only the potential energy
component of the internal energy, and not the kinetic energy of the particles. Thus the temperature does not
change and the heat energy required is known as latent heat of fusion/vaporisation.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Increase in internal energy = net heat supplied + net work done on the system
= +

Work done on a system is defined as the work done by external forces exerted on
the system.
=
Work done ON system = Area under p-V graph

-End of First Law of Thermodynamics-

Motion in a Circle

Angular displacement is defined as the angle described at the centre of the circle by a moving body along its
circular path. (Where s is the arc, s= r , is in radians)
Angular velocity

of an object moving in a circle is defined as angular displacement per unit time.

Period is the time taken for the object to complete one revolution.

=2

Tangential velocity is the instantaneous velocity of the particle along its circular path. The direction is
therefore tangential to the circular path. =

Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration directed towards the centre of the circle during circular motion
=
Centripetal force =

Centripetal force is a net (resultant) force, NOT A FORCE ON ITS OWN.

=

-End of Motion in a Circle-

H2 Physics Compiled Notes (Formulae and Definitions)

Gravitational Field

Newtons law of gravitation states that the force of attraction between two point masses is directly
proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.

, G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2.

Gravitational field strength at a point is defined as the gravitational force per unit mass acting at that point.
=

Gravitational potential at a point is the work done per unit mass in bringing a small test mass from infinity
to that point. =

Gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m at a point is the work done in moving the body from
infinity to that point.

Escape velocity =

Geostationary Satellite

Total energy =

Oscillation

Sinusoidal oscillation:

2
Satellite has same period as Earths rotation (T=24h)
Revolves in the same direction as the Earth
Position is directly above the equator
+

-End of Gravitational Field=

Period is the time taken for one complete oscillation.

Frequency is the number of oscillations per unit time.

Amplitude is the magnitude of the maximum value of the displacement. (Scalar)

Simple harmonic motion is defined as an oscillatory motion in which the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the displacement of the object from its equilibrium position, and the acceleration is always
directed towards that position. =

H2 Physics Compiled Notes (Formulae and Definitions)

=

=
=
=

=
,

Phase is the stage that an oscillating system has reached within the complete cycle of an oscillation, usually
expressed in terms of a fraction of the cycle.

Phase difference between 2 oscillations of the same frequency is the difference in their phases of oscillations.
(Expressed in degrees or radians)
Kinetic energy:

Potential energy:
Total energy:

(Max Ek)

Examples of natural damping (light damping):

Amplitude of oscillation of pendulum
decreases gradually because of air
resistance and friction
A note played on the piano gradually
becomes softer

Light damping (underdamped): Dissipative force is

minimal, amplitude is gradually reduced over a number
of oscillations.
Critical damping: Suitable dissipative conditions so that
the system returns to its equilibrium position without
oscillation in the shortest possible time.
Heavy damping (overdamped): Large dissipative force,
no oscillation occurs, system returns to its equilibrium
position very slowly.
Examples of artificial damping:
Shock absorbers of car suspension systems
Door closing mechanism

Free oscillation: Without any applied external force.

Forced oscillations: External periodic force is applied to compensate the loss in energy due to damping.

Resonance: When the driving frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the oscillating system, and
maximum energy is transferred from the periodic force to the system, causing the system to oscillate with
maximum amplitude.
Good examples: Microwave oven (Resonance of water molecules), FM radio, musical instruments
Bad example: Collapse of infrastructure

-End of Oscillations-