FSAE Suspension Report

FSAE IIT Delhi
Suspension Report
Suspension Report
Team Axlr8r, IIT Delhi
ACHIN JAIN
ANSHUL SINGHAL
SHUBHAM AKSHAT
PREFACE
Team AXLR8R
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
The primary goal of the suspension in the context of a Formula SAE

vehicle is to provide a proper interface between the driver and the car
such that a high level of road handling can be realized in a predictable
fashion under all expected accelerations. Even when the limit of adhesion
is reached, driver control and the ability to manage the vehicle are of
paramount importance. Although superficially simple, the selection of
parameters to achieve the ideal package of a vehicle control systems is
the result of evaluating and weighing numerous competing objectives,
many of which require iterative calculations and educated predictions of
values that cannot be determined until an entire vehicle is constructed,
instrumented and fully tested. This report summarizes the design of the
vehicle control systems that have been considered, not only by defining
the important parameters alone but also by considering the effects of one
parameter on the others. The design considerations have resulted in the
construction of the complete suspension system, in resonance with other
departments like brakes, steering of IIT DELHIs Formula SAE car. It should
serve as a summary of suspension basics in the context of a complete
race car.
It contains all the intricate details of the Suspension starting from the
Elementary Study to Final CAD models describing at each and every step,
the principles involved. Suspension Geometry Analysis has been done on
the SusProg3D Software and CAD modeling on SolidWorks. Efforts have
been made to justify every decision at every step. The work is completely
genuine and free from Plagiarism. All the references of Study have been
mentioned.
The report also accounts for the problems encountered and mistakes
committed at some steps in order to ignore those in the future. It also
talks about the Future Perspective, what else can be done, but could not
be done due to time constraints, resource constraints and other factors.
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 10
TYPES OF SUSPENSION............................................................................................11
SOLID BEAM AXLE.......................................................................................... 11
SWING AXLE SUSPENSION...........................................................................12
MACPHERSON.................................................................................................13
EQUAL LENGTH DOUBLE A-ARM..................................................................14
UNEQUAL LENGTH DOUBLE A-ARM SUSPENSION....................................15
DESIGNING APPROACH........................................................................................ 17
1. PARAMETERS OF STUDY................................................................................... 18
1.1
CAMBER............................................................................................................ 18
1.1.1 Neutral Camber...........................................................................................18

1.1.2 Positive Camber..........................................................................................18
1.1.3 Negative Camber.........................................................................................19
1.1.4 Camber Gain.................................................................................................19
1.1.5 Effects of Negative Camber.......................................................................21
1.1.6 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 21
1.2
CASTER............................................................................................................. 23
1.2.1 Neutral Caster.............................................................................................. 23

1.2.2 Negative Caster........................................................................................... 24
1.2.3 Positive Caster............................................................................................. 24
1.2.4 Effects of positive caster...........................................................................25
1.2.5 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 25
1.3
TOE IN/OUT...................................................................................................... 26
1.3.1 Neutral Toe Angle........................................................................................26

1.3.2 Toe In............................................................................................................. 26
1.3.3 Toe Out.......................................................................................................... 26
1.3.4 Effects of Toe................................................................................................ 27
1.3.5 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 27
1.4
KINGPIN (KPI) ANGLE.....................................................................................28
1.4.1 Purpose of Kpi inclination..........................................................................28

1.4.2 Effects of Kpi inclination............................................................................28
1.4.3 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 29
1.5
Anti Dive and Anti Squat...............................................................................29
1.5.1 Methods to achieve Anti-dive and Anti-squat........................................30
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1.5.2 Effects of Anti Dive and Anti Squat..........................................................32
1.5.3 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 32
2. SELECTION OF WHEEL BASE AND TRACKWIDTH..............................................33

2.1
Salient Features for Larger Rear Track Width............................................33
2.2
Salient Features for Larger Front Track Width...........................................33
2.3
Procedure followed to determine Track Width..........................................33
2.4
Conclusion........................................................................................................ 34
3. TIRE and RIM SELECTION.................................................................................35

3.1
Objective.......................................................................................................... 35
3.2
Parameters...................................................................................................... 35
3.2.1 Aspect Ratio.................................................................................................35

3.2.2 Hydroplaning............................................................................................... 35
3.2.3 Traction......................................................................................................... 36
3.2.4 Tire Tread Width.......................................................................................... 36
3.2.5 Basic Terminology.......................................................................................36
3.2.6 Tire Type....................................................................................................... 37
3.2.7 Spring Rate.................................................................................................. 37
3.3
Load Analysis.................................................................................................. 38
3.4
Considerations for Selection.........................................................................39
3.5
Shortlisted Tires.............................................................................................39
3.5.1 Dry Tires....................................................................................................... 39

3.5.2 Wet Tires...................................................................................................... 40
3.6
Selected Tires.................................................................................................. 40
3.6.1 Dry Tires....................................................................................................... 40

3.6.2 Wet tires....................................................................................................... 41
3.7
RIMS.................................................................................................................. 42
3.7.1 Wheel Offset................................................................................................42

3.7.2 PCD................................................................................................................ 44
3.7.3 Spigot Size................................................................................................... 46
3.7.4 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 46
4. ROLL CENTER & MOVEMENT OPTIMIZATION....................................................47

4.1
Effects of height of Roll Center....................................................................47
5. FINALIZATION OF A ARM POINTS......................................................................49

5.1
Front................................................................................................................. 49
5.1.1 Front A Arm Geometry................................................................................51

5.1.2 Front Roll and Bump Data..........................................................................55
5.2
Rear.................................................................................................................. 59
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5.2.1 Rear A Arm Geometry.................................................................................61
5.2.2 Rear Roll And Bump Data...........................................................................65
5.3
Verification of Susprog Results....................................................................68
6. SHOCK ABSORBERS....................................................................................... 69
6.1
Parameters of Study......................................................................................69
6.2
Bell Crank......................................................................................................... 69
6.3
Push Rod/Pull Rod........................................................................................... 69
6.4
Ride/Suspension Frequency..........................................................................70
6.4.1 Effects at Lower frequencies.....................................................................70

6.4.2 Effects at Higher frequencies....................................................................70
6.4.3 Deciding the Ride Frequency.....................................................................70
6.5
Spring Rate...................................................................................................... 72
6.6
Motion Ratio.................................................................................................... 73
6.7
Wheel Rate...................................................................................................... 73
6.8
Roll Gradient.................................................................................................... 74
6.9
Damping........................................................................................................... 76
6.9.1 What is damping?........................................................................................ 76

6.9.2 Damping ratio..............................................................................................76
6.9.3 Transmissibility............................................................................................ 79
6.10 Shock Absorber...............................................................................................79
6.10.1
Introduction.............................................................................................. 79
6.10.3
Working Principle.....................................................................................82
6.10.4
Adjustments..............................................................................................85
6.10.5
Conclusions............................................................................................... 85
6.10.6
Calculations.............................................................................................. 87
6.10.7
Shortlisted Shock Absorbers..................................................................88
6.10.8
Finalised Shocker.....................................................................................92
7. ANTI ROLL BARS.............................................................................................. 93

7.1
Introduction..................................................................................................... 93
7.1.1 Main Functions.............................................................................................93

7.2
Body Roll.......................................................................................................... 93
7.2.1 Negative Aspects of Body Roll..................................................................94

7.2.2 Ways to Prevent Body Roll.........................................................................94
7.3
Types of Anti Roll Bar.....................................................................................94
7.3.1 U-shaped Anti Roll Bar...............................................................................95

7.3.2 T-shaped Anti Roll Bar................................................................................96
7.4
Principles......................................................................................................... 98
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7.5
Factors that Determine Stiffness.................................................................99
7.6
Components of U- shaped anti roll bar.......................................................99
7.7
Tubular Anti Roll Bar....................................................................................101
7.8
Some important Parameters to be used in Calculations........................102
7.8.1 Roll Gradient..............................................................................................102

7.8.2 TLLTD........................................................................................................... 102
7.8.3 Points Concerning Ride Frequency.........................................................104
7.9
Calculation Theory of Anti Roll Bars..........................................................106
7.9.1 Formulas for Required ARB Stiffness Required....................................106

7.9.2 Spring Rate Calculations..........................................................................109
7.9.3 Approximations Done (With Reference to RCVD).................................110
7.10 Materials of Anti Roll Bars...........................................................................112
7.11 Reasons For Using Lever type ARB rather than Bent type....................113
7.12 Where to Install............................................................................................113
7.13 Drawbacks of Using Anti Roll Bar...............................................................113
7.14 Conclusions.................................................................................................... 114
7.14.1
Installation.............................................................................................. 114
7.15 Future Prospects...........................................................................................114
8. SHOCKER AND ANTI ROLL BAR RESULTS FROM SusProg3D...........................116

8.1
Front............................................................................................................... 116
8.1.1 Shocker and Anti Roll Bar Geometry......................................................116

8.1.2 Roll Data..................................................................................................... 119
8.2
Rear................................................................................................................ 126
8.2.1 Shocker and Anti Roll Bar Geometry......................................................126

8.2.2 Roll Data..................................................................................................... 129
8.3
Final Calculations......................................................................................... 136
8.3.1 Spring rate.................................................................................................136

8.3.2 Roll gradient of ride springs....................................................................136
8.3.3 Total ARB roll rate needed to increase the roll stiffness to the desired
roll gradient.......................................................................................................... 137
8.3.4 Front and Rear Anti-Roll Bar stiffness...................................................138
8.4
Final Damping Curve....................................................................................141
9. FORCE CALCULATIONS.................................................................................142
9.1
Front............................................................................................................... 142
9.2
REAR............................................................................................................... 147
10.
BEARING SELECTION................................................................................ 153
11.
DESIGNING............................................................................................... 158
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11.1 Hub.................................................................................................................. 159
11.1.1
Estimation of Forces..............................................................................159
11.1.2
Choosing the material...........................................................................160
11.1.3
Designing the CAD model on SolidWorks...........................................161
11.1.4 Stress analysis of the CAD model on Simulation Express Analysis

Wizard 166
11.1.5
Optimization of the Design by removing excess material..............168
11.2 Upright........................................................................................................... 172

11.2.1
11.2.2
11.2.3

Wizard 180
11.2.5
Optimization of the Design by removing excess material...............182
11.3 Bell crank....................................................................................................... 185

11.3.1
11.3.2
11.3.3

Wizard 193
11.3.5
Optimization of the Design by removing excess material..............195
11.4 A-Arms............................................................................................................ 198

11.4.1
11.4.2
11.4.3

Wizard 203
11.5 Anti Roll Bar................................................................................................... 204
11.5.1
11.5.2
11.5.3

Wizard 207
11.5.5
Optimization of the Design by removing excess material...............209
11.6 Miscellaneous................................................................................................213
11.6.1
Pushrod................................................................................................... 213
11.6.2
Tube Adapter.......................................................................................... 214
11.6.3
Brackets..................................................................................................215
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11.6.4
Rod-ends................................................................................................. 219
11.6.5
Bearings..................................................................................................220
11.6.6
Wheel and tire........................................................................................221
11.6.7
Shocker.................................................................................................... 222
11.7 Assemblies..................................................................................................... 223

11.7.1
Front Wheel Assembly..........................................................................223
11.7.2
Rear Wheel Assembly...........................................................................224
11.7.3
Front Pushrod-bell crank-Shocker Assembly.....................................225
11.7.4
Rear bell crank-Shocker Assembly......................................................226
FUTURE SCOPE.................................................................................................. 227

ACTIVE Suspension.................................................................................................227
Pure Active Suspensions.....................................................................................228
Semi-active Suspension......................................................................................229
Anti Roll Bar............................................................................................................. 231
REFERENCES...................................................................................................... 232
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are very grateful to our Faculty Advisors Prof. Naresh
Bhatnagar and Prof. Rahul Ribeiro for helping us through the
Project. Our Sincere thanks to our Student advisors Ankit Dhall
and Mudit Goel to keep us motivated throughout the year and
for supporting us at each and every step. We are also thankful
to the entire Team AXLR8R. At the end of the day, it has been
possible only because of Teams cooperation and management.
We would also like to thank people from SusProg3D and
SolidWorks, who provided us with Prestigious License to work
on the software.
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Suspension Report
INTRODUCTION
Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers
and linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels. Suspension systems
serve a dual purpose contributing to the car's road holding /handling
and braking for good active safety and driving pleasure, and keeping
vehicle occupants comfortable and reasonably well isolated from road
noise, bumps, and vibrations, etc. It is important for the suspension to
keep the road wheel in contact with the road surface as much as possible,
because all the forces acting on the vehicle do so through the contact
patches of the tires. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and
any cargo or luggage from damage and wear. The design of front and rear
suspension of a car may be different.
The study of the forces at work on a moving car is called vehicle
dynamics, and these concepts define why a suspension is necessary in the
first place. The dynamics of a moving car is considered from two
perspectives:
Ride - a car's ability to smooth out a bumpy road
Handling - a car's ability to safely accelerate, brake and corner
These two characteristics can be further described in three important

principles - road isolation, road holding and cornering. The table
below describes these principles and attempts need to solve the
challenges.
Road Isolation: The vehicle's ability to absorb or isolate road shock from
the passenger compartment.
Goal: Allow the vehicle body to ride undisturbed while traveling over
rough roads.
Road Holding: The degree to which a car maintains contact with the
road surface in various types of directional changes and in a straight line
(Example: The weight of a car will shift from the rear tires to the front tires
during braking. Because the nose of the car dips toward the road, this
type of motion is known as "dive." The opposite effect -- "squat" -- occurs
during acceleration, which shifts the weight of the car from the front tires
to the back.)
Goal: Keep the tires in contact with the ground, because it is the friction
between the tires and the road that affects a vehicle's ability to steer,
brake and accelerate.
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Cornering: The ability of a vehicle to travel a curved path.

Goal: Minimize body roll, which occurs as centrifugal force pushes
outward on a car's center of gravity while cornering, raising one side of
the vehicle and lowering the opposite side.
TYPES OF SUSPENSION
SOLID BEAM AXLE

In the beam
of the front
connected to
solid axle. For
semi or heavy
of the front
connect by a
axle setup both

wheels are
each other by a
example: in a
duty truck both
wheels are
solid axle.
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FIGURE: TYPICAL BEAM AXLE DESIGN,

SHOWING THE WHEELS CONNECTED BY THE AXLE AND THE WHOLE ASSEMBLY CONNECTED TO THE
CHASSIS BY THE SPRINGS AND SHOCKS
SWING
AXLE
SUSPENSION
pivot about a
somewhere
centre of the
the wheels to
down through
respective arcs.
was eventually
rear
The axles
location
near the
car and allow
travel up and
their
This system
adapted for
suspensions.
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FIGURE 1: SWING AXLE SUSPENSION AT DIFFERENT POSITIONS. THE HUGE DEGREE OF POSITIVE
CAMBER WHEN THE AXLES JACK UP (TOP) THIS IS WHAT CAUSES THE DISTINCT LOSS IN CORNERING
POWER.
MACPHERSON
This strut based system, where the spring/shock directly connects the
steering knuckle to the chassis and acts as a link in the suspension,
offers a simple and compact suspension package. This is perfect for
small front wheel drive cars where space is tight and even allows room
for the drive shaft to pass through the knuckle. Today most small cars
will use this type of suspension because it is cheap, has good ride
qualities, and has the compact dimensions necessary for front wheel
drive cars.
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FIGURE: TYPICAL MACPHERSON ASSEMBLY LOOKS LIKE THIS. THE STRUT ACTS AS THE UPPER
SUSPENSION LINK.
EQUAL LENGTH DOUBLE A-ARM
This is commonly
referred to as a
double wishbone
suspension as the A
shaped control arms
resemble a wishbone.
In this design the
suspension is
supported by a
triangulated A-arm at
the top and bottom of
the knuckle. The
earliest designs of the A-arm suspension included equal length upper
and lower arms mounted parallel to the ground. In this design
wishbones or A arms are used top and bottom to support an upright
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to which the wheel is attached. The broad lower base of the arms
connects to the frame while the ball-joints are mounted on the apex of
the arms. When the arms are of equal length and mounted parallel to
each other and to the road, the swing-arm is infinitely long and the roll
centre is at ground level.
UNEQUAL LENGTH DOUBLE A-ARM SUSPENSION
This design is currently used by most of the universities. By using an

upper control arm that is shorter than the lower one, as the wheel travels
up it tips in, gaining negative camber. This is because the upper arm
swings through a shorter arc than the lower and pulls in the top of the tire
as the wheel travels upwards. The advantage in this negative camber
gain is that as the chassis rolls against the wheels, the increasing negative
camber on the outside wheel helps keep the wheel upright against the
road surface and allows the tire to generate the maximum possible
cornering force. By adjusting the length of the arms and their respective
angles to the ground, there are infinite possibilities in the design of a
vehicles roll centre height and swing arm length. This flexibility gives
suspension designers unlimited options on how to best setup the
suspension.
The advantages of an equal length wishbone system are retained but in
addition, camber gain can be created during bump and so camber of the
outer (loaded) tyre during cornering. Furthermore, by changing the angles
and lengths of the arms, it is possible to change the amount of camber

gain during deflection, and also alter the roll centre position and swingarm length.
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The Suspension analysis includes:
Weight distribution and its effect on the above
Tire/wheel properties (Tread, rubber compounds, wheel materials)
The relationships between tire and road
The center of gravity and roll center relationship
Unsprung weight.
Suspension geometry and handling
Anti-roll bar principles
Damper/shock absorber principles
Suspension components, their use and placement for optimum

performance
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DESIGNING APPROACH
We followed the following procedure for the designing of the Suspension:
1. Study of Basic Parameters.
2. Selection of Wheel Base and Track Width.
3. Selection of Tires.
4. Roll Center Location and Movement Optimization.
5. Finalization of A Arm Mounting Points on SusProg3D.
6. Study and Selection of Shock Absorbers.
7. Study of Anti Roll Bars.
8. Finalization of Shocker and Anti Roll Bar Mounting Points on SusProg3D.
9. Forces Calculation
10. Designing of All Suspension Parts on SolidWorks 2010.
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1. PARAMETERS OF STUDY
The definition of all the Parameters, their effects on other Parameters,
advantages, disadvantages and the Optimum Range has been discussed.
All these Parameters must be decided before progressing to Optimization
of Results on SusProg3D.
1.1 CAMBER
It is the angle between the vertical axis of the wheel and the vertical axis
of the vehicle when viewed from the front or rear.
If the tire is to be perfectly positioned on the ground, and the wear on the
tread is to be symmetrical, the wheel should have a zero camber
(perfectly perpendicular to the ground tilting in corners or on bumps
minimizes the area of the wheel in contact with the road so this is not
desired. This tilting of the wheel is called camber. In an ideal situation the
camber angle of the wheel is always zero degrees. In reality the camber
angle changes with the up and down movement of the suspension. Also
body roll affects the camber angle. Often cars have a light Positive camber
angle under no load conditions to make up for the compression of the
suspension and rubber bushes. When normally loaded the camber angle
becomes zero.
Camber is adjusted by tilting the steering axis from the vertical which is
usually done by adjusting the ball joint locations. Because the amount of
tire on the ground is affected by camber angle, camber should be easily
adjustable so that the suspension can be tuned for maximum cornering.
1.1.1
Neutral Camber
The image on the left shows a tire that is set to a

position that is referred to as neutral camber. This
means that the top and bottom of the wheels and tires
are parallel to each other which is measured as 90 degrees to the track
surface. This is the base line measurement from which the other two
positions are measured from.
1.1.2
Positive Camber
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The image on the left shows a tire that is in a cambered position that
is referred to as positive. This means that the tops of
the wheels and tires are leaning outwards from the
centre of the car.
1.1.3
Negative Camber
Shown left is a wheel/tire where the camber angle is set negatively. This
means that
the top of the
wheel is
leaning
toward the
centre of the
car.
1.1.4
Camber Gain
The camber gain is very important to take into consideration, because it

plays an affect on your front geometry.
CAMBER GAIN ILLUSTRATION
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To maximize the grip of a race car tire, the wheel must be at a certain
angle camber angle. However, this angle varies as the wheel and
suspension move up and down in response to bumps and cornering
forces.
As no two corners are the same, and the forces generated are never
the same, a single camber angle would only work occasionally. So, we
need a system of variable camber, the result: camber gain suspension.
The reason the camber gain is important, is because the static camber
will change if the camber gain changes. Understanding the
relationship between camber gain and static camber is important. The
wheel goes thru the travel and the camber changes as that happens.
Keeping the whole tire patch on the surface of the racetrack for the
whole camber gain is what will make the car turn the best.
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How camber gain is obtained

1. Camber gain is usually obtained by having different length upper and
lower control arms. Different length control arms will cause the ball
joints to move through different arcs relative to the chassis.
2. The angle of the control arms relative to each other also influences the
amount of camber gain.
3. Caster angle (positive) is also used to increase the camber gain for the
tight corners.
1.1.5
Effects of Negative Camber
More grip and stability while cornering: While cornering the body
of the car will start rolling, inducing positive caster. Negative caster will
compensate this effect. If the tire had zero camber, the inside edge of
the contact patch would begin to lift off of the ground in cornering,
thereby reducing the area of the contact patch. In case of negative
camber, this effect is reduced, thereby maximizing the contact patch
area. However, this is only true for the outside tire during the turn; the
inside tire would benefit most from positive camber.
Straight Line Stability: Negative camber creates force on the wheels

called Camber Thrust. Going straight, Left and Right will in balance
and car goes straight. For maximum straight-line acceleration, the
greatest traction will be attained when the camber angle is zero and
the tread is flat on the road.
Better cornering: While cornering inner wheel will be lifted from a

little to sometimes completely. Then the camber thrust will cause the
car to take a sharper turn.
1.1.6
Conclusion
On the Basis of Study and Literature, Camber generally will be around -0.5
to -5.5 degrees (negative). As seen in the Graph below, Coefficient of
Friction is maximum at Camber Angle of -1 degree and hence, the
maximum grip.
Hence, Camber Angle is chosen as -1 degree.
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1.2 CASTER
Caster refers to the angle made between the centres of the lower pivot
point of the axle block to the centre of the upper pivot point of a model
car axle block when looking from the side of the car.
Caster, like Camber, has three possible states, neutral, negative and
positive. Caster can be measured in degrees.
1.2.1
N
e
u
tr
al
Caster
Neutral caster has the upper and lower pivot points aligned vertically. The
forces that bear down on the car and the wheel have only a single vertical
point of contact which is at the mercy of any external forces that may act
upon it. Any car set with neutral caster will be an unstable one.
1.2.2
Negative
Caster
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Negative caster is sometimes referred to as leading caster. Negative

caster, which is sometimes referred to as leading caster, has the upper
pivot points positioned in front of the lower pivot points. Because of the
horizontal offset between these two pivots the forces that bear down on
the car are transmitted with a forward bias. Depending on the driving
configuration of the car, this either adds stability or makes it un-drivable.
It is better for Front Wheel Drive.
1.2.3
Positive
Caster
Positive caster is sometimes referred to as trailing caster. Positive caster,

which is sometimes referred to as trailing caster, has the upper pivot
points positioned in behind of the lower pivot points. Because of the
horizontal offset between these two pivots the forces that bear down on
the car are transmitted with a rearward bias. Depending on the driving
configuration of the car, this either adds stability or makes it un-drivable.
It is better for Rear Wheel Drive.
1.2.4
Effects of positive caster

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Straight Line Stability: The greater the angle of caster, the stronger
the centering force, which effectively means heavier steering and the
car will be reluctant to turn into a corner. Conversely, if the car were to
be given negative caster, with the lower end of the axis further back
than the top, there would be no directional stability at all.
Self Centering of Steering: The bigger the angle the stronger the
self centering action. If the angle is negative the steering is very light
and very nervous.
Cornering: With a low caster angle, centering force will be weak and
car will be more willing to go around the corners but counter effect is
that it will be less willing to straighten up afterwards.
Effect on Camber: Caster also causes change of camber when the

steering is turned, which results in more negative camber on the
outside front wheel and more positive camber on the inside front
wheel. Caster angle affects the camber gain of the car. The tilted
steering axis has important effect on suspension geometry. Since the
wheel rotates about a tilted axis, the wheel gains camber as it is
turned. This effect is best visualized by imagining the unrealistically
extreme case where the steering axis would be horizontal-as the
steering wheel is turned, the road wheel would simply change camber
rather than direction. This effect causes the outside wheel in a turn to
gain negative camber, while the inside wheel gains positive camber.
Therefore the aim with caster is to get a balance between straightline stability and getting the car to turn easily, without too much
effort from the driver. This is achieved by having different amounts
of caster on each wheel. The inside wheel will have a low caster
angle, though still positive. This gives the light steering into the
corner. A higher amount of caster on the outside wheel will give the
car the straight-line characteristics that are required.
1.2.5
Conclusion
Since we have rear wheel driven system, positive caster is beneficial.

Its value will generally lie between +2 to +5.5 degrees (positive).
Only applies to Front/Steering wheels.
We have chosen Caster Angle of 3 degrees.
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27
1.3 TOE IN/OUT

The term toe angle refers to the longitudinal angle of the wheels on your
car, i.e. how parallel they are to each other and the car.
1.3.1 Neutral Toe Angle
Front wheels are parallel to both each other and to the direction of travel
of the car.
1.3.2 Toe In
Toe in occurs when the front of the wheels point towards the car.
1.3.3 Toe Out

Toe Out occurs when the wheels point outwards from the car. It can be
specified in mm, inches or degrees.
1.3.4
Effects of Toe
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Cornering:
As the vehicle goes around a turn, the inside tire must travel in a
smaller radius circle than the outside. If the two wheels were parallel,
one of the two would not be running in a natural arc when cornering
and would be scrubbing sideways as before. When going around a
corner with toe-out the inner wheel will be turned in slightly further
than the outer, and both wheels will go round the corner properly.
Steering Response:
Steering response will be improved with toe-out. Toe-out encourages
turn-in since the inside tire turns at a greater angle than the outside.
Hence, the car is sensitive to the slightest steering input. Toe-out will
make the car wander on the straight-aways requiring corrective
steering. The car will always be turning unless the steering is perfectly
centered. With toe-in, the inside tire fights the outside since the inside
is trying to trace a larger radius arc than the outside. As a result, toe-in
discourages turn-in and makes the car less sensitive to steering input.
Straight Line Stability:

Straight line stability will be improved with toe-in because rear wheel
drive cars have tendency to over steer and toe-in will induce under
steer, thus compensating the previous effect.
Tire Wear: The best tire wear is achieved with completely parallel
tires 0 degrees of toe. However, this is not the best for straight line
stability or cornering ability!
Excessive toe-in will cause the tire to scrub on the outboards.
Too much toe-out will cause the inboard edges to wear out.
1.3.5 Conclusion
Only applies to Front/Steering wheels.
Toe-out is preferred.
We preferred toe-out sacrificing the straight line stability for
good cornering and its value is chosen to be 5mm.
1.4 KINGPIN (KPI) ANGLE

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The angle is described by a line drawn down through the top and bottom
ball-joint (swivel pin) centers and vertical viewed from the front. Extended
to ground level, the distance from here to the wheel/tire centre-line at
ground level is the King Pin Offset or Scrub Radius. Ideally the
lines should intersect at ground level. This will give both lightness of
steering feel and virtually no kick back through the steering wheel when
hitting bumps known as centre-point steering. A negative Scrub
Radius is when the Kingpin Angle hits the road on the outside of the
centre line of the tyre contact point.
1.4.1
To ensure the returning of the wheels after a bend (self centering of the
steering).
Together with the camber it provides centre point steering (scrub
radius zero or negative).
Reduces steering effort.
Aids directional control.
Helps to distribute vehicle weight evenly across the tire.
1.4.2
Purpose of Kpi inclination
Effects of Kpi inclination
Increasing the inclination angle will decrease the self centering

steering effect
The steer momentum is the product of kingpin offset and the wheel
force. The wheel forces will try to pull the center of contact patch of the
front wheels forward, thus the wheel will rotate about the point of the
kingpin axle projected to the ground.
Effect on Roll and Stability
Increasing KPI also increases the lateral forces on the cars increase
thus making it more receptive to roll and instability.
What happens is that when wheel comes in contact with the bump it
tend to turn toward the bump .That is if the left hand front wheel on
contacting a bump wants to turn sharply left .This caused by the
leverage factor of the relative position of the wheel and its turning
axis .The closer the kpi axis to the center of the tyre tread contact
patch, the lesser the adverse effect.
Another problem is that when the wheels of the car having a lot of
offset, are turned left or right from the straight ahead position, the
chassis is raised on one side and lowered on the other. That is, on a
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vehicle turning left, the left hand front wheel tend to lift that side of
the car and the right hand front wheel tend to lower its side of the car.
The more the offset, the more pronounced the raising and lowering
effect of the chassis.
1.4.3 Conclusion
Kpi offset is chosen to be 14mm.
1.5
Anti Dive and Anti Squat
A Dive is the action of the front of the vehicle to point downward during
braking.
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Anti-dive is a suspension parameter that affects the amount of front

suspension deflection when the brakes are applied. It is the forces of
inertia and mechanical resistance that the brakes create thru the front
suspension. When a car is decelerating due to braking there is a load
transfer off the rear wheels and onto the front wheels proportional to the
center of gravity height, the deceleration rate and inversely proportional
to the wheelbase. If there is no anti-dive present, the vehicle suspension
will deflect purely as a function of the wheel rate. This means only the
spring rate is controlling this motion.
As anti-dive is added, a portion of the load transfer is resisted by the
suspension arms. The spring and the suspension arms are sharing the
load in some proportion. If a point is reached called 100-percent anti-dive,
all of the load transfer is resisted by the suspension arms and none is
carried through the springs. When this happens there is no suspension
deflection due to braking and no visible brake dive. There is still load
transfer onto the wheels, but the chassis does not pitch nose down.
Anti-squat is a suspension parameter that affects the amount of rear

suspension deflection when the vehicle is accelerated. The function of
anti-squat, like its name, is to reduce the amount of weight transfer to the
rear wheels under acceleration. When the vehicle is accelerating there is
load transfer from the front to the rear wheels.
When Anti-squat is added a portion of load is resisted by suspension arms.
With your anti-squat set to zero degrees your rear suspension swings
straight up and down. When you increase the degree of anti-squat the
plane that your rear suspension swings on also increases. Now, instead of
swinging straight up and down, your rear suspension swings up and back.
1.5.1Methods to achieve Anti-dive and Anti-squat

Convergent Axes method:
This method uses brake torque reactions through the suspension links,
which are convergent inclined towards the c.g. location in side elevation
to reduce or cancel the driving tendency.
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32
The line extended from the contact patch through the wishbone axes
convergent point would intersect a perpendicular dropped from the cg to

the track surface at a point. Ratio of the distance of this point from the
ground and the height of cg will give % anti-dive.
If the point of convergence of extended wishbone pivot axes intersects a
line drawn from the tire contact patch to the c.g. of the sprung mass, then
the torque reaction will cancel out the driving moment and we will have
100% anti-dive.
100% Antidive and 100% Anti-squat
30% Anti-squat
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33
Inclined Parallel Axes method:

Wishbones pivot axes are maintained parallel to each other and are
inclined both downward towards the front. What happens here is that,
under braking, the inertia of spring mass of the sprung mass tries to
rotate the sprung mass about the front wheels. The inclined pivot axes
from the inclined plane which forces the wishbones into the droop position
which effectively lifts the front of vehicle. In this case to achieve
100% anti-dive, the wishbone pivot axes must be parallel to line
drawn between the tire contact patch and the c.g.
100% Anti-dive and Anti-squat
1.5.2
ects of Anti Dive and Anti Squat
Eff
Each method utilizes upward force of brake torque reaction to oppose

the downward force of load transfer. This opposition means suspension
becomes stiffer and less sensitive with vertical wheel travel and so is
less able to absorb the shocks caused by track surface irregularities
and load transfers.
Under the brakes should wheel hit a bump at a time when the upward
force opposing the load transfer is close to the downward force of the
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transfer, equal and opposite forces will be achieved and the suspension
would be effectively blind solid and the tire goes into severe tramp.
At the rear,the problem with the vertical load transfer under
acceleration is chassis squat with its attendant negative camber.It can
be resisted by antisquat suspension linkage. We are resisting the
natural downward force of load transfer with the reactive upward thrust
so it is possible to loose sensitivity and get into tire patter and the alike
if too much antisquat is employed.This will manifest itself as power on
over steer.
Converging inclination of pivot axes causes front wheel caster to
increase with the vertical wheel travel. This increases the steering
effort.
The parallel but the inclined axes causes the wheel to move forward as
well as upwards in reaction to vertical loads. In order to absorb bumps
tire should move rearward under impact. This opposition of forces
means that suspension becomes stiffer and less sensitive with upward
wheel travel and we get into patter once again.
One disadvantage found at the front doesnt exist at the rear-when the
pivot axes are inclined upward toward the front ,the bump movement
will force the wheel rearward-in the natural direction to absorb the
energy of the bump,rather than to oppose it.The fact that the
wheelbase changes slightly while all of this is happening doesnt seem
to bother anything.It is,however,necessary to carefully adjust the rear
suspension to avoid undesirable bump steer characterstics.
1.5.3
Conclusion
Anti-dive generally lies between 20-25%.

Maximum anti-squat is 20%.
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2. SELECTION OF WHEEL BASE AND

TRACKWIDTH
Previous Car dimensions:
Rear Trackwidth : 1250 mm
Front Trackwidth : 1286 mm
FSAE Guidelines:
There are no guidelines in place for track width.
2.1
2.2
2.3
Salient Features for Larger Rear Track Width

Provides for slightly for space for housing the engine in rear
mounted engine cars such as our car
Front track width being smaller helps there will be lesser drag force
on the car, resulting in better streamlining of the vehicle.
It causes the car to undergo slight under steer
Salient Features for Larger Front Track Width

Better maneuverability of the car
Aids us in changing the direction quickly
Since the engine driven wheels(Rear) are closer, this aids in
traction
Lesser the rear track width, lesser the transmission power losses
from the engine
It causes to vehicle to have a slight over steer.
Procedure followed to determine Track Width
Since the larger rear track width points are not applicable for us, it was
decided to continue with a larger front track width for the convenience of
driver.
Lateral Load Transfer Calculations:
Lateral Load Transfer between the Tires=[(Lateral acceleration in
g's)*(weight)*(CG height)]/(track width)
On the Race Track:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Radius of the corner = 4 m

Velocity at the corner = 10 m/s
Weight = 400 kg
CG Height = 250 mm (to be reduced from 298 mm)
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5. Trackwidth = (assumed 1250 mm)

From these calculations,
It was found that lateral load transfer for the 2 inner tires would be around
1800N. Thus, each tire would take an extra weight of around 90 kg which
is within the acceptable range for the tire chosen.
It is observed that,
For every 1mm of track width change at a lateral acceleration of
3 g's, the lateral load changes by 1.5N
Hence, we can quite clearly change the track width by 50 -70 mm as
compared to the dimensions of the previous car without adversely
affecting the lateral load transfer.
2.4
Conclusion
For maintaining the proper dimensions of the car, it was decided to

keep the front track width at .75 to .80 times the wheelbase.
Moreover, the rear track width would be kept slightly smaller at .
90 to .98 times the front track width in order to fully allow for the
engine constraints.
Considering all the study and calculations, final dimensions were decided
as:
Wheel Base = 1600mm
Front Track Width = 1160mm
Rear Track Width = 1140mm
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3. TIRE
AND
RIM SELECTION
3.1 Objective
To select best possible tires and rims for the Formula Racing Car
considering the following factors:
Stability of car
Economy
3.2 Parameters
3.2.1
Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio of a tire is the ratio of its section height to its section
width. The smaller the number the shorter the sidewall and wider the tire.
3.2.1.1 Effects of Aspect Ratio
As the aspect ratio of a tire is lowered, or the width of the tire is
increased, the tire footprint area increases. The larger footprint area
reduces the average pressure of the contact patch. Since footprint
pressure is closely related to hydroplaning resistance, lower aspect
ratio tire hydroplaning resistance is not as high as that of high aspect
ratio tires.
Lower aspect ratio provides better lateral stability. When a car goes
around a turn lateral forces are generated and the tire must resist
these forces. Tires with a lower profile have shorter, stiffer sidewalls so
they resist cornering forces better.
Lowering aspect ratio would increase a tire's radial stiffness
and dimensional stability. This reduces the deflection of a tire and
decreases rolling resistance, and thus improves fuel economy, results
in improving the tread wear.
Lower aspect ratio tires can successfully use softer tread compounds.
It seems this is due to the more uniform stress distribution of these
tires as compared to high aspect ratio tires. The use of a softer
compound increases the traction of the tire on the track. At high
speeds, this is very desirable for vehicle handling.
3.2.2
Hydroplaning
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Hydroplaning or aquaplaning by the tires of a road vehicle occurs

when a layer of water builds between the rubber tires of the vehicle and
the road surface, leading to the loss of traction and thus preventing the
vehicle from responding to control inputs such as steering, braking or
accelerating.
3.2.1.1 Effects of Hydroplaning
Tire tread wear and contact patch shape
The longer and thinner the contact patch, the less likely a tire will
hydroplane. Tires that present the greatest risk are wide, lightly loaded,
and small in diameter. Deeper tread dissipates water more easily.
Ratio of tire load to inflation pressure

Underinflated tires are more prone to hydroplaning, especially as
vehicle weight increases.
3.2.3
Traction
Traction is the grip of a tire on the road.
3.2.4
Tire Tread Width
More the tire Width better is the traction.

Wider tires have more amount of rubber which must be heated; this
added material may prevent the tires from reaching the optimum
temperature range.
More width implies larger contact patch, which means larger area on
ground to resist
sliding,
spinning and losing
traction.
Thus, cars can
negotiate
corners at higher
speed and
accelerate faster as it
would be
possible with regular
tires.
3.2.5
Basic
Terminology
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3.2.6
39
Tire Type
Advantages
Bia
s
Rad
ial
3.2.7
Strong sidewalls,
tough casing
Better sidewall
puncture resistance
Good lateral
stability (hill side
work)
Good in rough
terrain and off-road
Good high speed

capacity
Longer lasting (Up
to 50% longer)
Wear resistant
Low heat build-up
Lower rolling
resistance
Better Fuel
Economy
Better
floatation and
larger contact area
Less soil
compaction
Better stability and
machine handling
Disadvantages
Poor life expectancy (50%

of radial)
Lack of flexibility in
casing reduces
foot
print and traction
Tread flexes more,
generating more heat and
rolling resistance.
Profile of tire increases
soil compaction and
reduces traction
More prone to puncturing
Spring Rate
As the pressure increases, spring rate of tire increases.

As the weight on tire increases, spring rate increases.
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40
3.3 Load Analysis

Total Weight of the car (including the driver)
350 kg or 771.6 lb
Maximum Load acts on a tire in case of cornering as well as braking

Static weight distribution:
Weight on front tires = 140 kg or 308.6 lbs
Weight on rear tires = 210 kg or 463 lbs
C.G. height = 250 mm or 9.84 inch
Wheelbase = 1600 mm or 63 inch
Braking acceleration = 1.4 g
Track width = 1286 mm or 50.62 inch
Longitudinal load transfer in case of braking =
acceleration ( g ) weight ( lbs ) c . g . height ( inch )
wheelbase (inch)
= 168.7 lbs
Therefore,
Total weight on front tires = 477.36 lbs
Total weight on rear tires = 294.3 lbs
Velocity while cornering = 8 m/s
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41
Turning radius = 4 m
Lateral load transfer in case of braking =
acceleration ( g ) weight ( lbs ) c . g . height ( inch )
trackwidth(inch)
= 148.45 lbs
Therefore,
Load on front outer tire = (477.36/2) + 148.45 = 387.1 lbs
Thus, maximum load is possible on front outer tire.
3.4 Considerations for Selection
Rim diameter of the used tires is 13 inch. Tires with large rim diameter
will have short sidewalls. Hence a desirable lower aspect ratio. By
studying the tire catalogue of different companies, it was observed that
tires with rim diameter 10, 13, 15 and 16 are available. From which
10 rim diameter is too small for the size of the brake disk. Rim
diameter of 15 or 16 is too large as it will increase the weight of tires.
Cold tire pressure is 14 psi.
Outer diameters of wet and dry tires are same to ensure ride height is
not affected by changing the tires. Rim specifications are also taken to
be identical for wet and dry tires to ensure they do not affect the hub
and the brake disk.
Radial Tires are better than Bias Tires.
3.5 Shortlisted Tires

Based on our considerations, following tires are shortlisted:3.5.1 Dry Tires
Goodyear:
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Product
Code
Size
42
O.D
.
Trea Secti
Recommen
Compou Retail Weight
d
on
ded
nd
Price
Widt Width Rim
h
Item
Size
O.D Trea Secti Recommen Rim
Compou Retail S.A.E.
Numb
.
d
on
ded
Measur nd
Price
Price
er
Widt Section
Widt
Rim
ed
Item
Size
O.
Trea
Rec.
Rim
Compo Retail S.A.E.
80720.0
20.D. 7.2"
8.7"
6.0-8.0"
WET
$206. Price
10.6 lbsPrice
h
Number
dh
Width
Rim
Measur
und
299x
5"
00
Widt
ed
0967.0h
MATL
13
No.
44125
19.5 x
19. 6.2" 8.2"
6.06.0"
WET
$167. $133.6
6.5-10 7"
8.0"
00
0
20.0
20.
7.7"
9.1"
8"
WET
$219.
11.0lbs
Product Size
O.
Tread Sectio
Recommende Compoun Retail
Weight
x20.0 x 0" 20.
00
44150
7.4" 8.3"
7.07.0"
$206.
$164.8
Code
D.
Width
n
d
d WET
Price
8.07.5-13 6"
00
0
Width 8.0"
Rim
13
43128 21.0
20.5 xx 21.
6.0" 7.2"
7.3"
5.5-6.5"
5.5" WET
R25B $203.
$186.
$148.
44185
21. 6.7"
6.06.0"
$162.4
6.0-13
0"
00
6.5-13 2"
8.0"
00
0 80
80720.0
43162 20.5 x
299x
7.0Produc 7.0-13
Size
06813
t Code
MATL
43169 20.0 x
No.
7.5-13
20.
21.
5"
O.
0"
D.
807807434434068068MATL
MATL
No.
No.
20.
20
0"
.0"
20.0
20.0
x
x 8.013
8.0-
20.
6"
7.2"
7.0"
Trea
d
Widt
8.0"
h
7.7"
7.7"
8.7"
6.0-8.0"
DRY
8.0"
5.5-8.0"
6.0"
R25B
Sectio Recommend Compou
n
ed
nd
Width
Rim
9.4"
7.0-9.0"
8.0"
R25B
9.1"
9.1"
8"
8"
DRY
DRY
$181.0 10.4 lbs

$186. $148.
0
Retail
00 Weight
80
Price
$198.
00
$184.0
$184.
0
00
11.0lbs
11.0lbs
13
Hoosier:
3.5.2
Wet Tires
Goodyear:
Hoosier:
3.6 Selected Tires

3.6.1
Dry Tires
From this study, following conclusions were made:

Tire should have lower aspect ratio which means wider tires with
shorter and stiffer sidewalls.
Load carrying capacity of tires should exceed 400 lbs.
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43
Selected Tire is:
We selected the following tires because of following features:

1. Tire has section width of 9.1 which is appreciably wide.
2. Aspect ratio is the smallest among all the shortlisted as width is larger
Produc
t Code
Size
O.
D.
Trea
d
Widt
h
Sectio
n
Width
Recommend
ed
Rim
Compou
nd
Retail
Price
Weight
807434068MATL
No.
20.0
x
8.013
20
.0"
7.7"
9.1"
8"
WET
$219.
00
11.0lbs
and side wall thickness is small.
3.6.2
Wet tires
From this study, following conclusions were made:
Tire should have deeper treads.

Outer Diameter of tire should be large.
Tire should not be underinflated.
Tire tread width should be smaller.
Selected Tire is
NOTE:
The reason we have selected this tire and not Hoosier, is also that we
were unable to find the Tire Curves for the Hoosier which also is very
important criteria in deciding the tires.
The tires curves are provided by Tire Consortium and there is a large
fee involved which justifies our incapability.
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3.7
RIMS
3.7.1
Wheel Offset
Offset is the distance between the imaginary centerline of the wheel (as
viewed from behind the wheel as it would roll away from you) and the
inside face that bolts up against the wheel hub on the car.
A significant reduction in positive offset of the wheels will EFFECTIVELY
change the steering geometry's scrub radius, possibly increasing the
steering effort and making the car harder to control during turning and
cornering.
Offset is also important. Positive offset will increase the track (width side
to side) of the car, lessening weight transfer and increasing grip. Such
wheels are recognized by a concave, deeper look, where the mounting
surface of the wheel is further inboard, beyond the centerline.
Negative offset is where the mounting surface is outboard of the
centerline of the rim, giving the wheel a flatter appearance. Negative
offset of wheels means choosing a narrower track, more weight transfer
and less grip.
Because wheel offset changes the lever-arm length between the center of
the tire and the centerline of the steering knuckle, the way bumps, road
imperfections and acceleration and braking forces are translated to
steering torques (bump-steer, torque-steer, etc) will change depending on
wheel offset. Likewise, the wheel bearings will see increased thrust loads
if the wheel centerline is moved away from the bearing centerline.
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45
Positive offset
3.7.2
P
C
D
The term PCD stands for (pitch circle diameter) and is the diameter of a
circle drawn through the centre of your wheels bolt holes. PCD is
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measured in millimeters and also indicates the number of studs or bolts

the wheel will have.
One of the most common fitments has 4 studs and a PCD of 100mm,
hence the fitment 4x100.
Measuring PCD
The other two things to look for when fitting after market wheels is the
PCD (Pitch Circle Diameter, ) and spigot size. The PCD is easy to match as
this relates to the number of studs we need to hold the wheel on the car.
The actual meaning is the diameter of the studs from the centre of the
wheel.
Calculating PCD
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4 HOLE WHEELS
Measure the distance between
the centers of 2 OPPOSITE holes
OR
Measure the distance between
the centers of 2 ADJACENT holes
and multiply by 1.414
3.7.3
48
5 HOLE WHEELS
Measure the distance X
between the centers of 2
ADJACENT holes and multiply
by 1.7012
Spigot Size
Spigot is the bit in the centre of the hub that we rest the inside centre of
the wheel on whilst aligning the studs and screwing back the wheel nuts.
On generic after market wheels, the spigot hole inside the wheels is a lot
bigger than the spigot on the car. So we need to fit spigot locating rings.
These are just rings of aluminum or hard plastic that fit over the spigot on
the car and then have a proper snug fit with the spigot hole on the wheel.
If the spigot does not take all the weight of the car, chances are one or
more studs will break when we drive the car hard or have to brake hard.
The wheel nuts are simply there to hold the wheel on, NOT support the
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weight of the car. Also, as there is nothing to centre the wheel, we'll notice
the wheels go in and out of balance because as we drive around, they'll
move around on the hub.
3.7.4 Conclusion
We visited the market to see the common Steel Alloys Rims available.
Considering the width of tire, we came to following Conclusion.
Rim Offset should be negative to get low value of KPI Offset.

Out of the all available, offset of -35mm was most common.
Rim width = 5.5 in
PCD = 100 X 4
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4. ROLL CENTER & MOVEMENT

OPTIMIZATION
The points labeled IC are the instant centers for the wheels relative to the
chassis. The other instant center in figure, the roll center, is the point that
the chassis pivots about relative to the ground.
The front and rear roll centers define an axis that the chassis will pivot
around during cornering.
Since the CG is above the roll axis for most race cars, the inertia force
associated with cornering creates a torque about the roll center. This
torque causes the chassis to roll towards the outside of the corner.
Ideally, the amount of chassis roll would be small so that the springs
and anti-roll bars used could be a lower stiffness for added tire
compliance.
However, for a small overturning moment, the CG must be close to
the roll axis. This placement would indicate that the roll center would
have to be relatively high to be near the CG.
4.1 Effects of height of Roll Center
Unfortunately, if the roll center is anywhere above or below the ground

plane, a jacking force will be applied to the chassis during cornering.
For example, if the roll center is above ground, this jacking force
causes the suspension to drop relative to the chassis. Suspension
droop is usually undesirable since, depending on the suspension
design, it can cause positive camber which can reduce the amount of
tire on the ground.
Conversely, if the roll center is below the ground plane, the suspension
goes into bump, or rises relative to the chassis, when lateral forces are
applied to the tires.
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Suspension Report
Therefore, it is more desirable to have the roll center close to the

ground plane to reduce the amount of chassis vertical movement
due to lateral forces.
Since the roll center is an instant center, it is important to remember that
the roll center will move with suspension travel. Therefore, the migration
of the roll center must be checked to ensure that the jacking forces and
overturning moments follow a relatively linear path for predictable
handling. For example, if the roll center crosses the ground plane for any
reason during cornering, then the wheels will raise or drop relative to the
chassis which might cause inconsistent handling. This has been taken care
of with the help of Anti Roll Bars (Refer Section 6).
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Suspension Report
5. FINALIZATION OF A ARM POINTS

5.1 Front
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Suspension Report
5.1.1
Front A Arm Geometry

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Suspension Report
54
After various iterations and optimization of the following during Bumpdroop and Roll:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Camber
Caster
Kpi offset
Anti-Dive and Anti-Squat
Roll Center position
Front view Swing axle arm lengths
Keeping the variation of the above parameters minimum, following set of

data was obtained:
Double A-arm
Vehicle lateral datum
(Y): Vehicle centreline
Vehicle vertical datum
(Z): Ground
Vehicle longitudinal datum (X): Front axle centreline
Chassis pivot points (from vehicle Y, Z, X datum)
LH
- top A-arm chassis pivot (front/rear)
315.00
-Y
300.00
-Z
325.00
-X
135.00 -135.00
- bottom A-arm chassis pivot (front/rear)
319.00
-Y
270.00
-Z
155.00
-X
135.00 -150.00
- top A-arm chassis pivot (virtual/normal)
161.00
-Y
-Z
322.00
-X
0.00
307.50
-6.64
-Z
157.84
-X
0.00
277.11
157.82
0.90
Upright pivot points (from vehicle Y, Z, X datum)
- bottom A-arm upright pivot
307.87
321.85
- bottom A-arm chassis pivot (virtual/normal) - Y
- top A-arm upright pivot
285.00
-Y
-Z
361.96
-X
5.74
-Y
546.76
557.33
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55
-Z
166.36
-X
15.83
- spindle reference point
-Y
610.50
-Z
258.19
-X
-0.46
- spindle / wheel cl point
-Y
575.50
-Z
257.58
-X
0.07
Instant centre
Front view swing axle length (at IC point)
1483.38
Front view swing axle height (at IC point)
120.67
Roll centre height
47.18
Roll centre offset
0.00
Side view IC length (at IC point)
3931.36
Side view IC height (at IC point)
243.63
Side view IC height (at rear axle centreline)
99.15
Side view IC angle (from tyre centre)

Suspension roll axis
3.55
-6.2%
Brake force split 62% front 38% rear

Brake anti-dive %
24.6%
Track (wheel cl on ground)
1160.00
Top A-arm link lengths (front/rear)

Top A-arm link lengths (virtual)
242.55
Bottom A-arm link lengths (front/rear)

Bottom A-arm link lengths (virtual)
Bottom A-arm link lengths (normal)
Tyre contact cl from vehicle cl
274.53
242.64
Top A-arm link lengths (normal)
Tyre contact cl from X datum
281.01
311.27
280.80
280.80
0.00
580.00
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56
Tyre rolling radius (effective radius)
257.62
Tyre diameter (overall)
523.24
Rim width
152.40
Rim mounting offset
-35.00
Wheel mounting spacer
0.00
Wheel toe reference length
330.20
Wheel alignment in straight ahead position

Camber angle
-1.00
Upright pivot inclination (kpi) and offset
3.05
Caster angle and trail
3.00
Spindle offset from kingpin axis(side/front view)

Static toe (mm) toeout
14.05
24.21
10.71
23.07
-5.00
Ride height ref point (from vehicle Y, Z, X datum)
Front
Rear
Front LH:
Rear LH:
-Y
0.00
Ride height (ref point to ground)
0.00
-Z
-X
0.00
38.10
38.10
1600.00
Datum reference dimensions

Chassis lateral datum
(Y): Chassis centreline
Chassis vertical datum
(Z): Ground
Chassis longitudinal datum (X): Front axle centreline

Ride height ref point (from chassis Y, Z, X datum)
Front
Front LH:
Rear LH:
-Y
0.00
0.00
-Z
38.10
38.10
-X
0.00
1600.00
Chassis pivot points (from chassis Y, Z, X datum)
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LH
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Suspension Report
57
- top A-arm (front/rear)
-Y
300.00
-Z
325.00
-X
135.00 -135.00
- bottom A-arm (front/rear)
319.00
-Y
270.00
-Z
155.00
161.00
-X
135.00 -150.00
- tie rod (steering rack)
-Y
315.00
251.43
-Z
186.40
-X
52.00
Upright pivot points (from upright Y, Z, X datum)

- top A-arm
-Y
62.00
-Z
105.00
-X
0.00
- bottom A-arm
-Y
55.00
-Z
-90.00
-X
20.00
- tie rod (steering arm)
-Y
97.00
-Z
-52.70
-X
60.00
-Y
0.00
Upright pivot points (from chassis Y, Z, X datum)

- top A-arm
-Y
546.76
-Z
361.96
-X
5.74
- bottom A-arm
-Y
557.33
-Z
166.36
-X
15.83
-Y
-Z
200.88
-X
58.28
-Y
-Z
515.36
610.50
258.19
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Suspension Report
-X
5.1.2
58
-0.46
Front Roll and Bump Data
Chassis roll values calculated every 0.25 degrees. Roll left.

Full dynamic roll centre. Roll starts at Static.
LH wheel
centre
height
camber
angle
fvsax
caster
angle
caster
trail
kpi
angle
kpi
offset
wheel
scrub
axle
tramp
toe
mm
roll
offset
0.00 roll
-1.00
47.18
1483.38
3.00
24.21
3.05
14.05
0.00
0.00
-5.00
0.00
0.50 roll
-0.70
46.77
1447.24
3.07
24.52
2.75
14.04
-0.02
-0.08
-5.09
-44.11
1.00 roll
-0.42
45.18
1408.99
3.13
24.79
2.47
14.04
-0.04
-0.12
-5.18
-89.51
1.50 roll
-0.16
42.34
1368.63
3.18
25.03
2.21
14.04
-0.06
-0.14
-5.29 -137.97
2.00 roll
0.06
38.11
1326.09
3.22
25.23
1.98
14.03
-0.09
-0.12
-5.42 -191.93
2.50 roll
0.26
32.21
1281.18
3.26
25.39
1.79
14.03
-0.13
-0.07
-5.58 -255.19
RH wheel
centre
caster
wheel
axle
toe
roll
scrub
tramp
mm
offset
height
camber
fvsax
angle
angle
caster
trail
kpi
kpi
angle
offset
0.00 roll
-1.00
47.18
1483.38
3.00
24.21
3.05
14.05
0.00
0.00
-5.00
0.00
0.50 roll
-1.31
46.77
1518.65
2.93
23.88
3.36
14.05
0.00
0.09
-4.92
-44.11
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59
1.00 roll
-1.64
45.18
1551.65
2.85
23.52
3.69
14.06
0.01
0.23
-4.83
1.50 roll
-1.99
42.34
1582.20
2.76
23.12
4.04
14.07
0.01
0.41
-4.75 -137.97
2.00 roll
-2.36
38.11
1609.97
2.67
22.68
4.40
14.08
0.02
0.64
-4.65 -191.93
2.50 roll
-2.74
32.21
1634.49
2.57
22.20
4.79
14.08
0.02
0.93
-4.55 -255.19
LH wheel
camber
roll centre height
chassis
angle
ground
caster
angle
fvsax
caster
trail
kpi
angle
kpi
offset
wheel
scrub
axle
-89.51
toe
tramp
mm
rc
offset
37.38 bump
0.00
22.07
-2.57
-15.31
3.59
26.82
1232.02
4.62
14.07
0.91
-0.45
-5.45
35.00 bump
0.00
23.59
-2.46
-11.41
3.55
26.65
1247.74
4.51
14.06
0.97
-0.41
-5.41
30.00 bump
0.00
26.81
-2.23
3.47
26.29
-3.19
1280.91
4.28
14.06
1.05
-0.33
-5.32
25.00 bump
0.00
30.09
-2.02
3.39
25.94
5.09
1314.26
4.06
14.06
1.06
-0.26
-5.25
20.00 bump
0.00
33.41
-1.80
13.41
3.31
25.59
1347.78
3.85
14.06
0.99
-0.19
-5.19
15.00 bump
0.00
36.78
-1.59
21.78
3.23
25.24
1381.46
3.64
14.05
0.86
-0.14
-5.13
10.00 bump
0.00
40.20
-1.39
30.20
3.15
24.89
1415.29
3.44
14.05
0.64
-0.08
-5.08
5.00 bump
0.00
43.66
-1.19
38.66
3.08
24.55
1449.27
Static
-1.00
3.00
47.18
47.18
1483.38
5.00 droop
50.75
55.75
-0.81
2.92
1517.62
24.21
23.86
3.24
3.05
14.05
14.05
2.86
14.05
0.36
0.00
-0.43
-0.04
0.00
-5.04
-5.00
0.03
-4.96
10.00 droop
0.00
54.36
-0.63
64.36
2.85
23.52
1551.98
2.67
14.05
-0.94
0.06
-4.93
15.00 droop
0.00
58.03
-0.44
73.03
2.77
23.19
1586.45
2.49
14.05
-1.53
0.08
-4.89
20.00 droop
0.00
61.75
-0.27
81.75
2.70
22.85
1621.04
2.31
14.04
-2.19
0.10
-4.86
25.00 droop
0.00
65.52
-0.09
90.52
2.62
22.51
1655.74
2.14
14.04
-2.93
0.11
-4.82
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60
30.00 droop
0.00
69.35
0.08
99.35
2.55
22.18
1690.55
1.97
14.04
-3.74
0.12
-4.77
35.00 droop
0.00
73.24
0.24
108.24
2.47
21.84
1725.47
1.80
14.04
-4.64
0.12
-4.73
37.72 droop
0.00
75.38
0.33
113.09
2.43
21.66
1744.50
1.72
14.04
-5.16
0.12
-4.70
Equivalent suspension travel due to chassis roll

RH
LH
0.00 roll
0.00
0.00
0.50 roll
-4.97
5.15
1.00 roll
-9.55
10.69
1.50 roll
-13.72
16.61
2.00 roll
-17.46
22.95
2.50 roll
-20.70
29.73
Side view swing axle and instant centre

IC
IC
length
axle
height
height
angle
37.38 bump
3860.26
218.32
90.49
3.24
35.00 bump
3864.64
219.89
91.04
3.26
30.00 bump
3873.91
223.22
92.19
3.30
25.00 bump
3883.26
226.56
93.35
3.34
20.00 bump
3892.69
229.92
94.50
3.38
15.00 bump
3902.21
233.31
95.66
3.42
10.00 bump
3911.83
236.72
96.82
3.46
5.00 bump
Static
5.00 droop
3921.54
3931.36
240.16
243.63
3941.29
97.99
99.15
247.14
3.50
3.55
100.33
3.59
10.00 droop
3951.34
250.68
101.51
3.63
15.00 droop
3961.51
254.26
102.69
3.67
20.00 droop
3971.82
257.88
103.88
3.71
25.00 droop
3982.26
261.55
105.09
3.76
30.00 droop
3992.86
265.27
106.30
3.80
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61
35.00 droop
4003.61
269.04
107.52
3.84
37.72 droop
4009.53
271.12
108.19
3.87
LH
brake
accel
a-dive% a-lift%
37.38 bump
22.4
0.0
35.00 bump
22.6
0.0
30.00 bump
22.9
0.0
25.00 bump
23.2
0.0
20.00 bump
23.4
0.0
15.00 bump
23.7
0.0
10.00 bump
24.0
0.0
5.00 bump
Static
5.00 droop
24.3
24.6
24.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
10.00 droop
25.2
0.0
15.00 droop
25.5
0.0
20.00 droop
25.8
0.0
25.00 droop
26.1
0.0
30.00 droop
26.4
0.0
35.00 droop
26.7
0.0
37.72 droop
26.8
0.0
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Suspension Report
5.2 Rear
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Suspension Report
5.2.1
Rear A Arm Geometry

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Suspension Report
64
After various iterations and optimization of the following during Bumpdroop and Roll:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Camber
Caster
Kpi offset
Anti-Dive and Anti-Squat
Roll Center position
Front view Swing axle arm lengths
Keeping the variation of the above parameters minimum, following set of

data was obtained:
Double A-arm
(Z): Ground
LH
275.00
-Z
-Y
320.00
285.00
315.00
- X -1450.00 -1750.00
-Z
172.00
-Y
285.00
275.00
155.00
- X -1450.00 -1750.00
- top A-arm chassis pivot (virtual/normal)
-Z
317.50
-Y
280.00
279.97
317.48
- X -1600.00 -1600.96
- bottom A-arm chassis pivot (virtual/normal) - Y
-Z
163.50
280.00
164.53
- X -1600.00 -1581.78
-Y
-Z
542.48
350.19
- X -1610.25
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65
-Y
-Z
542.11
160.16
- X -1590.25
-Y
-Z
600.53
256.19
- X -1599.72
- spindle / wheel cl point
-Y
-Z
565.54
255.58
- X -1600.04
Instant centre
Front view swing axle length (at IC point)
1390.71
Front view swing axle height (at IC point)
179.87
Roll centre height
73.72
Roll centre offset
0.00
Side view IC length (at IC point)
4356.42
Side view IC height (at IC point)
408.21
Side view IC height (at front axle centreline)
149.93
Side view IC angle (from tyre centre)
5.35
Suspension roll axis
9.3%
Brake force split 62% front 38% rear

Brake anti-lift %
22.8%
Acceleration anti-squat %
22.4%
Track (wheel cl on ground)
1140.00
Top A-arm link lengths (front/rear)

Top A-arm link lengths (virtual)
304.77
303.83
264.70
Top A-arm link lengths (normal)
264.70
Bottom A-arm link lengths (front/rear)

Bottom A-arm link lengths (virtual)
Bottom A-arm link lengths (normal)
293.12
262.31
261.68
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66
Tyre contact cl from X datum
-1600.00
Tyre contact cl from vehicle cl
570.00
Tyre rolling radius (effective radius)
255.62
Tyre diameter (overall)
523.24
Rim width
152.40
Rim mounting offset
-35.00
Wheel mounting spacer
0.00
Wheel toe reference length
330.20
Wheel alignment in straight ahead position

Camber angle
-1.00
Upright inclination angle
0.00
Spindle offset from kingpin axis(side/front view)

Static toe (mm) toein
0.00
23.24
3.00
Ride height ref point (from vehicle Y, Z, X datum)
Front
Rear
Front LH:
Rear LH:
-Y
0.00
Ride height (ref point to ground)
0.00
-Z
-X
0.00
38.10
38.10
1600.00
Datum reference dimensions

Chassis lateral datum
(Y): Chassis centreline
Chassis vertical datum
(Z): Ground
Chassis longitudinal datum (X): Front axle centreline
Ride height ref point (from chassis Y, Z, X datum)
Front
Front LH:
Rear LH:
-Y
0.00
0.00
-Z
38.10
38.10
-X
0.00
1600.00
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Rear
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Suspension Report
67

- top A-arm (front/rear)
-Y
-Z
285.00
320.00
LH
275.00
315.00
- X -1450.00 -1750.00
- bottom A-arm (front/rear)
-Z
-Y
285.00
172.00
155.00
- X -1450.00 -1750.00
- toe control link
-Y
-Z
268.00
241.00
- X -1750.33
Upright pivot points (from upright Y, Z, X datum)
- top A-arm
-Y
56.50
-Z
95.00
-X
-10.00
- bottom A-arm
-Y
60.00
-Z
-95.00
-X
10.00
- toe control link
-Y
-Z
57.78
2.86
- X -105.00
-Y
0.00
Upright pivot points (from chassis Y, Z, X datum)

- top A-arm
-Y
-Z
542.48
350.19
- X -1610.25
- bottom A-arm
-Y
-Z
542.11
160.16
- X -1590.25
- toe control link
-Y
-Z
543.67
258.04
- X -1705.24
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Suspension Report
68
-Y
-Z
600.53
256.19
- X -1599.72
5.2.2
Rear Roll And Bump Data
SusProg3D July10_R6_Suspension Final 2011.s3d Rear Roll and bump
Chassis roll values calculated every 0.25 degrees. Roll left.

Full dynamic roll centre. Roll starts at Static.
LH wheel
camber
angle
caster
angle
kpi
angle
wheel
scrub
axle
toe
tramp
mm
roll centre
offset
height
73.72
0.00 roll
1390.71
-1.00
0.00
-0.06
0.00
0.00
3.00
0.00
0.50 roll
1387.51
-0.71
-0.06
-0.35
-0.01
-0.28
2.95
-41.43
73.16
1.00 roll
1383.20
-0.43
-0.11
-0.62
-0.02
-0.61
2.91
-83.82
71.07
1.50 roll
1377.56
-0.18
-0.16
-0.88
-0.03
-0.99
2.87 -128.45
67.38
2.00 roll
1370.32
0.06
-0.19
-1.12
-0.05
-1.42
2.85 -176.94
61.94
2.50 roll
1361.16
0.28
-0.22
-1.33
-0.06
-1.89
2.84 -231.62
54.46
RH wheel
camber
angle
caster
angle
angle
kpi
wheel
scrub
axle
tramp
toe
mm
roll centre
offset
height
73.72
0.00 roll
1390.71
-1.00
0.00
-0.06
0.00
0.00
3.00
0.00
0.50 roll
1393.04
-1.30
0.06
0.24
-0.01
0.25
3.05
-41.43
73.16
1.00 roll
1394.62
-1.61
0.14
0.56
-0.02
0.44
3.10
-83.82
71.07
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Suspension Report
69
1.50 roll
1395.64
-1.94
0.22
0.89
-0.03
0.57
3.14 -128.45
67.38
2.00 roll
1396.29
-2.29
0.31
1.23
-0.03
0.62
3.17 -176.94
61.94
2.50 roll
1396.74
-2.65
0.41
1.59
-0.03
0.59
3.19 -231.62
54.46
LH wheel
camber
angle
caster
angle
kpi
angle
wheel
scrub
axle
tramp
toe
rc roll centre height
mm
offset chassis
ground
fvsax
35.81 bump
-2.50
0.30
1351.57
-0.49
1.44
2.34
-1.07
3.06
0.00
36.10
35.00 bump
-2.46
1.94
1353.11
-0.47
1.41
2.34
-1.05
3.06
0.00
36.94
30.00 bump
-2.25
12.12
1361.97
-0.41
1.20
2.27
-0.91
3.04
0.00
42.12
25.00 bump
-2.04
22.32
1369.69
-0.34
0.98
2.11
-0.77
3.03
0.00
47.32
20.00 bump
-1.83
32.54
1376.24
-0.27
0.78
1.87
-0.62
3.02
0.00
52.54
15.00 bump
-1.62
42.79
1381.62
-0.20
0.57
1.54
-0.47
3.01
0.00
57.79
10.00 bump
-1.41
53.07
1385.83
-0.14
0.36
1.12
-0.32
3.00
0.00
63.07
5.00 bump
-1.21
63.37
1388.86
Static
1390.71
5.00 droop
1391.38
-1.00
-0.79
-0.07
0.00
0.15
-0.06
0.07
-0.26
0.60
0.00
-0.69
-0.16
0.00
0.16
3.00
3.00
3.00
0.00
0.00
68.37
73.72
0.00
73.72
79.11
10.00 droop
-0.59
94.55
1390.86
0.14
-0.47
-1.48
0.33
3.00
0.00
84.55
15.00 droop
-0.38
105.04
1389.16
0.20
-0.67
-2.36
0.50
3.01
0.00
90.04
20.00 droop
-0.18
115.59
1386.27
0.27
-0.88
-3.33
0.68
3.02
0.00
95.59
25.00 droop
0.03
126.20
1382.19
0.34
-1.09
-4.40
0.85
3.03
0.00
101.20
30.00 droop
0.24
136.88
1376.94
0.41
-1.30
-5.56
1.03
3.04
0.00
106.88
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35.00 droop
0.45
147.64
1370.51
0.47
-1.50
-6.82
1.22
3.06
0.00
112.64
35.71 droop
0.48
149.17
1369.51
0.48
-1.53
-7.01
1.24
3.06
0.00
113.46
Equivalent suspension travel due to chassis roll

RH
LH
0.00 roll
0.00
0.00
0.50 roll
-4.89
5.06
1.00 roll
-9.41
10.48
1.50 roll
-13.56
16.25
2.00 roll
-17.32
22.40
2.50 roll
-20.63
28.96
Side view swing axle and instant centre

IC
IC
length
axle
height
height
angle
35.81 bump
4382.91
393.53
143.66
5.13
35.00 bump
4382.19
393.85
143.80
5.14
30.00 bump
4377.86
395.84
144.67
5.17
25.00 bump
4373.76
397.85
145.54
5.20
20.00 bump
4369.89
399.88
146.41
5.23
15.00 bump
4366.23
401.93
147.28
5.26
10.00 bump
4362.78
404.00
148.16
5.29
5.00 bump
Static
5.00 droop
4359.51
4356.42
406.09
408.21
4353.51
149.04
149.93
410.36
150.82
5.32
5.35
5.38
10.00 droop
4350.75
412.54
151.71
5.42
15.00 droop
4348.14
414.75
152.62
5.45
20.00 droop
4345.68
417.00
153.53
5.48
25.00 droop
4343.34
419.28
154.46
5.51
30.00 droop
4341.13
421.61
155.39
5.55
35.00 droop
4339.03
423.98
156.34
5.58
35.71 droop
4338.74
424.32
156.48
5.59
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LH
brake
accel
a-lift% a-squat%
35.81 bump
21.8
20.1
35.00 bump
21.9
20.2
30.00 bump
22.0
20.5
25.00 bump
22.1
20.8
20.00 bump
22.3
21.1
15.00 bump
22.4
21.4
10.00 bump
22.5
21.8
5.00 bump
Static
5.00 droop
22.7
22.8
22.9
22.1
22.4
22.7
10.00 droop
23.1
23.1
15.00 droop
23.2
23.4
20.00 droop
23.3
23.8
25.00 droop
23.5
24.1
30.00 droop
23.6
24.5
35.00 droop
23.8
24.8
35.71 roop
23.8
24.9
5.3 Verification of Susprog Results

It has been verified that the Front view swing axle arm length has been
given by
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6.
SHOCK ABSORBERS
6.1 Parameters of Study

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Bell crank
Pushrod/Pull rod
Suspension frequency
Spring rate
Wheel rate
Motion ratio
Non-linear variation of motion ratio
Shock Absorber
6.2 Bell Crank

The bell crank is used to convert the direction of reciprocating movement.
By varying the angle of the crank piece it can be used to change the angle
of movement from 1 degree to 180 degrees. The bell crank aides
packaging, it allows the pull rod and the shock displacement to be aligned
in different directions. Bell crank can amplify a force "in line in a limited
space.
Length of arms and angle between arms will be decided based on analysis
on Susprog3D.
6.3 Push Rod/Pull Rod
Pull rod needs to have larger strength than push rods which acts in
compression. Ultimate / Yield strength of pull rod must be greater.
The issue isn't the ultimate/yield strength of materials; its a buckling
issue with the pushrods.
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6.4 Ride/Suspension Frequency

The first step in choosing spring stiffness is to choose the desired ride
frequencies for front and
rear. A ride frequency is the undamped natural frequency of the body in
ride. The higher the
Frequency, the stiffer the ride. So, this parameter can be viewed as
normalized ride stiffness.
Based on the application, there are ballpark numbers to consider.
0.5 - 1.5 Hz for passenger cars
1.5 - 2.0 Hz for sedan racecars and moderate down force formula cars
3.0 - 5.0+ Hz for high down force racecars
6.4.1
Produce a softer suspension.

More mechanical grip.
However, the response will be slower in transient (what drivers report
as lack of support).
6.4.2
Effects at Lower frequencies
Effects at Higher frequencies
Create less suspension travel for a given track

Allowing lower ride heights, and in turn, lowering the center of gravity.
6.4.3
Deciding the Ride Frequency
Ride frequencies front are rear are generally not the same. In Figure 1, we
can see the undamped vertical motion of the chassis with the front ride
frequency higher than the rear. The out of phase motion between front
and rear vertical motion, caused by the time delay between when the
front wheel and rear wheel hit the bump, is accentuated by the frequency
difference.
HIGHER FRONT RIDE FREQUENCY
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A result of the phase difference is pitching of the body. To reduce the pitch
induced by hitting a bump, the rear needs to have a higher natural
frequency to catch up with the front, as shown in Figure 2. This notion is
called producing a flat ride, meaning that the induced body pitch from
road bumps is minimized. The above theory was originally developed for
passenger cars, where comfort takes priority over performance, which
leads to low damping ratios, and minimum pitching over bumps.
Racecars in general run higher damping ratios, and have a much smaller
concern for comfort, leading to some racecars using higher front ride
frequencies. The higher damping ratios will reduce the amount of
oscillation resultant from road bumps, in return reducing the need for flat
ride.
HIGHER REAR RIDE FREQUENCY
A higher front ride frequency in a racecar allows

Faster transient response at corner entry.
Less ride height variation on the front (the aerodynamics are usually
more pitch sensitive on the front of the car).
Allows for better rear wheel traction (for rear wheel drive cars) on
corner exit.
The ride frequency split should be chosen based on which is more
important on the car you are racing, the track surface, the speed, pitch
sensitivity, etc.
f=
1 k
2 m
f = natural frequency (Hz)

K = spring rate (N/m)
m = mass (kg)
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6.5 Spring Rate

Spring Rate indicates how much the spring will deflect when a load is
applied. Spring rate is measured in pounds per inch (lb/in). Spring rate for
a coil is given by:
K=
d 4G
8 N D3
Where,
wire
G is the
d is the
diameter,
spring's s
modulus,
s the
of wraps
s the
diameter
coil.
hear
and N i
number
and D i
of the
Solving the above equation for spring rate and applying to a suspension to
calculate spring rate from a chosen
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Ride frequency, measured motion ratio, and mass:
Ks = 42f2msmMR2
Where, Ks is spring rate (N/m), msm is Sprung mass (kg), f is Ride frequency
(Hz) and MR is Motion ratio (Wheel/Spring travel).
6.6 Motion Ratio

Motion ratio in suspension of a vehicle describes the amount of shock
travel (spring movement) for a given amount of wheel travel.
Mathematically it is the ratio of shock travel and wheel travel. The amount
of force transmitted to the vehicle chassis reduces with increase in motion
ratio. A motion ratio close to one is desired in vehicle for better ride and
comfort.
Motion Ratio = Wheel Travel Spring Travel
Wheel Rate = Spring Rate (Motion Ratio)2
Motion ratio affects both spring and shock rates, as well as the
effectiveness of the anti-roll bar. The lower the motion ratio that a given
spring is working with, the lower the wheel rate will be.
6.7 Wheel Rate

Wheel Rate is the change of wheel load, at the center of tire contact, per
unit vertical displacement of the sprung mass relative to the wheel at a
specified load. Wheel rate for a one corner of a race car can be calculated
from two numbers the rate of the road spring and the motion ratio of the
suspension.
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Wheel rate is always less than spring rate. Hence linear distance
travelled by wheel is more than compression or expansion of the
spring.
In order to make the contact between the tires contact patches and the
track surface as continuous as possible and to avoid shaking the car/or
driver apart, racing cars must have some sort of springs. Springs allow
the wheels to deflect in reaction to accelerations.
When the vehicle is sprung, longitudinal accelerations and load transfer
will cause vertical movement of sprung mass and centrifugal
acceleration
will
cause the
sprung
mass to roll.
Road
surface
irregularities
will
cause
vertical
deflection of
the
unsprung
wheels
in relation
to the
chassis. All
of
these antics
cause
wheels
camber
to change in
relation
to road
surface. In addition to this, it causes large amount of energy to be
stored in the springs as they compress which calls for the need for
shock absorbers.
The amount of vertical wheel deflection caused by a given acceleration
or its resultant load transfer is determined by the wheels ride rate
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resistance expressed in pounds of force necessary to cause a deflection

of one inch and measured at wheel centerline. The resistance to the
chassis roll caused by a given centrifugal acceleration is determined by
vehicles roll rate resistance expressed in pounds of force necessary
to resist one degree of roll generation. This force will come from the
compression of the outboard springs in roll and from the resistance of
anti-roll bars.
6.8 Roll Gradient

The Roll Gradient/Roll Gain/Roll Stiffness is defined as rate of change of
vehicle roll angle with steady state lateral acceleration values. It is
measured as the degrees of body roll required in a 1-G corner.
Dependent Factors: Of all the factors CG height (z-dir) and sprung mass
are the most sensitive.
CG location in x and z-directions: This change is attributed to moment

arm of CG from roll axis of the vehicle. It increases with increasing
distances.
Sprung Mass: Roll gradient increases with increasing sprung mass.
Diameter of Anti-roll bars: Roll Gradient decrease with increasing
diameter of ARB.
Stiffness of Tires: Increase in stiffness of ARB and Tires increase the
stiffness of vehicle thereby reducing the value of developed roll angle.
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6.9 Damping
6.9.1
What is damping?
In a spring-mass system, any displacement and release of the mass from

its equilibrium position will cause the mass to oscillate. If the system were
ideal, the mass would continue vibrating at a given frequency (its natural
frequency) indefinitely with unchanged amplitude. Introducing damping
into the system causes the oscillation to trail off and forces the system to
reach a steady state value.
6.9.2
Damping ratio
The damping ratio, usually designated as , is defined as the ratio of

actual damping coefficient to the critical damping coefficient. The reason
why we work with damping ratios instead of actual damping coefficients is
so that we can normalize the discussion for all dampers.
The damping force is generated by the orifice and also the shim disc
valves located at the end of the rod. Since both the gas and the oil
chambers are separated by the free piston, the oil and nitrogen cannot be
mixed. Considering that the damping force of shock absorber corresponds
to a resistant force while an object moves within a fluid, viscous damping
model can be introduced. In such case, the damping force of absorber is
assumed to be proportional to the piston speed where the proportional
constant is defined as the damping coefficient. Relation between these
quantities is written as follows.
It is difficult to determine by the damping force itself whether the shock

absorber is hard (large) or soft (small).
Therefore the damping ratio associated with the vehicle gross weight and
also the wheel rate is further defined. Using the damping ratio, the
strength of the damping force of absorber is evaluated.
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This is the Basic Suspension Analysis Block.
Consider the case when,

KB <<KT
mt << mB
For this case the equations of motion become:
Applying the Laplace transform to our equations shows
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Wheel rate Example:
Figure: Effect of damping ratio to a sprung mass

system
An undamped system will tend to eternally vibrate at its natural

frequency. As the damping ratio is increased from zero, the oscillation
trails off as the system approaches a steady state value. Eventually,
critical damping is reached- the fastest response time without overshoot.
Beyond critical damping, the system is slow responding. An important
point to understand that will be useful when tuning the shocks on the car
is that once any damping is present, the amount of damping does not
change the steady state value- it only changes the amount of time to get
there and the overshoot.
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6.9.3
Transmissibility
The transmissibility (TR) is the ratio between output and input amplitude.
In our application, the input amplitude will be the height of a road
irregularity and the output amplitude is the vertical movement of the car
body. For a spring-mass-damper system, transmissibility is actually a
function of frequency. When we hit a speed bump going very slowly, the
car moves vertically almost as much as the wheels. But if we were to go
over the same bump going quickly, the body of the car doesnt move
nearly as much. Depending on the speed at which we hit the speed bump,
the car bodys response changes. The cause of this phenomenon is that
the response of the system the car and its suspension is a function of
the frequency of the input. Transmissibility also changes with damping.
6.10
6.10.1
Shock Absorber
Introduction
The shock absorber, or snubber, a device that controls unwanted spring

motion through a process known as dampening. Shock absorbers slow
down and reduce the magnitude of vibratory motions by turning the
kinetic energy of suspension movement into heat energy that can be
dissipated through hydraulic fluid.
These dampen the vertical motion induced by driving your car along a
rough surface and so should technically be referred to by their 'proper'
name - dampers. If your car only had springs, it would be a travelling
deathtrap. Or at least it would be a travelling deathtrap until the incessant
vibration caused it to fall apart. Shock absorbers (dampers) perform two
functions.
1. They absorb any larger-than-average bumps in the road so that the
upward velocity of the wheel over the bump isn't transmitted to the car
chassis.
2.
They keep the suspension at as full a travel as possible for the given
road conditions - they keep your wheels planted on the road.
Technically they are velocity-sensitive damping devices - in other words,

the faster they move, the more resistance there is to that movement.
They work in conjunction with the springs. The spring allows movement of
the wheel to allow the energy in the road shock to be transformed into
kinetic energy of the unsprung mass, whereupon it is dissipated by the
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damper. The damper does this by forcing gas or oil through a constriction
valve (a small hole). Adjustable shock absorbers allow you to change the
size of this constriction, and thus control the rate of damping. Smaller the
constriction, stiffer the suspension.
6.10.2
Shock Absorber Components
The telescopic damper is made up of several key components, each

performing a specific role. Brief descriptions of listed components follow,
Body
Piston
Valve
Main Shaft
Adjusters
Reservoir
Body
The body of a racing telescopic shock absorber performs several unique
functions and is composed of several pieces. Primarily, the body must
contain the fluid being used to provide the damping force, usually oil. The
inner face of the body also forms the sealing surface at the extremity of
the piston and the body must be strong enough to withstand the
hydrostatic pressures induced by compression and extension of the main
shaft. Furthermore, the body must provide support for the main shaft
against loadings that contain components misaligned to the plunge axis.
In modern racing shock absorbers, the body also provides provision for the
coil spring mounting and preload adjustment as well as the mounting
point to the chassis.
Piston
The piston divides the body into two sealed oil chambers. Provision for oil
to flow between these two chambers is accommodated for via holes,
called ports, in the piston. The shape and size of these ports determine
the high speed characteristic of the shock absorber. To facilitate different
damper characteristics in both compression and rebound, the ports are
positioned such that they are covered by valves in one flow direction. The
extremity of the piston accommodates a sliding seal to the inner face of
the damper body. The faces of the piston may also be dished to provide
preload for the valve stack.
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Valve
The role of the valve is to control oil flow through the piston. Valves take
the form of annular discs with varying thickness and diameter, and are
often stacked on top of each other. This arrangement is known as the
valve stack. The valve stack controls the transition from low speed to high
speed damping.
Main Shaft
The main shaft or rod serves to connect the piston to the shock absorber
eyelet mount. The eyelet is connected to the vehicles suspension,
providing freedom for the unsprung mass to move relative to the chassis.
In adjustable dampers, the main shaft usually houses the low speed
rebound adjuster. The main shaft must have sufficient inertia to withstand
buckling loads imposed by road surface inputs.
Adjusters
Adjusters take two forms, oil metering and valve stack. Oil metering
adjusters are used to control the low speed damping characteristics of the
shock absorber. Oil metering adjustment is achieved with needle and seat
style valves, with the needle moving further from the seat as less
damping force is required. Valve stack adjusters control the amount of
preload the valve stack sees, and hence, the pressure required to open
them. Valve stack adjusters are used to alter the transition to high speed
damping.
Reservoir
Reservoirs are secondary chambers attached to the body of the some
dampers via either rigid or flexible couplings. The reservoir provides the
ability to add pressurization to the damper, reducing cavitations, while
maintaining a minimal overall length. The oil is separated from the gas by
a floating piston, which is free to move along the axis of the reservoir and
avoids the gas forming an emulsion with the oil. Compression adjusters
are also housed in the reservoir in adjustable shock absorbers.
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6.10.3
Working Principle
When the shock is in compression modes, oil is forced from the shock
body to reservoir in proportion to the area of the shaft entering the shock
body. As the oil enters the reservoir, it must pass through the compression
adjuster. When the compression adjuster is fully open the shock is set at
full soft, conversely when the compression adjuster is closed (the smallest
opening) the shock is at full firm. After the oil passes through the
compression adjuster, it enters the reservoir where the floating piston will
compress the nitrogen. The floating piston is designed so that aeration will
not happen.
Picture depicting various parts of showing parts of shock absorber
When the shock is in rebound modes, the oil in the shock shaft is forced
through the shaft. Inside the shaft is a needle. This needle is used to
adjust the amount of fluid that can pass by. As the needle is closed it
causes firmer rebound damping forces. When the needle is opened further
it allows more oil to flow through and that creates softer rebound damping
forces. The needle adjustment also effects when the shims on the main
piston will open.
The damping dynamics of a shock are dependent of the shaft velocities
within the shock, in both rebound and compression. Most of the changes
within the shock happen within the main shock shaft and body. Shock
dynamics are considered under high and low shaft speeds. High shaft
speeds occur in bumps, or significant track inconsistencies. Slow shaft
speeds occur during cornering, acceleration and braking.
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Low Speed Compression

In slow shaft speed compression, oil is displaced into the reservoir in
direct
proportion to
the area of
the shaft
entering
the shock
body. The
oil passes
through
the
compression
adjuster to
the external
reservoir.
High Speed Compression:
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In fast shaft speeds, oil is displaced into the reservoir through a secondary
channel and shim stack. At fast shaft speeds the oil bypasses the slow
speed needle. Pressure induced by the high shaft speeds causes the shim
stacks that cover holes on the main piston head to flex. When the shim
stacks flex, oil passes through the holes on the piston head.
Low
Rebound:
Speed
In low speed rebound oil is displaced through the shaft and over the low
speed needle.
High Speed
Rebound:
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During fast shaft speed rebound shim stacks located on the main piston
head flex in order to allow oil to pass through. Oil bypasses the opening
and slow speed needle adjustment.
6.10.4
Adjustments
Problem
The vehicle feels unstable, bouncy and non-responsive
The vehicle feels hard and bumpy
The vehicle feels soft, has low riding position and a
tendency to bottom easily in long dips
The vehicle feels harsh and has low grip
6.10.5
Conclusions
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Solution
Increase
Damping
Reduce
Damping
Increase
Damping
Reduce
Damping
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RULE: The car must be equipped with a fully operational suspension

system with shock absorbers, front and rear, with usable wheel travel of
at least 50.8 mm (2 inches), 25.4 mm (1 inch) jounce and 25.4 mm
(1 inch) rebound, with driver seated.
After doing all the study, following conclusions are made:
Ride Frequency: It should be close to 3 Hz.(good for Formula Cars).
Motion Ratio: For better ride and comfort, the motion ratio should be
close to 1. Lower motion ratio gives a soft suspension: forces are
transferred to body. Higher motion ratio produces stiff suspension
Stroke length: The presence of dampers/shocks in Formula SAE
suspension designs is articulated in chassis section of the competition
rules of FSAE. Specifications on permissible suspension travel are also
outlined in the clause:
To be on safer side, we are designing the Shock movement upto 37-38mm
(1.5).
Since the motion ratio should be close to 1 and considerations of wheel
bump and droop are 37-38mm, stroke length must be around 75 mm.
Damping Ratio: It lies between 0.65-0.70.
For the least oscillating motion of the sprung mass on encountering with a
bump or droop, the damping ratio is chosen to be in the given range.
Figure. Effect of damping ratio to a sprung mass system
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The damping must be considerably higher for road holding and control of
the unsprung mass motion. Data has shown that for racecars, a good
range of damping ratio is between 0.65 and 0.70.
Figure.
Transmissibility for different damping ratios
For maximum grip, we want to minimize the change in forces that the
springs are seeing. This is achieved with minimal body movement. Thus,
we want the lowest transmissibility possible. At low frequencies, from the
plot that we want higher damping ratios. Corresponding low frequencies
to low shock speeds, and high frequencies to high shock speeds, we can
see that we need high damping ratios for low speeds and low damping.
6.10.6
Calculations
Front
Sprung Mass = 57kg
Ride Frequency = 2.79 Hz
Ks = =(1.0^2)* 2.79 *2.79 *484/49*4*57 = 17.53 N/mm ~ 100 lb/in

Critical Damping coeff. =2*SQRT(Ks*57/(1^2)) = 1999 Ns/m
Damping Coeff= 0.65*Critical Damping Coeff. = 1300 Ns/m
Rear
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Sprung Mass = 92kg
Ride Frequency = 2.88 Hz
Ks = =(0.992^2)* 2.88 *2.88 *484/49*4*92 = 29.78 N/mm ~ 170 lb/in

Critical Damping coeff. =2*SQRT(Ks*92/(0.992^2)) = 3134 Ns/m
Damping Coeff= 0.65*Critical Damping Coeff. = 2037 Ns/m
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6.10.7
Shortlisted Shock Absorbers
Koni
2812 MK2
The 2812 MK II Series is a mono-tube damper specifically designed for

competition purposes, featuring externally adjustable compression and
rebound. This shock can be rebuilt by the racer. Spring seats are available
for 2, 2.25 and 2.5 ID springs. In addition, 3 different top mounting eye
lengths are available. A steel cap is available for the upper eye so that
custom mounts can be fabricated as well.
For stroke length below 60mm:
Refer 2812 LB for greater Damper length with same stroke length.
3012
The 3012 series features a threaded aluminum-body, external double
adjustability and a high pressure gas mono-tube design, ensuring
optimum performance. The monotube design allows for independent
adjustments to the rebound and compression forces. All damping
adjustments are made at the piston, eliminating the additional weight and
packaging complications of an external reservoir. The 3012 series offers
one of the broadest adjustment ranges in the industry, eliminating the
need of constant revalving procedures from track to track.
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95
Elka Suspension
High-Speed Compression adjustment
Low-Speed Compression adjustment
Rebound adjustment
Spring Preload adjustment
Shock
$450 /ea.
Hi-Tensile Steel Alloy Springs
$45 /ea.
Optional Titanium Springs
$295 /ea.
2-Piece Mounting Hardware Set: 2 aluminum

reducers
3-Piece Mounting Hardware Set:
1 stainless sleeve + 2 aluminum spacers
$10 /set
$15 /set
Available Sizes below 60mm stroke length:
7.5" ETE x 2.0" stroke (190.5mm / 50.8mm)
7.875" ETE x 2.0" stroke (200.3mm / 50.8mm)
7.875" ETE x 2.25" stroke (200.3mm / 57.2mm)

Specs:
BODY DIAMETER: 25mm
SHAFT DIAMETER: 14mm
RESERVOIR DIAMETER: 34mm
SPRING: 35mm inner diameter, 55mm outside diameter
DU BUSHINGS: 12.7mm (1/2" standard)
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Penske
Design Benefits
User revalvable and rebuildable
Available valving kit enables user to create desired damping
characteristics
External rebound and compression adjustments
Piggyback reservoir with 360-degree clocking
Monotube design for lower hysteresis
Solid model of damper available with purchase
Legendary Penske reliability
Design Specs
50 mm Stroke Length
Compressed 156mm
Extended 206mm
Piston OD 25mm
Body OD 32mm
Fasteners 6mm
Springs ID 34mm OD 40mm
Weight
Shock only412g
Shock and Spring535g
Price $675 per shock
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Risse Racing
Jupiter 5
350$
Jupiter 5R
400$
Jupiter 7R
600$
Difference between Jupiter 5 and 5R is the convenience in adjustability. In

5R we can adjust the compression etc. easily as the adjustment knob is
protruding outside (away from shock absorber).
Difference between Jupiter 5R and 7R is material used in the body of the
damper. 7R series is light weight.
hlins TTX 25 FSAE

Specifications:
Overall length = 200 mm
Stroke = 57 mm
Weight = approx. 448 g (~1 lb) without spring
Spherical Bearing dimensions:
ID = 8 mm
Ball Width = 8 mm
OD = 15 mm
Springs:
150lb/in to 650lb/in in 50lb increments
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6.10.8
Finalised Shocker
Penske 7800
On the basis of desired Damping as shown in calculations, Penske Shocks
satisfies the requirement. We have gone through all the damping curves
of different companies. Penske suits the best.
Picture shows the F vs v curve of the damper at specific position of the
adjusters.
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7. ANTI ROLL BARS

7.1 Introduction
A sway bar (also stabilizer bar, anti-sway bar, roll bar, or anti-roll bar, ARB)
is an automobile suspension device. It connects opposite (left/right)
wheels together through short lever arms linked by a torsion spring. A
sway bar increases the suspension's roll stiffnessits resistance to roll in
turns, independent of its spring rate in the vertical direction.
7.1.1
Main Functions
Anti-roll bars provide basically two main functions:1. The first function is the reduction of body lean. The reduction of body
lean is dependent on the total roll stiffness of the vehicle. Increasing
the total roll stiffness of a vehicle does not change the steady state
total load (weight) transfer from the inside wheels to the outside
wheels, it only reduces body lean. The total lateral load transfer is
determined by the CG height and track width.
Weight Transfer=lateral
accelerationweightCG height
track width
2. The other function of anti-roll bars is to tune the handling balance of a

car. Understeer or over steer behaviour can be tuned out by changing
the proportion of the total roll stiffness that comes from the front and
rear axles.
7.2 Body Roll

During the course of cornering, lateral forces pass through the CG, which
creates a torque as the roll axis generally do not pass through the CG
which cause the outside suspension to compress while the other side lifts
and extends. More technically, one side moves into jounce while the other
moves into rebound.
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7.2.1 Negative Aspects of Body Roll

Firstly, it disrupts the driver.
Secondly, due to body roll, angle of tire w.r.t ground changes, which
changes camber angle and also caster angle, which ultimately affects tire
traction. More specifically, outer tire experiences increased positive
camber and inner tire undergoes negative camber.
7.2.2
Ways to Prevent Body Roll
Prevention of body roll is important as it causes detrimental effects to the

handling of the car. One method to achieve this is through the use of
stiffer springs. A stiffer spring will compress less than a softer spring when
subjected to an equal amount of force. And less compression of the
suspension on the outside edge will result in less body roll. However,
stiffer springs require the use of stronger dampers (struts or shock
absorbers) and have an immediate and substantial effect on ride quality
and also too much spring stiffness will harshly affect the damping
characteristics which in turn will result in loss of traction. Another option is
to use anti roll bar along with the springs. The use of anti-roll bars
allows to reduce roll without making the suspension's springs stiffer in the
vertical plane, which allows improved body control with less compromise
of ride quality.
7.3 Types of Anti Roll Bar

There are basically two types of anti roll bar assembly
-U shaped anti roll bar
-T shaped anti roll bar
Both of them have same function, just their mode of functioning are
different in some aspects.
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7.3.1
U-shaped Anti Roll Bar
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7.3.1.1Some Relevant Terms

Effective length or Active length- The part of anti roll bar rod which
actually undergoes torsion motion.
Actual Arm length- It is the actual length of lever arm(moment arm).
Effective Arm length- It is the perpendicular distance between anti drop
link and anti roll bar rod.
Nominal length- It is the actual length of anti roll bar rod which also
includes the welding or fixation portion of lever arm with anti roll bar rod.
7.3.2
T-shaped Anti Roll Bar
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We decided to use U shaped anti roll bar considering the chassis space
constraint in the front as well as rear. Actually rear posed more problems.
Another reason being its principles and installation were relatively easy to
understand and apply.
7.4 Principles
The basis principle applies to both U shaped anti roll bar as well as T
shaped anti roll bars. They are constructed out of a U-shaped piece of
steel that connects to the body at two points, and at the left and right
sides of the suspension. If the left and right wheels move together, the
bar just rotates about its mounting points and does not bend. If the
wheels move relative to each other, the bar is subjected to torsion and
forced to twist.
The bar resists the torsion through its stiffness. The stiffness of an antiroll bar is based on the fourth power of its radius, the stiffness of the
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material, the inverse of the length of the lever arms (i.e., the shorter
the lever arm, the stiffer the bar), the geometry of the mounting points,
and the rigidity of the bar's mounting points. Some anti-roll have
adjustable lever arm, allowing their stiffness to be altered by increasing
or reducing the length of the lever arms. The stiffer the bar, the more
force required to move the left and right wheels relative to each other.
This increases the amount of force required to make the body roll.
7.5 Factors that Determine Stiffness

There are two primary factors that determine an anti-roll bar's torsional
stiffness: the
1.
2.
Diameter of the bar

The length of the bar's moment arm.
Torsional (or twisting) motion of the bar is actually governed by the

equation:
twist=
2 Torque length
d 4 material modlus
And since the diameter is in the denominator, as diameter gets larger, the
amount of twist gets smaller. It means that torsional rigidity is a function
of the diameter to the fourth power. This is why a very small increase in
diameter makes a large increase in torsional rigidity.
For hollow bars, we calculate the rate of a solid bar of the outer diameter
and the rate of a solid bar of the inner diameter. Then, the rate of the
smaller bar is subtracted from the larger bar.
7.6 Components of U- shaped anti roll bar
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Anti Roll Bar rod (tubular or solid)

This is the principal component as it undergoes torsion movement. Its
mechanical properties like shear modulus, youngs modulus is the one
which matters the most in calculations.
Lever arm
It is basically a moment arm fixed to the anti roll bar rod and is free to
rotate with respect to anti drop link. Usually, it does not contribute to
stiffness of anti roll bar, but in case of bladed type lever arm, they
contribute towards the total stiffness.
Anti Drop Link
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It is basically a rod simply joined to lever arm and the torsion motion
actuator (e.g. bell crank or a-arm) through nut-bolts so that it can rotate
freely on both ends.
Anti Roll bar Bushes
They're used on
anti-roll bar links
and mountings.
It's vitally
important for
car's handling.
Good and
efficient bushes
improve a
cars' road
holding and
chassis
performance
by controlling
the amount of
unwanted
movement in
the suspension.
This gives the tyres greater contact with the road, improving
safety and performance.
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Polyurethane can be used for mounting the anti roll bar with the chassis.
The rubber is a little too soft and deteriorates with age. It also perishes in
the cold and splits in the heat.
Nylatron is a self lubricating oil filled hard nylon which reduces wear on
these parts.
7.7
Tubular Anti Roll Bar
Testing has found the tube is the strongest shape and while maintaining a
proportionate wall thickness a tubular sway bar will provide only 5% less
stiffness for one made out of solid metal in the same diameter but will
have a significantly lower weight, sometimes a reduction as much as 1020lbs. This has no heavy polar impact since it is so low on the chassis but
will impact braking/acceleration respectively.
Centre portion of the anti roll bar rod contribute nothing significant but
weight to the performance of the vehicle.
Holes must not be drilled to make it softer. It may break the bar during the
course of its torsion movement.
7.8 Some important Parameters to be used in

Calculations
7.8.1
Roll Gradient
The roll gradient is the degrees of body roll required in a 1-G corner.
Chassis stiffness should be 10 times the roll stiffness /roll gradient of the
suspension at a minimum. Optimizing the roll angle during a handling
manoeuvre can be achieved by one of the following methods:
1. Lowering the CG height of the vehicle will increase the SSF (Static
Stability Factor), increasing the tendency of the vehicle to slide before
it will roll. A lower CG point can be obtained by semi-active, slow-active
or active suspension systems with ride height control.
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SSF=
110
t
2h
t = track width of the car.
h = height of the centre of gravity.

2. Increasing the suspension stiffness and/or damping will reduce the
body roll of the vehicle, thereby increasing vertical load transfer on the
tyres and decreasing the lateral force between the tyres and the road.
This can be achieved with passive, semi active or active suspension
systems.
7.8.2
TLLTD
Another significant terminology is TLLTD. TLLTD stands for Tire Lateral

Load Transfer Distribution. It simply measures the front-to-rear balance of
how lateral load is transferred in a cornering manoeuvre. It is commonly
used to compare the rate of lateral traction loss between the front and
rear tires.
In other words, a vehicle with say, 70% TLLTD will transfer 70% of its
sprung weight at the front of the vehicle during cornering.
7.8.2.1
Anti-Roll Bars And TLLTD
The most prevalent misconception is that a firmer anti-roll bar would
lead to better camber control, which would lead to better traction. So, if
we add a firmer anti-roll bar to the front, traction loss diminishes, so
understeer is reduced. But its opposite is true.
TLLTD can be described as the relative demand of side-to-side energy
control that is placed upon the tires. Because a firmer anti-roll bar
allows less deflection, it will transfer side-to-side energy (lateral loads)
at a faster rate. As the rate of lateral load transfer increases, additional
demands are placed upon the tire. So if we install a firmer anti-roll bar
in the front, then we increase the distribution of lateral load transfer
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toward the front tires. This increases the front TLLTD value, which will
result in additional understeer, holding all else constant.
If we analyse the situation more critically, this means that for absolute
understeer ,more front tire lateral load transfer should be there as
compared to the rear one(basically front should first lose traction ). So
if we install a firmer anti-roll bar in the front than the rear, then we
increase the distribution of lateral load transfer toward the front tires.
This increases the front TLLTD value, but it cannot be assured that
absolute TLLTD value is greater than 50%.It depends on static weight
distribution also. Now, it can be understood that although the full form
of TLLTD is Total Lateral Load Transfer Distribution, we define it as
transfer percentage of its sprung weight at the front of the vehicle
during cornering as because it ultimately leads to transfer of side-toside energy (lateral loads).
The same logic also holds true in the rear. A firmer anti-roll bar in the
rear will increase the rate of lateral load transfer, placing more demand
upon the rear tires, accelerating lateral traction loss and creating more
oversteer, holding all else constant.
With a stiff front anti roll bar, the outside tire will have a much higher
load than the inside front tire in a corner. In this situation, the outside
front tire is overloaded and the inside front tire is only lightly loaded.
This pair of tires will generate less side force than the more evenly
loaded rear tires and thus, the front end will stick less than the rear,
making the car understeer.
In general, more load transfer, more quickly that tire loses traction.
Putting simply, there is only so much force that a tire can handle. When
we ask more of the tire than the tire can deliver, it "saturates," or loses
traction. If the rear tires saturate before the front tires, then we call this
oversteer or lose--this means that the rear of the car tends to swing
around faster than the front, causing a spin.
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In reality, a car with a 50 percent TLLTD is literally on the constant

brink of oversteer. And there are many factors that can quickly and
easily take the car from the brink into a full-scale, out-of-control,
spinning-in-circles disaster. A front TLLTD value greater than 50 percent
indicates that the front tires lose traction more quickly than the rear
tires--resulting in understeer. And a front TLLTD value lower than 50
percent indicates that the rear tires tend to lose traction more quickly
than the front--resulting in oversteer.
Since our car is slightly over steered, so TLLTD value should be <50%.
In general, a value 5% forward of the front/rear weight distribution is

used for racy cars, which is also known as MAGIC NUMBER.
7.8.3
Points Concerning Ride Frequency
A ride frequency is the undamped natural frequency of the body in ride.

The higher the frequency, the stiffer the ride.
The limit of how low our ride rate frequency can go for a FSAE car
(standard setup) depends on the travel you have in your system before
the cars nose hits the ground, the softer the spring the less they
influence negatively the vertical tire load fluctuations of the tire,
however this might also make necessary for you to adjust our ride
height higher in order to not hit the ground with the chassis/nose
during braking, making the CG height rise.
The first step in choosing spring stiffness is to choose your desired ride
frequencies, front and rear.
Lower frequencies produce a softer suspension with more mechanical
grip, however the response will be slower in transient (i.e. lack of
support). Higher frequencies create less suspension travel for a given
track, allowing lower ride heights, and in turn, lowering the centre of
gravity.
Ride frequencies front and rear are generally not the same; there are
several theories to provide a baseline. For example, passenger cars
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have higher rear ride frequency for flat and comfortable ride. Whereas
on the other hand, race cars have higher front frequency mainly
because of higher damping ratios, and have a much smaller concern
for comfort.
The out of phase motion between front and rear vertical motion,
caused by the time delay between when the front wheel and rear
wheel hit the bump, is accentuated by the frequency difference. A
result of the phase difference is pitching of the body. To reduce the
pitch induced by hitting a bump, the rear needs to have a higher
natural frequency to catch up with the front. This notion is called
producing a flat ride, meaning that the induced body pitch from road
bumps is minimized. The above theory was originally developed for
passenger cars, where comfort takes priority over performance, which
leads to low damping ratios, and minimum pitching over bumps.
A higher front ride frequency in a race car allows
Faster transient response at corner entry
Less ride height variation on the front (the aerodynamics are usually
more pitch sensitive on the front of the car)
Allows for better rear wheel traction (for rear wheel drive cars) on
corner exit.
The ride frequency split should be chosen based on which is more
important on the car we are racing, the track surface, the speed, pitch
sensitivity, etc.
Also, the ride frequency should be greater than 1.8 Hz as because we
cant reduce roll of a soft setup with harder anti roll bars because it will
have very bad damping characteristics during cornering.
Too much high ride frequency makes the car skittish.
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114
The spring frequency is a function of the sprung weight acting at the

wheel, and the vertical stiffness, wheel rate or effective stiffness acting
at the wheel.
Exact number of roll stiffness distribution will depend on exact weight
distribution, tire sizes front and rear, roll centre height, etc.
Also, variation in natural frequency should be less than 0.4Hz.
Generally 10% difference between the front and rear ride frequency
should be there.
Another thing to be noted that as you go faster, the frequency increase
and we will reach a frequency where the body movement reaches a
maximum, this is the resonant frequency. At this frequency the
transmissibility is maximum and higher than one.
With reference to FSAE forums it was analyzed that 3 Hz is the upper
extreme value of the ride frequency used in FSAE cars.
7.9 Calculation Theory of Anti Roll Bars

7.9.1 Formulas for Required ARB Stiffness Required
Equation for calculating spring rate:
Ks = 4 fr2m MR2
sm
Ks = Spring rate (N/m)

msm = Sprung mass(on one wheel) (kg)
fr = Ride frequency (Hz)
MR = Motion ratio (Wheel/Spring travel)
Similar to choosing ride frequencies for bump travel, the roll stiffness must
be chosen next.
The normalized roll stiffness number is the roll gradient, expressed in
degrees of body roll per g of lateral acceleration.
The Magic Number is expressed as the percentage of the roll gradient
taken by
the front suspension of the car.
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As a baseline, use 5% higher Magic Number than the static front weight
distribution.
Roll gradients are degrees of body roll per g of lateral acceleration.
Roll rates are Newton-meters of torque per degree of body roll or ARB
twist. The following
equations do not take into account roll due to the tires.
Roll gradient of ride springs:
r / Ay = -W x H
KF + KR
H = Cg to Roll axis dist (m)
W = Vehicle weight (N)
r/Ay = Roll gradient from ride springs (deg/g)
KF = tf)KLFKRF
180(KLF+KRF)
KF = Front roll rate (Nm/deg roll)

tf = Front track width (m)
KLF = LF Wheel rate (N/m)
KRF = RF Wheel rate (N/m)
Remember that wheel rate is spring rate/ MR2 ; the effect of the spring at
the wheel
KR = tr)KLRKRR
180(KLR+KRR)
KR = Rear roll rate (Nm/deg roll)
tr = Rear track width (m)

KLR = LR Wheel rate (N/m)
KRR = RR Wheel rate (N/m)
Total ARB roll rate needed to increase the roll stiffness of the
vehicle to the desired roll
Gradient:
KA =
KDESKT(t/2)
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180 [KT(t/2)/180 KDES]
180
KA = Total ARB roll rate needed (Nm/deg roll)

KDES = Desired total roll rate (Nm/deg roll)
KW = Wheel rate (N/m)
KT = Tire rate (N/m)
t = Average track width between front and rear (m)
KDES = WH
(/Ay)
W = Weight of vehicle (N)

H = Vertical distance from roll centre axis to Cg (m)
/Ay = Desired total roll gradient, chosen earlier (deg/g)
Front and Rear Anti-Roll Bar stiffness:
KFA = KANmagMRFA/100
KFA = FARB roll rate (Nm/deg twist)
KA = Total roll rate (Nm/deg roll)
Nmag = Magic Number (%)
MRFA = FARB Motion ratio
KRA = KA(100-Nmag)MRRA/100
KRA = RARB roll rate (Nm/deg twist)
MRRA = RARB Motion ratio
The chassis also acts as a torsional spring in roll. It is worth comparing the
roll rate of the suspension to the roll rate of the chassis- if the chassis
twists as much as the suspension, it could be a larger area of concern
than the suspension. With steady state roll angles different front to rear,
or different roll frequencies front to rear, chassis torsion will be induced.
Now, we got the required front and rear roll stiffness of the anti roll bars to
be used.
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We now design the anti roll bar of the desired stiffness rate (Nm/degree
twist).
If we carefully analyse the desired roll stiffness rate then it can be
interpretated that, for one degree twist of anti roll bar, we must apply a
definite amount of torque(i.e. force onto the attachment point of lever arm
and drop link, times the effective lever arm length).
So, we could change the following variables till the arrangement suits our
requirement.
Inner diameter of the anti roll bar.

Outer diameter of the anti roll bar.
Active arm length.
Lever arm length.
Motion ratio of the anti roll bar.
Angle b/w lever arm and anti roll bar.
Angle b/w lever arm and drop link.
7.9.2
Spring Rate Calculations
Torsion bar Rates:
TL
(1)
JG
T JG
= (2)
L
J=
d4 ( )
3
32
4
T d G ( )
=
4
32 L
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Let the deflection at the end=
118
= ( 5 )
r
Since, T=F*r, using this and eq.5 in eq. 4 we get:

F r d 4 G
=
32 L
r
Then the deflection rate at the free end is found
F d4 G
=
=k
32 L r 2
The deflection rate at the wheel now can be found by thorough analysis of
the motion ratio.
Torsion Bar Calculations :

If Steel is used:
E= 30,000,000 psi
K
2,200,000 d 4
2
Lr
L=Bar length
d= Bar diameter
r= lever arm length
Anti Roll Analysis

The Deflection Rate at the wheel is based on the motion ratio between the
wheel and the bar end r2 versus r1.
2
r2
2
r1
K wh =K
r1 = length of the attachment arm
r2 = the pivot to attachment length
r1/r2=motion ratio of the anti roll bar
2
d 4 G r2
K wh =
32 L r 2 r 12
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The roll stiffness has previously been defined as:

2
T
t k
K = =
(2 57.3)
The Stabilizer contribution to roll stiffness is now:
2
d 4 G r2
t2k
=

32 L r 2 r 12 (2 57.3)
K
7.9.3 Approximations Done (With Reference to RCVD)

2
K r =4 fr msm
1.
But, we considered 4 fr2msm as the Wheel rate instead of Ride Rate.

K w=
KR KT
K T K R
Where,
Kw= wheel center rate, lb./in.
KR = ride rate, lb./in.
KT = tire vertical rate, lb./in.
Figure shows the installation ratio as a function of wheel ride position for a
typical double wishbone suspension.
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If the linkage ratio is not constant, we need to know how it varies in order to relate the
rates t one another. A detailed analysis of the problem yields the formula:
K w =F s
IR
+ K s (IR)2
If the linkage ratio is not constant, we need to know how it varies in order
to relate the rates to one another. A detailed analysis of the problem
yields the formula:
K w=
Fs
+ K s (IR)2
IR
Where
Kw = wheel rate, lb. /in

Fs = spring force, lb
Ks = spring rate, lb./in
IR = installation ratio or motion ratio
1/( IR )
= change of reciprocal of installation ratio with
wheel displacement
The first term in the above formula is called the geometric rate. As is seen
in the formula, if the change of installation ratio with wheel displacement
is zero, then the wheel rate is related to the spring rate only by the
installation ratio squared with no geometric rate term , or
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Kw = Ks/ (IR) 2
For race cars that are stiffly sprung this is usually a sufficiently accurate
approximation. However as the ride rates or ride frequencies decrease,
the error in using this approximation can become very significant.
As is seen, the installation ratio changes considerably, especially as the
suspension goes into jounce. We can find the change of installation ratio
from this figure and then calculate the true wheel rate and its component
part (i.e. the geometric rate and the spring rate divided by the squared
installation ratio) for various rates. The following table shows some
observations. The geometric rate for this suspension is negative and
nearly constant for all three spring rates.
Effect of Installation Ratio with Different Spring

Rate
7.10
Materials of Anti Roll Bars
Basically its a calculation based issue. After calculating roll stiffness

required from the anti roll bars, material can be decided considering its
shear modulus, youngs modulus and other factors into account; the
most important one is availability.
Commonly, AISI 4140 chrome molybdenum steel, high carbon steel,
4130 steel alloys are used.
But, it is not a hard and fast rule to use them only.
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7.11
Reasons For Using Lever type ARB rather
than Bent type

Basically torsion is not going to be produced in the lever arm .So there
is no need to use the material which we used for making the torsion
bar. Light material but strong enough to handle the tension and
compression could be used for manufacturing lever arm.
Also, larger anti roll bar (bent type) is required for producing the same
stiffness as caused by the lever arm type anti roll bar.
Offset could be set to zero in case of bent type anti roll bar but its
quite hard to achieve in bent type anti roll bar.
7.12
Where to Install
One important thing to understand is that the work and effect of anti roll
bar is independent of the location where we install it , keeping the other
parameters same.
First of all is the space constraints i.e. due to compactness of the chassis
and other components, anti roll bar cannot be installed anywhere.
Further, it should be considered that the anti roll bar must not come in
touch with any of the chassis part and other vehicle components while its
rolling action as because it would lead to sudden unpredictable change in
the behaviour and response of the car and would thus result in
detrimental consequences.
Anti roll bar should be kept as low as possible so as to lower the C.G.
height of the car.
Final setup is decided with the help of designing and optimization of anti
roll bars with other components on the SusProg3D software.
7.13
Drawbacks of Using Anti Roll Bar

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122
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
Because an anti-roll bar connects wheels on the opposite sides of the

vehicle together, the bar will transmit the force of one-wheel bumps to the
opposite wheel. On rough or broken pavement, anti-roll bars can produce
jarring, side-to-side body motions (a "waddling" sensation), which increase
in severity with the diameter and stiffness of the sway bars.
Excessive roll stiffness, typically achieved by configuring an anti-roll bar
too aggressively, will cause the inside wheels to lift off the ground during
very hard cornering. The inside rear wheel should be prevented from
lifting during high speed turns. This is a significant issue because the cars
differential is only able to distribute power to the road when both rear
wheels can maintain some traction. Ideally, the car should see no more
than 80% lateral weight transfer.
7.14
Conclusions
In the nutshell, it can be concluded that anti roll bar is a sort of

compromise between damping characteristics and controlling the
rolling of the car.
Its not compulsory to use anti roll bar. If desired roll stiffness and
sufficient damping is achieved through shockers, then there is no need
to use anti roll bars.
Apart from reduction in body lean, anti roll bar is also being used to
affect the oversteer and understeer behaviour of the car.
Tubular anti roll bar rod is a much better and efficient option as
compared to solid rods.
It's important that the anti-roll bar should not be pre-loaded when the
car is resting at its static ride height with the driver on board, since
pre-loading causes a difference in handling between right and left
turns. Pre-loading of the anti-roll bar occurs when the bar has to be
twisted to connect the end links to the suspension. This problem is a
result of a mismatch in the geometry of the anti-roll bar and the
mounting points of the end links on the suspension. Pre-loading can be
avoided by using adjustable-length end links to dial-in the precise
length required to avoid twisting of the anti-roll bar. If the anti-roll bar
attaches directly to the suspension without using end links, the bar
itself must be re bent to the proper position.
7.14.1
Installation
Team AXLR8R
123
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
124
Finally, it can be concluded that front ARB should be installed

underneath the chassis in accordance with other components.
Front as well as rear ARB is to be attached through the bell crank by
which ARB motion ratio could also be varied. Basically, ARB should be
as low as possible to lower the CG height.
7.15
Future Prospects
During cornering, it is desirable that the stiffness of the stabilizer bar be

increased. If the stabilizer bar is too compliant, the vehicle will not
respond well during cornering, increasing the likelihood of rolling over.
However if the stabilizer bar is too stiff, the ride and handling will be
compromised during normal vehicle operation. Therefore, it is desirable
that the stiffness
of the stabilizer
bar be variable to
adjust for
changing driving
conditions.
Another option
is to use active
anti roll bar.
Active Anti Roll
bar is new high
tech system
which is now
being used in
costly
Another
passenger cars.
advancement
that can be
made in future is
bladed lever
arm through
which effective
torsion stiffness
can be altered
by just rotating
the bladed lever arm. No need for hole/s on the lever arm.
Team AXLR8R
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
125
8. SHOCKER AND ANTI ROLL BAR

RESULTS FROM SUSPROG3D
8.1 Front
8.1.1
Shocker and Anti Roll Bar Geometry
(Z): Ground
LH and RH side identical
Wheel rate
N/mm
Motion
lb/in
ratio
Shockabsorber
Coil spring
100.18
219.00
0.999
183.62 1048.50
Spring
deflection
0.999
17.54
Antirollbar
Length
122.33
-13.19 nsp
1.016
Pushrod and bellcrank

- Pushrod mounting (A-arm)
-Y
-Z
195.00
-X
0.00
- Pushrod length
500.00
437.76
Shock
- bellcrank pivots - Y
P1 Bellcrank P2 Pushrod Rollbar
273.77
-Z
669.92
-X
0.00
270.00
580.00
270.00
580.00
0.00 -100.00
- Pushrod arm length & offset
336.72
601.17
0.00
547.85
0.00
70.00
- shockabsorber arm length & offset

- Pushrod pivot to shockabsorber pivot
90.00
93.22
Team AXLR8R
320.66
0.00
0.00
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
126
- angle between arms
70.00
- anti-clockwise rotation in bump (LH)

- antirollbar link arm length & offset
60.00
- Pushrod pivot to antirollbar link pivot
-55.68
0.00
-50.00
Shockabsorber
- shockabsorber mounting (chassis)
-Y
-Z
680.00
-X
0.00
- length - compressed (full bump)

-
static
extended (full droop)
55.00
182.00
219.00
257.00
- stroke
74.99
- motion ratio (static)
1.00
Corner weight (unsprung)
13.000 kg
Corner weight (sprung)
28.66 lb
57.000 kg
Corner weight (total)
125.66 lb
70.000 kg
154.32 lb
167.53 cpm
Coil spring
- spring seat (shockabsorber shaft)
0.00 mm
- spring seat (shockabsorber body)
96.67 mm
- spring rate
17.51 N/mm
- static load
558.49 N
0.000 in
3.806 in
100.00 lb/in
56.950 kg
- static length
122.33 mm
4.816 in
- free length
109.14 mm
4.297 in
- compressed length
0.00 mm
Team AXLR8R
0.000 in
125.55 lb
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
- preload
127
-51.18 mm
-2.015 in
17.51 N/mm
100.00 lb/in
Coil spring parameters

- spring rate
- type of ends
Closed and ground
- total number of coils
7.00
- number of active coils

- coil ID
5.00
38.00 mm
1.496 in
- wire dia
6.03 mm
0.237 in
- free length
109.14 mm
4.297 in
- solid length
39.18 mm
1.542 in
- solid load
2144.22 N
- torsional stress (corrected) - static
218.650 kg
468.51 MPa
- full bump 940.57 MPa

- solid
1321.16 MPa
191618.44 psi
- arm length (actual)
130.00
- arm length (effective)
130.00
- arm length (offset)
0.00
- drop link length
332.00
- antirollbar mounting (chassis)
-Y
-Z
250.00
115.00
- X -100.00
- arb arm/link pivot
-Y
67951.08 psi
136417.80 psi
Anti-roll bar
312.50
-Z
216.48
-X
-18.75
Anti-roll bar config is u-bar, actuated from bellcrank.
Team AXLR8R
482.04 lb
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
128
Shape is bar & lever.Style A (LH side).

- active length
615.00 mm
- outside diameter
24.213 in
26.70 mm
- inside diameter
1.051 in
22.48 mm
- spring rate (nominal; Cf = 1.00)
0.885 in
189.36 N/mm
1081.28 lb/in

- shockabsorber mounting
-Y
-Z
680.00
-X
0.00
- bellcrank pivot (P1)
-Y
55.00
270.00
-Z
580.00
-X
0.00
- bellcrank pivot axis (P2 offset from P1)

-Z
LH
-Y
0.00
0.00
- X -100.00
- antirollbar mounting
-Y
-Z
250.00
115.00
- X -100.00
A-arm pivot points (Y from chassis pivot, Z from plane, X from apex normal)
- Pushrod mounting
8.1.2
-Y
-Z
30.12
-X
-13.40
223.61
Roll Data
Roll starts at Static.

Wheel rate
N/mm
lb/in
Motion
ratio
Length
Spring
deflection
Shockabsorber
Team AXLR8R
Bellcrank
rotation
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
129
37.38 bump
1.038
182.00
24.42
35.00 bump
1.031
184.30
22.79
30.00 bump
1.020
189.17
19.42
25.00 bump
1.012
194.09
16.10
20.00 bump
1.007
199.04
12.83
15.00 bump
1.004
204.01
9.59
10.00 bump
1.001
209.00
6.38
5.00 bump
1.000
Static
0.999
5.00 droop
214.00
3.19
219.00
0.998
0.00
224.01
-3.19
10.00 droop
0.997
229.02
-6.39
15.00 droop
0.996
234.03
-9.61
20.00 droop
0.994
239.06
-12.87
25.00 droop
0.992
244.09
-16.16
30.00 droop
0.988
249.15
-19.52
35.00 droop
0.982
254.22
-22.95
37.72 droop
0.979
257.00
-24.86
Coil spring
37.38 bump
16.26
92.85
1.038
85.33
23.81
35.00 bump
16.47
94.07
1.031
87.63
21.51
30.00 bump
16.83
96.12
1.020
92.50
16.64
25.00 bump
17.09
97.58
1.012
97.42
11.72
20.00 bump
17.27
98.60
1.007
102.37
6.77
15.00 bump
17.39
99.29
1.004
107.34
1.80
10.00 bump
17.47
99.74
1.001
112.33
-3.19 nsp
100.02
1.000
117.33
-8.18 nsp
5.00 bump
Static
17.52
17.54
100.18
0.999
122.33
Team AXLR8R
-13.19 nsp
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
5.00 droop
17.57
130
100.34
0.998
127.34
-18.19 nsp
10.00 droop
17.60
100.51
0.997
132.35
-23.20 nsp
15.00 droop
17.64
100.75
0.996
137.36
-28.22 nsp
20.00 droop
17.71
101.12
0.994
142.39
-33.24 nsp
25.00 droop
17.80
101.66
0.992
147.42
-38.28 nsp
30.00 droop
17.94
102.47
0.988
152.48
-43.33 nsp
35.00 droop
18.15
103.62
0.982
157.55
-48.41 nsp
37.72 droop
18.29
104.44
0.979
160.33
-51.18 nsp
LH side:
Wheel rate
N/mm
Motion
lb/in
Length
ratio
Spring
deflection
Bellcrank
rotation
Shockabsorber
0.00 roll
0.999
219.00
0.00
0.50 roll
1.000
213.84
3.29
1.00 roll
1.001
208.30
6.83
1.50 roll
1.004
202.38
10.65
2.00 roll
1.010
196.07
14.78
2.50 roll
1.021
189.36
19.29
Coil spring
0.00 roll
17.54
100.18
0.999
122.33
-13.19 nsp
0.50 roll
17.53
100.08
1.000
117.17
-8.02 nsp
1.00 roll
17.48
99.79
1.001
111.63
1.50 roll
17.37
99.17
1.004
105.71
2.00 roll
17.16
98.00
1.010
99.40
9.74
2.50 roll
16.80
95.92
1.021
92.69
16.45
Team AXLR8R
-2.49 nsp
3.43
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
131
Antirollbar
0.00 roll
183.62 1048.50
1.016
0.50 roll
231.93 1324.38
0.904
1.00 roll
313.20 1788.40
0.778
1.50 roll
480.30 2742.58
0.628
2.00 roll
1034.52 5907.25
2.50 roll
275.63 1573.89
0.428
0.829
RH side:
Wheel rate
N/mm
lb/in
Motion
Length
ratio
Spring
deflection
Bellcrank
rotation
Shockabsorber
0.00 roll
0.999
219.00
0.00
0.50 roll
0.999
223.97
-3.16
1.00 roll
0.999
228.55
-6.09
1.50 roll
0.999
232.72
-8.76
2.00 roll
0.999
236.45
-11.17
2.50 roll
0.999
239.68
-13.27
Coil spring
0.00 roll
17.54
100.18
0.999
122.33
-13.19 nsp
0.50 roll
17.55
100.19
0.999
127.30
-18.15 nsp
1.00 roll
17.54
100.15
0.999
131.88
-22.73 nsp
1.50 roll
17.53
100.13
0.999
136.05
-26.91 nsp
2.00 roll
17.53
100.12
0.999
139.78
-30.63 nsp
2.50 roll
17.54
100.14
0.999
143.01
-33.86 nsp
Antirollbar
Team AXLR8R
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
132
0.00 roll
183.62 1048.50
0.50 roll
150.40
858.82
1.122
1.00 roll
126.86
724.40
1.222
1.50 roll
109.38
624.60
1.316
2.00 roll
96.07
2.50 oll
85.88
548.56
490.39
1.016
1.404
1.485
Team AXLR8R
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
Team AXLR8R
133
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
Team AXLR8R
134
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
8.2
135
Rear
8.2.1
Shocker and Anti Roll Bar Geometry
(Z): Ground
Wheel rate
N/mm
Motion
lb/in
ratio
Shockabsorber
Coil spring
152.37
219.00
0.992
245.48 1401.73
Spring
deflection
0.992
26.68
Antirollbar
Length
169.00
-12.48 nsp
1.062
Pushrod and bellcrank

- Pushrod mounting (A-arm)
-Y
-Z
490.00
195.00
- X -1580.00
- Pushrod length
212.46
Shock
- bellcrank pivots - Y
-Z
P1 Bellcrank P2 Pushrod Rollbar
238.81
399.77
310.00
340.00
371.25
418.53
338.32
322.19
268.64
377.98
- X -1503.12 -1540.00 -1549.03 -1502.84 -1490.28

- Pushrod arm length & offset
50.00
- shockabsorber arm length & offset

- Pushrod pivot to shockabsorber pivot
0.00
100.00
0.00
126.18
110.00
- anti-clockwise rotation in bump (LH)

- antirollbar link arm length & offset
75.00
Team AXLR8R
0.00
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
136
- Pushrod pivot to antirollbar link pivot
90.14
90.00
Shockabsorber
- shockabsorber mounting (chassis)
-Z
-Y
245.00
370.00
- X -1720.00
- length - compressed (full bump)
-
static
extended (full droop)
182.01
219.00
256.99
- stroke
74.97
- motion ratio (static)
0.99
Corner weight (unsprung)
13.000 kg
Corner weight (sprung)
28.66 lb
92.000 kg
Corner weight (total)
202.83 lb
105.000 kg
231.49 lb
162.63 cpm
Coil spring
- spring seat (shockabsorber shaft)
0.00 mm
- spring seat (shockabsorber body)
50.00 mm
- spring rate
- static load
26.27 N/mm
895.15 N
0.000 in
1.969 in
150.00 lb/in
91.280 kg
- static length
169.00 mm
6.654 in
- free length
156.52 mm
6.162 in
- compressed length
- preload
0.00 mm
-50.47 mm
0.000 in
-1.987 in
Coil spring parameters

- spring rate
26.27 N/mm
Team AXLR8R
150.00 lb/in
201.24 lb
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
137
- type of ends
Closed and ground
- total number of coils
7.00
- number of active coils

- coil ID
5.00
38.00 mm
1.496 in
- wire dia
6.84 mm
0.269 in
- free length
156.52 mm
6.162 in
- solid length
44.47 mm
1.751 in
- solid load
5396.38 N
- torsional stress (corrected) - static
550.277 kg
538.59 MPa
- full bump 66.13 MPa

- solid
78115.86 psi
154629.45 psi
2364.87 MPa
342995.44 psi
Anti-roll bar
- arm length (actual)
200.00
- arm length (effective)
200.00
- arm length (offset)
0.00
- drop link length
180.00
- antirollbar mounting (chassis)
-Y
-Z
250.00
110.00
- X -1320.00
- arb arm/link pivot
-Y
-Z
319.00
309.67
- X -1331.54
Anti-roll bar config is u-bar, actuated from bellcrank.

Shape is bar & lever.Style A (LH side).
- active length
630.00 mm
1213.15 lb
24.803 in
Team AXLR8R
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
- outside diameter
138
33.40 mm
- inside diameter
1.315 in
24.30 mm
- spring rate (nominal; Cf = 1.00)
0.957 in
276.71 N/mm

- shockabsorber mounting
-Y
-Z
1580.06 lb/in
LH
245.00
370.00
- X -1720.00
- bellcrank pivot (P1)
-Y
-Z
310.00
340.00
- X -1540.00
- bellcrank pivot axis (P2 offset from P1)
-Z
78.53
-X
-9.03
- antirollbar mounting
-Y
-Z
-Y
61.25
250.00
110.00
- X -1320.00
A-arm pivot points (Y from chassis pivot, Z from plane, X from apex normal)
- Pushrod mounting
8.2.2
-Y
-Z
33.42
-X
10.47
208.69
Roll Data
(Z): Ground
Roll starts at Static.
Team AXLR8R
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
139
Wheel rate
N/mm
Motion
lb/in
ratio
Length
Spring
deflection
Bellcrank
rotation
Shockabsorber
35.81 bump
0.925
182.01
22.46
35.00 bump
0.928
182.89
21.95
30.00 bump
0.944
188.24
18.83
25.00 bump
0.958
193.50
15.73
20.00 bump
0.971
198.69
12.63
15.00 bump
0.980
203.82
9.53
10.00 bump
0.987
208.90
6.40
5.00 bump
0.991
Static
0.992
5.00 droop
213.96
219.00
0.990
3.23
0.00
224.04
-3.31
10.00 droop
0.983
229.12
-6.72
15.00 droop
0.971
234.24
-10.28
20.00 droop
0.953
239.44
-14.02
25.00 droop
0.926
244.77
-18.01
30.00 droop
0.889
250.30
-22.34
35.00 droop
0.836
256.13
-27.17
35.71 droop
0.826
256.98
-27.91
Coil spring
35.81 bump
30.70
175.29
0.925
132.01
24.51
35.00 bump
30.51
174.23
0.928
132.89
23.63
Team AXLR8R
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
140
30.00 bump
29.47
168.29
0.944
138.24
18.28
25.00 bump
28.60
163.31
0.958
143.50
13.02
20.00 bump
27.89
159.26
0.971
148.69
7.83
15.00 bump
27.34
156.11
0.980
153.82
2.70
10.00 bump
26.95
153.89
0.987
158.90
5.00 bump
26.73
Static
26.68
5.00 droop
152.63
152.37
26.81
0.991
0.992
153.10
-2.39 nsp
163.96
169.00
0.990
-7.44 nsp
-12.48 nsp
174.04
-17.53 nsp
10.00 droop
27.18
155.21
0.983
179.12
-22.60 nsp
15.00 droop
27.86
159.06
0.971
184.24
-27.72 nsp
20.00 droop
28.94
165.24
0.953
189.44
-32.92 nsp
25.00 droop
30.62
174.82
0.926
194.77
-38.26 nsp
30.00 droop
33.25
189.84
0.889
200.30
-43.78 nsp
35.00 droop
37.62
214.82
0.836
206.13
-49.61 nsp
35.71 droop
38.47
219.69
0.826
206.98
-50.47 nsp
LH side:
Wheel rate
N/mm
lb/in
Motion
ratio
Length
Spring
deflection
Bellcrank
rotation
Shockabsorber
0.00 roll
0.992
219.00
0.00
0.50 roll
0.990
213.89
3.27
1.00 roll
0.984
208.40
6.71
1.50 roll
0.974
202.49
10.34
2.00 roll
0.960
196.11
14.17
2.50 roll
0.942
189.20
18.27
Team AXLR8R
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
141
Coil spring
0.00 roll
26.68
152.37
0.992
169.00
-12.48 nsp
0.50 roll
26.82
153.12
0.990
163.89
-7.37 nsp
1.00 roll
27.14
154.99
0.984
158.40
-1.88 nsp
1.50 roll
27.69
158.13
0.974
152.49
4.03
2.00 roll
28.50
162.74
0.960
146.11
10.40
2.50 roll
29.61
169.09
0.942
139.20
17.32
Antirollbar
0.00 roll
245.48 1401.73
1.062
0.50 roll
255.21 1457.28
1.041
1.00 roll
266.88 1523.91
1.018
1.50 roll
281.08 1605.01
0.992
2.00 roll
298.67 1705.47
0.963
2.50 roll
320.97 1832.77
0.929
RH side:
Wheel rate
N/mm
lb/in
Motion
ratio
Length
Spring
deflection
Bellcrank
rotation
Shockabsorber
0.00 roll
0.992
219.00
0.00
0.50 roll
0.991
223.92
-3.23
1.00 roll
0.987
228.49
-6.30
1.50 roll
0.979
232.71
-9.21
2.00 roll
0.970
236.55
-11.92
2.50 roll
0.958
239.97
-14.41
Team AXLR8R
FSAE IIT Delhi

Suspension Report
142
Coil spring
0.00 roll
26.68
152.37
0.992
169.00
-12.48 nsp
0.50 roll
26.74
152.69
0.991
173.92
-17.40 nsp
1.00 roll
26.98
154.05
0.987
178.49
-21.97 nsp
1.50 roll
27.38
156.37
0.979
182.71
-26.19 nsp
2.00 roll
27.94
159.56
0.970
186.55
-30.03 nsp
2.50 roll
28.63
163.46
0.958
189.97
-33.45 nsp
Antirollbar
0.00 roll
245.48 1401.73
1.062
0.50 roll
237.00 1353.29
1.081
1.00 roll
229.76 1311.99
1.097
1.50 roll
223.53 1276.41
1.113
2.00 roll
218.13 1245.53
1.126
2.50 roll
213.43 1218.74
1.139
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8.3 Final Calculations

8.3.1
Spring rate
Ks = 4 fr2m MR2
sm
Ks = Spring rate (N/m)

msm = Sprung mass(on one wheel) (kg)
fr = Ride frequency (Hz)
MR = Motion ratio (Wheel/Spring travel)
Front
MR= 0.999
fr = 167.53 revolutions/ minute
msm = 57 kg
Ks = 4*484/49*(167.53/60)2*0.9992*57 = 17522.5691 N/m
Rear
MR= 0.992
fr = 162.63 revolutions/ minute
msm = 92 kg
Ks = 4*484/49*(162.63/60)2*0.9922*92 = 26279.6313 N/m
Desired roll gradient = 0.8 degree/g
8.3.2
Roll gradient of ride springs
r / Ay = -W x H
KF + KR
H = Cg to Roll axis dist (m)
W = Vehicle weight (N)
r/Ay = Roll gradient from ride springs (deg/g)
H = 0.2 m
W= 350*9.81 N
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KF = tf)KLFKRF
180(KLF+KRF)
146
KF = Front roll rate (Nm/deg roll)

tf = Front track width (m)
KLF = LF Wheel rate (N/m)
KRF = RF Wheel rate (N/m)
tf = 1.16 m
KLF = KRF = 17522N/ m
KF = 22/7*(1.162)/360/(0.9992)* KLF = 206.255208 Nm/deg roll
KR = tr)KLRKRR
180(KLR+KRR)
KR = Rear roll rate (Nm/deg roll)
tr = Rear track width (m)

KLR = LR Wheel rate (N/m)
KRR = RR Wheel rate (N/m)
tr = 1.14 m
KLR = KRR = 26705.20413 N/mm
KR = 22/7*(1.142)/360/ (0.9922)* KLR = 302.989631 Nm/deg roll
r/Ay =350*9.81*0.2/ (302.989631+206.255208) = 1.348467274 deg/g
8.3.3
Total ARB roll rate needed to increase the roll
stiffness to the desired roll gradient
KA =
KDESKT(t/2)
180 [KT(t/2)/180 KDES]
KW(t/2)
180
KA = Total ARB roll rate needed (Nm/deg

roll)
KDES = Desired total roll rate (Nm/deg
roll)
KW = Wheel rate (N/m)
KT = Tire rate (N/m)
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t = Average track width between front

and rear (m)
KT = 1000 lb/inch
t = 1.15 m
KDES = WH
(/Ay)
W = Weight of vehicle (N)
H = Vertical distance from roll centre axis to Cg (m)
/Ay = Desired total roll gradient, chosen earlier (deg/g)
KDES = 350 * 9.81*0.2/0.8 = 858.375 Nm/ deg roll
Front
KA=(22/7/180*(350*9.81*0.2/0.8)*1000*386.4/2.2*(1.15*1.15/2)/
((1000*386.4/2.2*(1.15*1.15/2)*22/7/180)-(350*9.81*0.2/0.8)))22/7/180/2*(1.15*1.15)*( 17522.5691 /0.9992)
= 1285.702394 Nm/deg roll
Rear
KA=(22/7/180*(350*9.81*0.2/0.8)*1000*386.4/2.2*(1.15*1.15/2)/
((1000*386.4/2.2*(1.15*1.15/2)*22/7/180)-(350*9.81*0.2/0.8)))22/7/180/2*(1.15*1.15)*( 26279.6313 /0.9922)
= 1180.088254 Nm/deg roll
8.3.4
Front and Rear Anti-Roll Bar stiffness
KFA = KANmagMRFA/100
KFA = FARB roll rate (Nm/deg twist)
MRFA = FARB Motion ratio
Nmag = 5 %
MRFA = 1.016
KFA = 1285.702 *45*(1.0162)/100 = 597.2283049 Nm/deg twist
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KRA = KA(100-Nmag)MRRA/100
KRA = RARB roll rate (Nm/deg twist)
MRRA = RARB Motion ratio
MRRA = 1.062
KFA = 1180.088254 *55*(1.0622)/100 = 732.0255009 Nm/deg twist
Now, we have got the required front and rear Anti Roll Bar stiffness based
on the optimum G calculations. This is basically a theoretical value of the
required dimensions.
We have to achieve this value through actual anti roll bar setup. This is
the practical value of the required dimensions to be achieved.
Theoretical Nominal rate (front) =

597.2283049*2*57.3*1.0162/0.6152/1000
= 186.7936827 N/mm
Theoretical Nominal rate (rear) = 732.0255009*2*57.3*1.0622/0.632/1000
= 238.3849111 N/mm
Practical Nominal Rate, achieved by the set up of ARB =
4
F d G
=
=k
32 L r 2
Front Nominal Rate

d = d2 d1 = outer diameter inner diameter = (26.70 22.48)mm
G = shear modulus of ARB rod = 86 GPa
L = active length of ARB rod = 0.615 m
r = effective lever arm length = 0.130 m
k = 189.36 N/mm, which is pretty much close to the required value of
186.7936827 N/mm.
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Rear Nominal Rate

d = d2 d1 = outer diameter inner diameter = (30.0 24.00)mm
G = shear modulus of ARB rod = 86 GPa
L = active length of ARB rod = 0.67 m
r = effective lever arm length = 0.144 m
k = 235.71 N/mm, which is pretty much close to the required value of
238.3849111 N/mm.
Maximum Force on the lever arm
F=k
= maximum perpendicular deflection of anti drop link = 33.40 mm

bump or droop /MRARB
Maximum Force on front lever arm = 186.7936827 * 33.4 / 1.016 =

6140.658 N
Maximum Force on rear lever arm = 238.3849111 * 33.4 / 1.062 =
7497.228 N
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8.4 Final Damping Curve
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9. FORCE CALCULATIONS
9.1 Front
TOTAL MASS OF THE CAR = 350 kg.
Static mass distribution = 40:60(rear).
CG HEIGHT = 10 inch.
(A =Front, B=Rear, +x= forward, +y=inward, +z=upward)
Ft = tire forces.
Fu= upright forces.
L=lower
Fk=front a-arm forces.
U=upper
Fm=rear a-arm forces.
X,y,z = signifies directions

e.g. Fku,Fml,Ftx,Fuz...
FRONT TIRE (OUTER)

Braking acceleration = 1.4 g
Bump acceleration = 1 g
Lateral acceleration = 1.9 g
Front track width = 1160mm
Rear track width =1140mm
Wheel base = 1600mm =63 inch
Static mass=57 kg (sprung) + 13 kg (unsprung).
Longitudinal mass transfer (due to braking) = (1.4g*350*10)/63g
= (25.92*2) kg
Apparent mass of the tire = 57+13+ 25.92=95.92 kg
Lateral weight transfer = 95.92*2*1.9g*10/40.76g + 13g/g (due to
bump acceleration)
= 89.44 kg (40.76=constant depending upon car
dimensions)
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Total mass of the tire =95.92+89.44 = 198.36 kg
Ftx = 198.36*1.4*9.81 = 2777 N

Fty =198.36*1.9 *9.81 = 3692.2 N
Ftz =198.36 *9.81 = 2073.44 N
Forces on upright attachment points with A-arms:Based on force balance equations in three directions & moment balance
equation along three axes.
Fux +Flx =|Ftx|
direction
Fuy + Fly = -|Fty|
direction
Ftx=2777 N along ve x
Fty=3692.2 N along ve y
Fuz + Flz = -|Ftz|

z direction
Ftz=2073.44 N along +ve
Mx =0 Taking moment along x- axis passing through lower upright a-arm

mounting point.
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-Fuy(362-166.36)-Fty(166.36)-900(166.36-105.09)+Ftz(580557.33)=0
=> Fuy= -2881.8 N
=> Fly= 7474 N
My = 0
Taking moment along y- axis passing through lower upright aarm mounting point.
=> Fux(362-166.36)+Ftx(166.36)+Ftz(15.8)=0
=> Fux = -2528.83 N
=> Flx= 5305.83 N
Mz =0
Taking moment along z- axis passing through lower upright a-arm
mounting point.
It can be assumed that under extreme conditions, all the vertical forces of
the tire passes through the push rod.
Fp = -Fz/0.912 = 2261.62 N
Fuz = - 10 N
Flz = - 2062.6 N
Flx = 5305.83 N
Fux = -2528.83 N
Fly = 7474 N
Flz = -2083.44 N
Fuy =
Fuz =
10 N
A-ARM forces:UPPER
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K=front
a-arm
154
m =rear a-arm
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ANGLES:
b1u= 27.64= angle of front upper a-arm with vertical plane as shown in
figure.
b2u= 31.27= angle of rear upper a-arm with vertical plane as shown in
figure.
a1u= 7.5= angle of front upper a-arm with horizontal plane passing
through upper a-arm
pivot
point.
a2u= 8.9= angle of rear upper a-arm with horizontal plane passing
through upper a-arm
pivot
point.
=> Fm*cos(a2u)*cos(b2u)+Fk*cos(a1u)*cos(b1u) = 2881.8
=> Fm*0.844+Fk*0.878 = 2881.8
=> Fk*cos(a1u)*sin(b1u)-Fm*cos(a2u)*sin(b2u) = 2528.33
=> Fk*0.46-Fm*0.513= 2528.33
Fku = 4707.23 N
Fku = force on front upper a-arm
Fmu = -1066.28N
Fmu = force on rear upper a-arm
LOWER
K=front
a-arm
m =rear a-arm
ANGLES:
b1l= 22.53= angle of front lower a-arm with vertical plane as shown
in figure.
b2l= 31.33= angle of rear lower a-arm with vertical plane as shown
in figure.
b3=0=angle of push rod with vertical plane.
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a1l=2.1 = angle of front lower a-arm with horizontal plane passing

through lower a arm pivot point.
a2l= 1= angle of rear lower a-arm with horizontal plane passing
through lower a-arm
pivot
point.
a3=69.43=angle of push rod with horizontal plane.
=> Fm*cos(a2l)*cos(b2l)+Fk*cos(a1l)*cos(b1l)+Fp*cos(a3)*cos(b3) =
-7474
=> Fm*0.854+Fk*0.923+Fp*0.351 = -7474
=> Fk*cos(a1l)*sin(b1l)-Fm*cos(a2l)*sin(b2l)+Fp*cos(a3)*sin(b3) =
-5305.83
=> Fk*0.383-Fm*0.51988+Fp*0 = -5305.83
=>- Fk*sin(a1l)-Fm*sin(a2l) +Fp*sin(a3)= 2083.44
=> -Fk*0.0366-Fm*0.017+Fp*0.9362 = 2083.44
Fkl = force on front lower a-arm = -10847.033 N
Fml = force on rear lower a-arm = 2214.77 N
PUSH ROD Force = 1841.583 N (by solving equations)

or 2216.6 N (assuming that all the vertical tire forces
passes through push rod).
9.2 REAR
TIRE (OUTER)
Forward acceleration =0 .724m/s2 (from torque acceleration readings at
various gears)
Bump acceleration = 1 g
Lateral acceleration = 1.9 g
Front track width = 1160mm
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Rear track width =1140mm

Wheel base = 1600mm =63 inch
Static mass= 92 kg(sprung) + 13 kg (unsprung)
Longitudinal mass transfer (due to braking) = (7.24*350*10)/63g
= (20.11*2) kg
Apparent mass of the tire = 92+13+ 20.11=125.11 kg
Lateral mass transfer = 250*1.9g*10/44.882g +13g/g (due to bump
acceleration)
= 118kg
upon car dimensions)
(44.882=constant depending
Total mass of the tire =250 kg
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Ftx =250*7.24 = 1800 N

Fty =250*1.9*9.81 = 4660 N
Ftz =250*9.81 = 2450 N
158
along +ve x direction

along ve y direction
along +ve z direction
Forces on upright attachment points with A-arms:Based on force balance equations in three directions & moment balance
equation along three axes.
Fux +Flx = -|Ftx|
Fuy + Fly = |Fty|
Fuz + Flz = |Ftz|
Mx =0
Taking moment along x- axis passing through lower upright aarm mounting point.
-Fuy(350.19-160.16)-Fty(160.16)+Ftz(600.5-542.2) =0
Fuy = -3172 N
Fly = 7832 N
My = 0
Taking moment along y- axis passing through lower
upright a-arm mounting point.
Fux(350.19-160.16) Ftx(160.16)+Ftz(1600-1590.08) = 0
190 Fux+20 Fuz =263696.
Fuz = -4685 N
Flz = 2300 N
Mz =0
Taking moment along z- axis passing through lower upright aarm mounting point.
Fux(600.5-542.2)-Fuy(1610.08-1590.08)+Fty(1600-1590.08)=0
Fux = -1880 N
Flx = 80 N
Flx = 80 N
Fly = 7832 N
Fux = -1880 N
Fuy = - 3172 N
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Flz = 2300 N
159
Fuz = -4685 N
A-ARM forces:UPPER
K=front
m =rear
ANGLES:
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b1u=31.86 = angle of front upper a-arm with vertical plane as shown in

figure.
b2u=27.63 = angle of rear upper a-arm with vertical plane as shown in
figure.
a1u=5.66 = angle of front upper a-arm with horizontal plane passing
through upper a-arm
pivot
point.
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a2u=6.60 = angle of rear upper a-arm with horizontal plane passing

through upper a-arm
pivot
point.
=> Fm*cos(a2u)*cos(b2u)+Fk*cos(a1u)*cos(b1u) = 3172

=> Fm*0.88+Fk*0.845 = 3172
=> Fk*cos(a1u)*sin(b1u)-Fm*cos(a2u)*sin(b2u) = 1880
=> Fk*0.5252-Fm*0.460= 1880
Fku =3659 N
Fmu =90.88 N
LOWER
K=front
a-arm
m =rear a-arm
ANGLES:
b1l=28.56 86 = angle of front lower a-arm with vertical plane as
shown in figure.
b2l=30.9 = angle of rear lower a-arm with vertical plane as shown
in figure.
b3=23.23=angle of push rod with vertical plane.
a1l=7.25 = angle of front lower a-arm with horizontal plane passing
through lower a-arm
pivot
point.
a2l=1.115 = angle of rear lower a-arm with horizontal plane passing
through lower a-arm
pivot
point.
a3=26.83=angle of push rod with horizontal plane.
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=> Fm*cos(a2l)*cos(b2l)+Fk*cos(a1l)*cos(b1l)+Fp*cos(a3)*cos(b3) =
-7832
=> Fm*0.85+Fk*0.87+Fp*0.82 = -7832
=> Fk*cos(a1l)*sin(b1l)-Fm*cos(a2l)*sin(b2l)+Fp*cos(a3)*sin(b3) = -80
=> Fk*0.47-Fm*0.51+Fp*0.35 = - 80
=> Fk*sin(a1l)-Fm*sin(a2l) +Fp*sin(a3)= -2300
=> Fk*0.126-Fm*0.02+Fp*0.455 = -2300
Fkl = force on front lower a-arm =-504.018N
Fml = force on rear lower a-arm = -3795.41N
PUSH ROD Force, Fp = -3730 N(assuming that all vertical tire forces passes
through push rod)
or -5082.21 N (by solving equation)
Approximations :
Toe rod force contribution at the rear = 0.
Assumed Kpi & Caster angle to be 0 at front.
No shifting of contact patch at front (considered tire forces passing
through the centre of contact patch).
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10.
BEARING SELECTION
To design a rolling bearing arrangement two criteria are most important:

1. Selecting suitable bearing type.
2. Selecting appropriate size according to requirements.
The type of bearing depends largely on the type of loads that the bearing
has to undergo.
The bearings are to be used between the upright and the hub connected
to the wheels which will experience both radial and axial loads.
According to this requirement, the bearing type selected was angular
contact bearing as it can handle both radial and axial loads.
To support axial loads in both directions, the double row type of angular
contact bearings was finalized.
SKF double row angular contact ball bearings correspond in design to two
single row angular contact ball bearings but take up less axial space. They
can accommodate radial loads as well as axial loads acting in both
directions. They provide stiff bearing arrangements and are able to
accommodate tilting moments.
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Once, this was decided we looked up the SKF catalogue for the different
sizes and types available in the Double row angular contact bearing
category. The inner diameter of the bearing was fixed as 30 mm.
Angular contact ball bearings, double row

Product information
Principal dimensions
Basic load ratings

dynamic static
mm
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
35
35
C0
kN
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
23,8
23,8
23,8
23,8
23,8
23,8
23,8
23,8
30,2
30,2
30,2
30,2
30,2
30,2
30,2
30,2
30,2
30,2
30,2
27
27
27
27
27
27
30
30
30
30
30
30,3
30,3
30,3
41,5
41,5
41,5
41,5
41,5
41,5
41,5
41,5
46,8
46,8
46,8
40
40
40
40
40
40
20,4
20,4
20,4
20,4
20,4
28
28
28
27,5
27,5
27,5
27,5
27,5
27,5
27,5
27,5
43
43
43
28
28
28
28
28
28
Tolerances , see also text

Axial internal clearance, a), b),
see also text
Recommended fits
Shaft and housing tolerances
Fatigue
load
limit
Pu
Speed ratings
Reference Limiting
speed
speed
kN
r/min
0,865
0,865
0,865
0,865
0,865
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,16
1,16
1,16
1,16
1,16
1,16
1,16
1,16
1,83
1,83
1,83
1,18
1,18
1,18
1,18
1,18
1,18
Mass
Designation
* - SKF Explorer bearing
10000
10000
10000
10000
9500
9500
9000
9000
9000
9000
9000
9000
8500
8500
9000
9000
9000
9000
kg
10000
10000
10000
7500
10000
10000
7500
10000
9000
6300
9000
9000
9000
9000
6300
9000
9000
6300
9000
9000
6300
6300
9000
9000
9000
0,29
0,29
0,29
0,27
0,27
0,35
0,35
0,35
0,59
0,52
0,52
0,52
0,53
0,59
0,53
0,52
0,59
0,59
0,59
0,40
0,44
0,44
0,44
0,44
0,44
3206 A-2ZTN9/MT33 *
3206 ATN9 *
5206 A *
5206 A-2RS1 *
5206 A-2Z *
5206 E
5206 E-2RS1
5206 E-2Z
3306 A *
3306 A-2RS1TN9/MT33 *
3306 A-2Z/MT33 *
3306 A-2ZTN9/MT33 *
3306 ATN9 *
5306 A *
5306 A-2RS1 *
5306 A-2Z *
5306 E
5306 E-2RS1
5306 E-2Z
3207 A *
3207 A-2RS1/MT33 *
3207 A-2RS1TN9/MT33 *
3207 A-2Z/MT33 *
3207 A-2ZTN9/MT33 *
3207 ATN9 *
The Bearing number 3306-ATN9 was then finalized.
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Its dynamic load constant (C) = 41500 N.

Load ratings and life - Dynamic bearing loads and life
The basic dynamic load rating C is used for calculations involving

dynamically stressed bearings, i.e. a bearing that rotates under load. It
expresses the bearing load that will give an ISO 281:1990 basic rating life
of 1 000 000 revolutions. It is assumed that the load is constant in
magnitude and direction and is radial for radial bearings and axial,
centrically acting, for thrust bearings.
The basic dynamic load ratings for SKF bearings are determined in
accordance with the procedures outlined in ISO 281:1990. The load ratings
given in this catalogue apply to chromium steel bearings, heat-treated to
a minimum hardness of 58 HRC, and operating under normal conditions.
SKF Explorer class bearings account among others, for improvements in
material and manufacturing techniques applied by SKF and apply update
factors to calculate the basic dynamic load ratings according to
ISO 281:1990.
The life of a rolling bearing is defined as
the number of revolutions or
the number of operating hours at a given speed
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Which the bearing is capable of enduring before the first sign of metal
fatigue (flaking, spalling) occurs on one of its rings or rolling elements.
Practical experience shows that seemingly identical bearings operating
under identical conditions have different individual endurance lives. A
clearer definition of the term "life" is therefore essential for the calculation
of the bearing size. All information presented by SKF on dynamic load
ratings is based on the life that 90% of a sufficiently large group of
apparently identical bearings can be expected to attain or exceed.
There are several other types of bearing life. One of these is "service life",
which represents the actual life of a bearing in real operating conditions
before it fails. Note that individual bearing life can only be predicted
statistically. Life calculations refer only to a bearing population and a
given degree of reliability, i.e. 90%, furthermore field failures are not
generally caused by fatigue, but are more often caused by contamination,
wear, misalignment, corrosion, or as a result of cage, lubrication or seal
failure.
Another "life" is the "specification life". This is the life specified by an
authority, for example, based on hypothetical load and speed data
supplied by the same authority. It is generally a requisite L10 basic rating
life and based on experience gained from similar applications.
The load according to our specifications are as follows:
Axial load (Fa) = 2100 N
Radial load (Fr) = 3700 N
Assuming that the bearing will run throughout its life at this load and
adding a constant static load of 1000 N for the weight of suspension parts
to the radial loads assembly and 400 N to the axial load.
Fa = 2500 N
Fr = 4700 N
Equivalent dynamic bearing load
P = Fr + Y1*Fa ;
Fa/Fr <= e
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P = X1*Fr + Y2*Fa ;
Fa/Fr > e
e=0.8
Y1=0.78
Fa/Fr = 0.53 <0.8

P= Fr + Y1*Fa
P= 6650 N
Bearing life L10 = (C/P)3 for ball bearings

= 5.17 million revolutions
Wheel Radius = .254 m

Therefore, life in terms of Km = (2*3.14*.254)*5.17*1000000/1000
= 8245 Km
This is sufficiently good for a racing car like ours which has to be in
operation for around only 1000 or so Km.
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11.
DESIGNING
The Designing process followed the following procedure:

1. Estimation of the forces acting on the component.
2. Choosing the right material.
3. Designing the CAD model on SolidWorks considering the
geometric requirements.
4. Stress analysis of the model using Simulation Express
Analysis Wizard in SolidWorks considering all the loads as
estimated.
5. Optimization of the design: This step includes modifying the
model by removal of extra material that is not adding to the
strength but only to the weight.
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11.1
11.1.1
Hub
Estimation of Forces
The forces acting on the Hub at different points are determined by

balancing forces and moments and by considering certain assumptions.
The forces acting on the hub are same as the forces on the tire. The
determination of forces has been done in the section 8.1:
The final magnitudes of the forces are found to be:

FRONT HUB
-
Forces acting on the rim mounting studs:

FX = 2777 N
FY = 3692.2 N
FZ = 2073.44 N
Forces acting on the brake disk mountings

F= 1300N on each mounting, tangentially
REAR HUB
-
Forces acting on the rim mounting studs:

FX = 1800 N
FY = 4660 N
FZ = 2450 N
Forces acting on the brake disk mountings

11.1.2
Choosing the material
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170
The material chosen for both the Hubs is AISI 4140, which is a high yield
strength material as compared to aluminium thus giving the required
strength. Properties of AISI 4140:
Yield Strength: 900 MPa (Approx.)
Density: 7850 Kg/m3
In Comparison with other options of material available:
Property
AISI 4140
AISI 1020
Al 6351
Yield Strength
900 MPa
350 MPa
150 MPa
Density
7850 Kg/m3
7850 Kg/m3
2700 Kg/m3
AISI 4140 has same density as that of Mild Steel (AISI 1020) but has
almost thrice of its yield strength.

AISI 4140 is heavier than Al6351 with its density being 3 times of that
of Al but its yield strength is also 6 times of yield strength of Al.

Because of this superiority in property, AISI 4140 is preferred. Its
properties are used in giving high structural strength to the upright
with minimization of the weight.

As the uprights would be manufactured by CNC milling operation, it is
ensured that AISI 4140 is easily machinable.
11.1.3
Designing the CAD model on SolidWorks

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For making the CAD model of Hub we need to consider the geometric
constraints which are bearing size, rim width, rim offset and PCD of rim.
Besides these certain things are kept in mind while deciding the other
basic dimensions of the hub:
-
Before starting the design of the hub, size of the bearing is known.
The hub dimensions depend on dimensions of the brake disk.
For designing the brake disk mountings, the orientation of the holes of
the brake disk is carefully considered.
While varying the width of the hub, we have to do analysis of the whole
tire assembly, as the mounting points of upright are fixed.
The designing of the rim mountings in the hub depend on the rim
offset, rim width and PCD of the rim.
Features of the design, same for both front and rear hubs:
- For mounting of the rim, 4 holes have been provided in which studs
will be fixed and then the rim will mount on these studs.
- A step of 2mm is given in the housing for the bearing made to prevent
the axial movement of the bearing.
- The dimension of the diameter of the shaft is chosen with proper
tolerances as the bearing is in interference fit with the shaft.
FRONT HUB
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172
Brakes Disk mountings
FRONT VIEW OF FRONT LEFT HUB
The rim will mount on this

step. This is to prevent
the static load of rim +
tire weight to come on
the studs.
Holes have been

provided. In
these holes studs
will be fixed &
rim will mount on
the studs
Dimension of the
shaft so decided
for the
interference fit
with the bearing
SIDE VIEW OF FRONT LEFT UPRIGHT
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A step of 2mm is
given to avoid
axial movement
of the bearing
THREE-D VIEW OF FRONT LEFT HUB
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174
REAR HUB
Brake
Disk
mounting
FRONT VIEW OF REAR LEFT HUB
SIDE VIEW OF REAR LEFT UPRIGHT
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175
A step of 2mm
Dimension
of the
shaft decided
given
to prevent
such
thataxial
the
it is in
176
interferenceoffit with
movement
the bearing
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Suspension Report
3-D VIEW OF REAR LEFT HUB
The rim will mount on this

step. This is to prevent
the static load of rim +
tire weight to come on
the studs.
Holes have been

provided. In
these holes studs
will be fixed &
rim will mount on
the studs
3-D VIEW OF REAR LEFT HUB
11.1.4
STRESS ANALYSIS
EXPRESS ANALYSIS WIZARD
OF THE
CAD
MODEL ON
SIMULATION
After the modeling of the Cad, the analysis of the hub under the loading
scenario of the forces as calculated in 10.1.1. The analysis is done in the
Simulation Express Analysis Wizard in SolidWorks. The Fixture and forces
are specified by us in the wizard. It itself does the required meshing and
by Finite Element Analysis, calculates the minimum Factor of Safety
present in the component. Simulation Xpress uses the maximum von
Mises stress criterion to calculate the factors of safety. This criterion states
that a ductile material starts to yield when the equivalent stress (von
Mises stress) reaches the yield strength of the material. The yield strength
is defined as a material property. Simulation Xpress calculates the factor
of safety at a point by dividing the yield strength by the equivalent stress
at that point.
The Factor of safety for the stress analysis is chosen in the range of 1.72.2.
Analysis of FRONT HUB
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THE VON MISES STRESS ANALYSIS
Von Mises stress analysis of front upright showing factor of safety (FOS) =
1.74.
In some tiny portions, yellow shades are there otherwise most of the
region shows only blue and green. Blue and green regions that these
areas are absolutely safe and stresses are here are well below their yield
strength.
Analysis of REAR UPRIGHT
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2.20
Material used is AISI 4140 due to its high yield strength. Also, only in some
tiny portions, yellow shades are there otherwise in most of the area it is
only blue and green. Every possible effort has been made to cut out the
extra material, keeping FOS in mind. It would be manufactured using CNC
machines for its intricate details and least possible error.
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11.1.5
Optimization of the Design by removing excess
material.
After the design, the analysis of that design is done under the loading
scenarios as estimated and on the basis of the analysis only optimization
of the design is initiated. The minimum Factor of Safety and Weight of the
component are taken as prime consideration for design optimization. The
weight is reduced and then the value of minimum FOS present in the
component is checked by Simulation Express Analysis Wizard. The value
of the FOS should lie in the range as taken; in our case we have taken a
range of FOS as 1.5-1.8 as optimum. If the FOS of any region is very high
than the optimum range then the action taken is removal of material. In
the region with very low FOS, some material is added. The material
removal is done by addition of features like trusses and slots. The material
addition is done by addition of features like fillet and bridging. The mass of
the component is taken into account at every step of material removal
and addition. After every operation of material removal or addition, the
weight of the component is checked and the analysis is re-run to check
the minimum factor of safety.
In the following optimized designs of front and rear uprights, every
possible effort has been reduce the weight to the minimum maintaining
optimum factor of safety to enable the design to withstand the different
loads and stresses which would be there in actual conditions and are
difficult to be considered virtually.
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180
FRONT HUB
Support
members
introduced to
bear the loads as
well as adding
less to the
weight.
Excess
material
removal
3-D VIEW OF OPTIMIZED DESIGN OF FRONT LEFT UPRIGHT
Every possible effort has been made to cut out the extra material,
keeping FOS in mind. The mass of the final design is 476 grams. It would
be manufactured using CNC machines for its intricate details and least
possible error.
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182
REAR HUB
Support
members
introduced to
bear the loads as
well as adding
less to the
weight.
Removing excess
material
3-D VIEW OF REAR LEFT UPRIGHT
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183
Removing excess
material
possible error.
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11.2
11.2.1
Upright
The forces acting on the upright at different mounting points are

determined by balancing forces and moments and by considering certain
assumptions. This determination of forces has been done in the section
8.1:
FRONT UPRIGHT
Forces acting on the a-arm mountings:

On upper mount
Fx= -2528.83 N
Fy= -2881.8 N
Fz = 10 N
On lower mount
Fx= 5305.83 N
Fy= 7474 N
Fz = -2083.44 N
Forces acting on the tie-rod mount

Fy= 1500N
Forces acting on the brake caliper mountings

REAR UPRIGHT
Forces acting on the a-arm mountings:

On upper mount
Fx= -1800 N
Fy= -3172 N
Fz = -4685 N
On lower mount
Fx= 80 N
Fy= 7832 N
Fz = 2300 N
Forces acting on the toe-rod mount
Fy= 500 N
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185
Forces acting on the brake caliper mountings

11.2.2
The material chosen for both the uprights is AISI 4140, which is a high
yield strength material as compared to aluminium thus giving the required
strength. Properties of AISI 4140:
Yield Strength : 900 MPa (Approx.)
Density : 7850 Kg/m3
Property
AISI 4140
AISI 1020
Al 6351
Yield Strength
900 MPa
350 MPa
150 MPa
Density
7850 Kg/m3
7850 Kg/m3
2700 Kg/m3
AISI 4140 has same density as that of Mild Steel (AISI 1020) but has
almost thrice of its yield strength.
AISI 4140 is heavier than Al6351 with its density being 3 times of that
of Al but its yield strength is also 6 times of yield strength of Al.
properties are used in giving high structural strength to the upright
with minimization of the weight.
As the uprights would be manufactured by CNC milling operation, it is
ensured that AISI 4140 is easily machinable.
11.2.3
For making the CAD model of upright we need to consider the geometric
constraints which are due to the mounting points of a-arms, tie-rod and
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186
brake caliper. Besides these certain things are kept in mind while deciding
the other basic dimensions of the uprights:
-
The Hub is designed before starting the design of the upright to do

analysis of the whole tire assembly. This analysis would help in starting
the designing of the upright.
The mounting of the brake disk should be known before hand to decide
the required clearance between the upright and the brake disk.
For the length of the upright, care is taken to consider the inner
diameter of the rim.
Any mounting designed on the upright should not collide with the rim.
The thickness of the upright is determined by considering the bearing
thickness.
Mounting points of the brake caliper is decided by analyzing the design
of the brake caliper.
We make sure a good amount of clearance between brake caliper and
the rim. From this clearance, we decide the radial distance of the
mounting point from the center of the upright. The distance between
both holes is taken from the caliper design.
Mountings points on the upright
FRONT UPRIGHT
546.76
Z
X
361.96
5.74
557.33
Z
X
166.36
15.83
533.08
Z
105.09
61.23
REAR UPRIGHT
542.48
Z 350.19
X -1610.25
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187
541.11
Z
160.16
X -1590.25
543.67
Z
258.04
X -1705.24
Features of the design, same for both front and rear uprights:
In the front upright, it was not possible to include tie rod mounting
bracket as part of the upright as a single part, so the upright was
divided into two parts and the bracket will be attached externally to
the single piece upright by strong weldments.
The upper a-arm mounting bracket is tilted according to the plane of
the a-arms to prevent the collision of the arms with upright in case of
bump and droop.
A step of 2mm is given in the housing for the bearing made in the
upright to prevent the axial movement of the bearing.
The dimension of the diameter of the housing is chosen with proper
tolerances as the bearing is in interference fit with the housing.
FRONT UPRIGHT
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188
Brakes Caliper
mountings
Separate
Attachment for Tie
rod mounting
FRONT VIEW OF FRONT LEFT UPRIGHT
Tilted Bracket
for Upper Aarm Mounting
Bracket for Lower

A-arm Mounting
SIDE VIEW OF FRONT LEFT UPRIGHT
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189
Housing for
bearing which is
in interference fit
with upright.
A step of 2mm is
given to avoid
axial movement
of the bearing
THREE-D VIEW OF FRONT LEFT UPRIGHT
Two holes
provided for
adjustment of tie
rod for two
different
cornering radii of
6m and 8m.
SEPARATE ATTACHMENT BRACKET FOR TIE-ROD MOUNTING
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190
REAR UPRIGHT
Brake calipers
mountings
bracket for
lower a-arm
mounting
FRONT VIEW OF REAR LEFT UPRIGHT
Tilted bracket for

upper a-arm
mounting
Ends of the bracket for

lower a-arm mounting is
tapered
SIDE VIEW OF REAR LEFT UPRIGHT
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191
Housing for
bearing in which
bearing is in
interference fit
with upright.
Separate Toe-rod
mounting
bracket
A step of 2mm
given for bearing
SEPARATE TOE-ROD MOUNTING BRACKET
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11.2.4
Stress analysis of the CAD model on
Simulation Express Analysis Wizard
After the modeling of the Cad of the upright, the next task done is the
analysis of the upright under the loading scenario of the forces as
calculated in 10.1.1. The analysis is done in the Simulation Express
Analysis Wizard in SolidWorks. The Fixture and forces are specified by us
in the wizard. It itself does the required meshing and by Finite Element
Analysis, calculates the minimum Factor of Safety present in the
component. Simulation Xpress uses the maximum von Mises stress
criterion to calculate the factors of safety. This criterion states that a
ductile material starts to yield when the equivalent stress (von Mises
stress) reaches the yield strength of the material. The yield strength is
defined as a material property. Simulation Xpress calculates the factor of
safety at a point by dividing the yield strength by the equivalent stress at
that point.
Analysis of FRONT UPRIGHT
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1.78.
strength.
Analysis of REAR UPRIGHT
1.54.
Material used is AISI 4140 due to its high yield strength. Also, only in some
tiny portions, yellow shades are there otherwise in most of the area it is
only blue and green. Every possible effort has been made to cut out the
extra material, keeping FOS in mind. It would be manufactured using CNC
machines for its intricate details and least possible error.
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11.2.5
material
In the following optimized designs of front and rear uprights, every
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195
FRONT UPRIGHT
Stress members
introduced to
bear the loads as
well as adding
less to the
weight.
removing excess
material
Excess material
removal by
addition of
features like
slots
3-D VIEW OF OPTIMIZED DESIGN OF FRONT LEFT UPRIGHT
possible error.
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197
REAR UPRIGHT
Trusses
introduced to
bear the loads as
well as adding
less to the
Removing excess
material
possible error.
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11.3
Bell crank
Bell crank plays an important role as it transfers the force due to the
weight of the vehicle to the shock absorbers in case of bump and droop. In
the designing of a bell crank, the focus is on giving it structural strength
and designing it in minimum amount of material. In its designing, the
difficult part was to tackle the multi-planar forces acting on it from
shockers, push rod and Anti roll bars.
11.3.1
The forces acting on the Bell crank at different mounting points are
determined by balancing forces and moments and by considering certain
assumptions. This determination of forces has been done in the section
8.1:
FRONT BELLCRANK
FP (force applied by the pushrod) = 2261.62 N
FARB = 3000 N
Fshocks = 1600 N
REAR BELLCRANK
FP (force applied by the pushrod) = -3730 N
FARB = 3000 N
Fshocks = 2500 N
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11.3.2
199
The material chosen for Bell crank is AISI 1020. It has been decided to
improve the yield strength and other properties of the material by
hardening it by heat treatment. This step increases the yield strength of
the material up to 1.5 times of its original yield strength. The strength of
the bell crank is taken to be high to tackle the multi-planar forces acting
on it from the anti roll bars, shockers and push rod.
Yield Strength : ~500 MPa (Approx.)
Density : 7850 Kg/m3
Property
Hardened AISI 1020
Al 6351
Yield Strength
~500 MPa
150 MPa
Density
7850 Kg/m3
2700 Kg/m3
Heat Hardened AISI 1020 is heavier than Al6351 with its density being
3 times of that of Al but its yield strength is also times of yield strength
of Al.
Its properties are used in giving high structural strength to the bell
crank with minimization of the weight.
AISI 1020 can be easily welded, which is an essential property required
by us.
AISI 4140 was also considered, but its unavailability in form of plates
was a hindrance in using it.
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11.3.3
200
For making the CAD model of Bell crank we need to consider the
geometric constraints which are due to the mounting points of pushrod,
Anti Roll Bar & Shock absorber on bell crank and mounting point of bell
crank on chassis. Besides these certain things are kept in mind while
deciding the other basic dimensions of the bell crank:
-
Firstly, the middle plane of the bell crank is identified from which the
designing will start.
The thickness of the bell crank is so chosen such that either pushrod or
Anti Roll Bar will not collide with it in case of bump or droop.
Bell Crank Pivot Points:
Front Bell Crank
Shock Absorber mounting on Bell crank -
273.77
Z 669.92
X 0
Anti Roll Bar mounting on Bell crank -
320.66
Z 547.85
X 0
Pushrod mounting on Bell crank -
336.72
Z 601.17
X 0
Bell crank mounting on Chassis -
270.00
Z 580.00
X 0
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201
Rear Bell Crank
Shock Absorber mounting on Bell crank -
238.81
Z 399.77
X -1503.12
Anti Roll Bar mounting on Bell crank -
268.64
Z 377.98
X -1490.28
Pushrod mounting on Bell crank -
338.32
Z 322.19
X -1502.84
Bell crank mounting on Chassis -
310.00
340.00
X
-1540.00
Features of the Design:

The following features have been incorporated in design of both front and
rear bell crank:
-
The bell crank is designed keeping in account that the attachment of

bell crank with chassis will be done by double row deep groove
bearing.
As the bell crank rotates about the pivot point at its chassis mounting,
the use of double groove bearing enables the free rotation of the bell
crank about the pivot axis.

For incorporating this in design, housing is modeled in the bell crank
which holds the bearing by means of interference fit.

At certain places of high stresses, side support is given in between the
plates to prevent the deformation under loads.
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FRONT BELLCRANK
202
Damper mounting
on Bell crank
Anti Roll Bar

mounting on Bell
crank
Bell crank
mounting on
chassis
Pushrod mounting
on Bell crank
FRONT VIEW OF THE FRONT LEFT BELL CRANK
Designed in form
of plates with
optimum
clearance
Housing made to accommodate

the deep groove bearing
Side supports
given to
prevent the
deformation of
plates under
loads
3-D VIEW OF THE FRONT LEFT BELL CRANK
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3-D MODEL OF FRONT REAR BELL CRANK WITH THE BEARING
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204
REAR BELLCRANK
Damper mounting
point on the Bell
crank
Bell crank mounting

point on the Chassis
Anti Roll Bar

mounting point on
the Bell crank
Pushrod mounting
point on the Bell
crank
FRONT VIEW OF REAR LEFT BELL CRANK
Housing made to
accommodate the
deep groove
bearing
3-D VIEW OF REAR LEFT BELL CRANK
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205
Designed in
form of
plates with
optimum
clearance
Side
supports
given to
prevent the
deformation
of plates
under loads
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11.3.4
STRESS ANALYSIS
206
OF THE
CAD
MODEL ON
SIMULATION
The analysis of the bell crank under the loading scenario of the forces as
Analysis Wizard in SolidWorks. The Fixture and forces are specified by us
in the wizard. It itself does the required meshing and by Finite Element
Analysis, calculates the minimum Factor of Safety present in the
component. Simulation Xpress uses the maximum von Mises stress
criterion to calculate the factors of safety. This criterion states that a
ductile material starts to yield when the equivalent stress (von Mises
stress) reaches the yield strength of the material. The yield strength is
defined as a material property. Simulation Xpress calculates the factor of
safety at a point by dividing the yield strength by the equivalent stress at
that point.
Analysis of FRONT BELL CRANK
VON MISES STRESS ANALYSIS OF FRONT LEFT BELL CRANK
Von Mises stress analysis of front bell crank showing factor of safety (FOS)
= 1.73.
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Material used is AISI 1020, whose yield strength would be further

improved by heat treatment. Also, only in some tiny portions, yellow
shades are there otherwise its only blue and green. Every possible effort
has been made to cut out the extra material, keeping FOS in mind.
Analysis of REAR BELL CRANK
VON MISES STRESS ANALYSIS OF REAR LEFT BELL CRANK
Von mises stress analysis showing FOS = 1.68

Material used is AISI 1020, whose yield strength would be further
improved by heat treatment. Also, only in some tiny portions, yellow
shades are there otherwise its only blue and green. Every possible effort
has been made to cut out the extra material, keeping FOS in mind.
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11.3.5
material.
In the following optimized designs of front and rear Bell crank, every
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209
FRONT BELL CRANK
Excess material
removal by
addition of
features like
slots
Trusses
introduced to
bear the loads as
well as adding
less to the
3-D MODEL OF FRONT REAR BELL CRANK WITH THE BEARING
Every possible effort has been made to cut out the extra material, keeping
the optimum FOS in mind. The mass of the final design is 280 grams.
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210
REAR BELL CRANK
Removing excess
material
Trusses
introduced to
bear the loads as
well as adding
less to the
keeping the optimum FOS in mind. The mass of the final design is 269
grams.
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11.4
A-Arms
A-arm play an important role as it transfers the force due to the weight of
the vehicle to the shock absorbers in case of bump and droop. In the
designing of A-arms, the focus is on giving it structural strength and
designing it in minimum amount of material.
11.4.1
The forces acting on the A-arms are determined by balancing forces and
moments and by considering certain assumptions. This determination of
forces has been done in the section 8.1:
FRONT A-arms
Fku = 4707.23 N
Fmu = -1066.28N
Fkl = force on front lower a-arm = -10847.033 N
Fml = force on rear lower a-arm = 2214.77 N
REAR A-arms
Fku =3659 N
Fmu =90.88 N
Fkl = force on front lower a-arm =-504.018N
Fml = force on rear lower a-arm = -3795.41N
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11.4.2
212
The material chosen for the A-arms is AISI 316 Stainless Steel. Properties
of AISI 316:
Tensile Strength: 580 MPa (Approx.)
Density: 8000 Kg/m3
Property
AISI 316 SS
AISI 1020
AISI 304 SS
Tensile Strength
580 MPa
420 MPa
500MPa
Density
8000 Kg/m3
7850 Kg/m3
8000 Kg/m3
AISI 316 Stainless Steel is easily available in form of tubes and it has
higher value of tensile strength than other options available.
No major difference in density of the above specified materials so, with
respect to weight nothing is problem.
It is ensured that AISI 316 SS is easily machinable and appropriate
welding options are there.
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11.4.3
213
For making the CAD model of A-arms we need to consider the geometric
constraints which are due to the mounting points of A-arms on upright and
chassis. Besides these certain things are kept in mind while designing the
a-arm assembly:
-
Deciding how a-arms will be mounted to the upright as then only we

can design mounting of a-arm on upright.
A-arm mounting Points:
Front A-arms

315.00
LH
-Y
-Z
300.00
325.00
-X
319.00
135.00
-135.00
-Y
270.00
285.00
-Z
155.00
-X
135.00
161.00
-150.00
-Y
-Y
546.76
-Z
361.96
-X
5.74
557.33
-Z
-X
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214
Rear A-arms

275.00
LH
-Y
285.00
-Z
320.00
315.00
- X -1450.00
-1750.00
-Y
285.00
-Z
275.00
172.00
155.00
- X -1450.00
-1750.00
-Y
542.41
-Z
350.19
- X -1610.08
-Y
542.17
-Z
160.16
- X -1590.08
Features of the Design:

The following features have been incorporated in design of both front and
rear A-arms
-
For the mounting of A-arms on the upright, we are using a spherical

bearing.
Housing is made separately of the same material as that of a-arms
which will house the spherical bearing.
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The housing will be welded to the a-arms.

The dimensions of the housing are chosen to minimize the material.
Slots are made in the end of the a-arm so that it fits into the housing
and then can be welded. This will give strength to the joint.
Slot made in the
end of the a-arm
to join with the
housing
FRONT VIEW OF THE A-ARMS
Welding of the housing

and the a-arm
The Spherical bearing
will fit here by
interference fit.
3-D VIEW OF THE A-ARM + HOUSING
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3-D VIEW OF THE SEPARATE HOUSING
11.4.4
STRESS ANALYSIS
OF THE
CAD
MODEL ON
SIMULATION
The analysis of the A-arms is done under the loading scenario of the forces
as calculated in 10.4.1.
Factor of Safety =
1.63
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11.5
11.5.1
218
Anti Roll Bar

When we talk of force analysis of Anti Roll Bars, we basically refer to the
torque on lever arm ends through anti drop link and torsion stress on anti
roll bar rod. Forces on anti drop link are mainly compressive or tensional.
The forces acting on the lever arm at its two opposite mounting points
with anti drop link are determined by SusProg 3D calculations optimizing
forces and also the required anti roll bar stiffness. This determination of
forces has been done in the section 8.1:
FRONT ANTI ROLL BAR
FRONT ANTI ROLL BAR STIFFNESS = 597.2283049 Nm/deg twist
Nominal Rate = 186.7936827 N/mm

Maximum Force on anti drop link at an angle of 144.56 degrees =
6140.658 N
Mounting Points
Bell crank and anti drop link x
0.00
320.66
547.85
Anti drop link and Lever arm x
-18.75
312.50
216.48
Lever arm and ARB rod x
-100.00
307.50
115.00
Inner diameter rod ARB rod = 22.48 mm

Outer diameter rod ARB rod = 26.70 mm
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REAR ANTI ROLL BAR

REAR ANTI ROLL BAR STIFFNESS = 732.0255009 Nm/deg twist
Nominal Rate = 238.3849111 N/mm
Maximum Force on anti drop link at an angle of 144.56 degrees = 7497.228
N
Mounting Points
Bell crank and anti drop link x
-1490.28
268.64
377.98
Anti drop link and Lever arm x
-1320.00
315.00
110.00
Lever arm and ARB rod x
-1331.54
319.00
309.67
Inner diameter rod ARB rod = 24.30 mm

Outer diameter rod ARB rod = 33.40 mm
11.5.2
The material chosen for both the anti roll bar rod is AISI 304, which has
high shear modulus as compared to aluminium and other steel family
alloys thus giving high torsion resistance. Properties of AISI 304 are:
Yield Strength: 215 MPa (Approx.)
Shear modulus: 86 GPa
Density: 7850 Kg/m3
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Property
AISI 4140
AISI 304
AlSI 4130
Shear modulus
80 GPa
86 GPa
80 GPa
Yield Strength
900 MPa
215 MPa
435 MPa
Density
7850 Kg/m3
8000 Kg/m3
7850 Kg/m3
AISI 304 has same density as that of AISI 4140 and AISI 4130 but has
more torsional resistance, which is the most critical and prominent
factor in deciding its material.
As far as shear modulus (which is about times the youngs modulus) is
concerned, youngs modulus of AISI 304 is definitely less as compared
to that of AISI 4140 and AISI 4130 but is sufficient from our design
point of view requirement.
Moreover, AISI 304 is available in tubular form but AISI 4140 is
available in solid rods and AISI 4130 is not available in the market.
properties are used in giving high torsional resistance and comparable
youngs modulus.
Material selection for lever arm

Yield Strength: ~500 MPa (Approx.)
Density: 7850 Kg/m3
Property
Hardened AISI 1020
Al 6351
Yield Strength
~500 MPa
150 MPa
Density
7850 Kg/m3
2700 Kg/m3
Heat Hardened AISI 1020 is heavier than Al 6351 with its density being
3 times of that of Al but its yield strength is also times of yield strength
of Al.
Its properties are used in giving high structural strength to the lever
arm with minimization of the weight.
AISI 1020 can be easily welded.
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11.5.3
For making the CAD model of Lever arm, certain things have to be kept in
mind like angle at which anti drop link would apply force to the lever arm.
Five holes have been made in the lever arm, two on either sides of the
hole obtained from the calculations. Lever arm is fixed to the ARB though
strong weldments. The circular cylinder of lever arm joining the ARB rod is
being made comparatively bigger as it has to withstand the weldments
too. Slots have been made in the lever arm to reduce the excessive
material contributing only to the weight. Inner diameter of the bigger
cylindrical portion of the lever arm is equal to the outer diameter of the
ARB rod. Diameter of the smaller holes to which anti drop link would be
screwed is equal to 8 mm.
Features of the design, same for both front and rear Anti Roll Bar:
In rear lever arm, there is a step of 1 mm to provide optimum thickness to

the portion of hole.
Anti drop link is attached to tube adapter and rod ends so as to increase
or decrease its effective length.
Anti Roll Bar rod is being attached to the chassis through anti roll bar
bushes so that athe ARB rod would only undergo torsion motion.
Polyurathene bushes would be used instead of rubber due to the fact that
rubber may contribute to the torsional resistance of ARB rod due to its
comparatively soft and sticky nature.
Stress analysis of the CAD model on

Simulation Express Analysis Wizard
11.5.4
After the modeling of the Cad of the LEVER arm, the next task done is the
analysis of the upright under the loading scenario of the forces as
Analysis Wizard in SolidWorks.
The Fixture and forces are specified by us in the wizard. It itself does the
required meshing and by Finite Element Analysis, calculates the minimum
Factor of Safety present in the component. The Factor of safety for the
stress analysis is chosen in the range of 1.5-1.8.
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Analysis of FRONT lever arm

Hole to which anti
drop link will be
screwed through
bolt
Cylindrical surface
to which ARB rod
will be welded
FOS =1.7
1.70.
Mass = 107.90 gm
Material is hardened AISI 1020 alloy steel.
strength. It would be manufactured using CNC machines for its intricate
details and least possible error.
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Analysis of REAR lever arm
FOS =
1.558
1.558
Mass = 232.60 gm
Material is hardened AISI 1020 alloy steel.
11.5.5
material
of the design is initiated. The FOS and weight of the component are taken
as prime consideration for design optimization. The weight is reduced and
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224
then the value of minimum FOS present in the component is checked by

Simulation Express Analysis Wizard. The value of the FOS should lie in the
range as taken; in our case we have taken a range of 1.5-1.8 as optimum.
If the FOS of any region is very high than the optimum range then next
action taken is removal of material. In the region with lower FOS, material
is added. The material removal is done by addition of features like slots.
The material addition is done by addition of features like fillet. The mass
of the component is taken into account at every step of material removal
and addition.
ARB rod will be

welded into it
Slots being made to

reduce excess
materials
Anti drop link will be

attached here
Front Lever Arm
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Rear Lever Arm

Step of 1
mm
Rear Lever Arm
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Front Anti Roll Bar Assembly
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Rear Anti Roll Bar Assembly
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11.6
228
Miscellaneous
11.6.1
Pushrod
PUSHROD ASSEMBLY WITH TUBE ADAPTER AND ROD-ENDS
Pushrod directly connects a-arms with the bell crank thus transferring the
force from the tires to the dampers via bell crank in case of bump or
droop.
The force in the pushrod is calculated in section 8.1

Fp (Front) = 2261 N
Fp(rear) = -3730 N
Material used for rod is AISI 316 Stainless Steel as used for a-arms, due
to its easy availability and good properties.
The Designing involves consideration of features like length of the rod,

inner and outer diameter.
After stress analysis and optimization of the design, the inner and outer
diameters of the rod are finalized.
Inner diameter = 16mm.
11.6.2
Outer diameter = 19mm.
Tube Adapter
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Tube Adapters are used at the ends of a-arm rods and push rods to join
them to rod-ends. The material of the Tube Adapter is same as that of rod,
which is AISI 316 Stainless steel. The Tube Adapter will be welded to the
rod.
11.6.3
Brackets
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Brackets are used to mount different components. They are welded to the
component on which the other part is going to mount.
The forces acting on the brackets are same as the force acting on the
part mounted on them.
The material of the brackets is AISI 4140 Steel for its very high
strength.
The Brackets are designed considering the following :
Required dimensions of the bracket.
It should have enough clearance from the part.
It should be profiled for easy and better weldments.
LEFT FRONT PUSHROD BRACKET
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LEFT FRONT SHOCKER BRACKET
LEFT FRONT BELL CRANK BRACKET
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LEFT REAR BELL CRANK BRACKET
LEFT REAR PUSHROD BRACKET
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LEFT REAR SHOCKER BRACKET
LEFT FRONT UPPER FRONT A-ARM BRACKET
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11.6.4
Rod-ends
Rod end is used at the end of tube adapter. Nut-bolts are screwed into it. It
is also used to change the effective length of the rod.
11.6.5
Bearings
Deep Groove bearing to be used in Bell crank mounting to chassis
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Spherical Bearing to be used in A-arm mounting to Upright
11.6.6
Wheel and tire
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11.6.7
Shocker
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11.7
11.7.1
237
Assemblies
Front Wheel Assembly
FRONT WHEEL ASSEMBLY
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11.7.2
238
Rear Wheel Assembly
Rear Wheel Assembly
11.7.3
Front Pushrod-bell crank-Shocker Assembly
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11.7.4
Rear bell crank-Shocker Assembly
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FUTURE SCOPE
ACTIVE Suspension
A passive suspension system has the ability to store energy via a spring
and to dissipate it via a damper. Its parameters are generally fixed, being
chosen to achieve a certain level of compromise between road holding,
load carrying and comfort.
An active suspension system has the ability to store, dissipate and to
introduce energy to the system. It may vary its parameters depending
upon operating conditions and can have knowledge other than the strut
deflection the passive system is limited to.
The basic idea is to use a computer, sensors, a pump, and hydraulic
cylinders at each corner to get the car to do things never before
possible, such as leaning into a curve like a motorcycle, compensating for
the dive of braking and the squat of acceleration, and raising and lowering
its wheels individually to make pavement imperfections seem to
disappear. It's even been suggested that a single tire could be lifted off
the road for changing.
Active suspension systems (also known as Computerized Ride Control)
consist of the following components: a computer or two (sometimes called
an electronic control unit, or ECU, for short), adjustable shocks and
springs, a series of sensors at each wheel and throughout the car, and an
actuator or servo atop each shock and spring. The components may vary
slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer, but these are the basic parts
that make up an active suspension system.
Active or adaptive suspension is an automotive technology that
controls the vertical movement of the wheels via an onboard system
rather than the movement being determined entirely by the surface on
which the car is driving. The system therefore virtually eliminates body
roll and
pitch
variation
in
many
driving
situations
including cornering, accelerating, and braking.
This technology allows car manufacturers to achieve a higher degree of
both ride quality and car handling by keeping the tires perpendicular to
the road in corners, allowing for much higher levels of grip and control.
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An onboard computer detects body movement from sensors located

throughout the vehicle and, using data calculated by opportune control
techniques, controls the action of the suspension.
Active suspensions can be generally divided into two main classes: pure
active suspensions and semi-active suspensions.
Arrangement of an active suspension shows a typical arrangement of the

active suspension. In general, it is composed of:
Sensors various sensors are installed around the vehicle to monitor

the vehicle conditions and driver activities.
Electronic control unit (ECU) all the sensor signals are fed to a
microcomputer, also known as ECU. With the aid of a programmed map
memory, calculations are made as to what adjustment should be made
to the suspension.
Actuators the instructions from ECU are converted into electrical

signals and directed to various actuators to control the suspension.
Hydraulic actuators are most often used for their compact volume and
light weight.
Pure Active Suspensions
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The first to be
separate actuators
independent force on
improve the riding
drawbacks of this
are high cost, added
the apparatus needed
the need for rather
and repairs on some
243
introduced, use
which can exert an
the suspension to
characteristics. The
design (at least today)
complication/mass of
for its operation, and
frequent maintenance
implementations.
Different from semi-active suspensions, a fully active suspension does not

change the damper characteristics, but add a force generator in parallel
with the passive damper and spring as shown.
Therefore, the suspension can not only dissipate energy, but also inject
energy into the system. That is why we call it fully active suspension.
Normally the power of the force generator is supplied by the engine;
therefore, compared with semi-active suspensions, active suspensions
have higher cost and power consumptions. But as a return, it has better
performance than semi-active ones. Depending on the response speed of
the actuator, there are fast active and slow active suspensions. Slow
active suspensions have low cost and power consumption, but the
performance is not as good as fast active ones.
Semi-active Suspension
These systems can only change the viscous damping coefficient of
the shock absorber, and do not add energy to the suspension system.
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Though limited in their intervention (for example, the control force can
never have different direction than that of the current speed of the
suspension), semi-active suspensions are less expensive to design and
consume far less energy. In recent times, research in semi-active
suspensions has continued to advance with respect to their capabilities,
narrowing the gap between semi-active and fully active suspension
systems.
The term semi-active suspension is often used to refer to a controlled
damper under closed-loop control, which means the control is realized by
varying the dampers damping rate as shown.
A semi-active suspension is
energy. According to
configurations, semi-active
the following categories.
only capable of dissipating

different damper
dampers can be classified into
Dampers with controllable orifice

The damping force in a shock absorber is generated when the oil flow
through the hydraulic orifices in the damper valve of the shock absorber.
The smaller the orifice is, the larger damping force can be generated.
Therefore, we can control the opening of the orifice to adjust the shockers
damping force.
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Dampers with controllable fluid:
If the hydraulic orifice is fixed, we can vary the oil viscosity to control the
damping force. The bigger the oil viscosity is, the larger damping force
can be generated. ER (Electro rheological) or MR (Magneto-rheological)
fluid can be used for this purpose. There are polarizable particles of a few
microns in the oil. When electrical of magnetic field is applied to the oil,
the particles will be polarized and distributed in a sequential order as
shown.
Work principle of electro-rheological & magneto rheological dampers:

Particles in an MR/ER fluid left without & right with applied
magnetic/electrical field.
As a result, the oil viscosity changes, depending on the strength
of the electrical/magnetic field.
ANTI ROLL BAR

During cornering, it is desirable that the stiffness of the stabilizer bar be
increased. If the stabilizer bar is too compliant, the vehicle will not
respond well
during
cornering,
increasing
the
likelihood of
rolling
over.
However
if the
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stabilizer bar is too stiff, the ride and handling will be compromised during
normal vehicle operation. Therefore, it is desirable that the stiffness of the
stabilizer bar be variable to adjust for changing driving conditions.
Another option is to use active anti roll bar. Active Anti Roll bar is new
high tech system which is now being used in costly passenger cars.
Another advancement that can be made in future is bladed lever arm
through which effective torsion stiffness can be altered by just rotating
the bladed lever arm. No need for hole/s on the lever arm.
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REFERENCES
Books
Race Car Vehicle Dynamics (RCVD) by William F. Milliken And

Douglas L. Milliken
Tune To Win by Caroll Smith
Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics - Thomas d Gillespie
The Automotive Chassis.
Internet
http://www.lumenique.com/Cars/mcoupe/modifications/antirollbars.h
tm
fsae.com/eve/forums/a/tpc/f/125607348/m/510101683
http://www.carbibles.com/suspension_bible.html
http://www.jaytorborg.com/anti-roll_bars.htm
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camber angle
www.ozebiz.com.au/racetech/theory/align.html
http://www.roversd1.nl/sd1web/suspension.html
www.rctek.com/technical/handling/camber_angle_basics.html
http://autoracing.suite101.com/article.cfm/race_car_wheel_camber_
angles
http://www.blackboots.co.uk/tech-cambertheory.php
http://www.blackboots.co.uk/tech-camberbasics.php
http://www.blackboots.co.uk/tech-kingpininclination.php
http://www.rctek.com/technical/handling/caster_angle_camber_chan
ge.html
http://www.gtsparkplugs.com/WheelOffsetCalc.html
http://www.rx7club.com/showthread.php?t=619446
http://www.miata.net/garage/offset.htm
Optimum pdf
-http://www.optimumg.com/OptimumGWebSite/Documents/TechTips/
Springs&Dampers_Tech_Tip_1.pdf
http://www.optimumg.com/OptimumGWebSite/Documents/TechTips/
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FSAE Forums http://fsae.com/groupee?s=763607348&cdra=Y
http://www.fd3s.net/anti-sway_bars.html#INT
http://journals.pepublishing.com/content/b330304481r6m03l/fulltext
.pdf
http://www.kangaloosh.com/cms/Welcome/Gettingstarted/Basicman
ual/tabid/60/Default.aspx
http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6651991/description.html
http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:eccEhkUlzsJ:www.fisita.com/students/congress/sc08papers/f2008sc012.p
df+application+of+active+anti+roll+bar+systems+for+enhancing
+yaw+stability&hl=en&gl=in&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgukNEhjNnP36
5nm37ptvZ2IC9isIgeHsHelKlWK3d81D_OMBvkX78auu814mlW1nzTgVv2pS3g-54QE7erQmcbVa6BCWT5SFvSebh1HQAVa4l0tDwdY0yDpFFZfwZqilPZa8&s
ig=AHIEtbRO1BXeBT_P433gBdnMmpB-MXCudg
http://www.f1technical.net/forum/viewtopic.php?
f=11&t=7716&sid=46cd9d560bcc128ad4930769996e5f55
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/ydv_navdeep-175373leaf-spring-lecture-05-springrelations-pjz-science-technology-pptpowerpoint/
http://insideracingtechnology.com/tirebkexerpt2.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingpin_(automotive_part)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(vehicle)
http://www.circletrack.com/techarticles/antidive_suspension_tech_pa
rameters/index.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slip_angle
http://www.auto-ware.com/setup/slp_hndl.htm
http://home.scarlet.be/~be067749/58/c1/index.htm
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Understeer
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oversteer
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FSAE IIT Delhi

FSAE IIT Delhi

The primary goal of the suspension in the context of a Formula SAE

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SOLID BEAM AXLE.......................................................................................... 11

SWING AXLE SUSPENSION...........................................................................12

EQUAL LENGTH DOUBLE A-ARM..................................................................14

UNEQUAL LENGTH DOUBLE A-ARM SUSPENSION....................................15

1.1.1 Neutral Camber...........................................................................................18

1.2.1 Neutral Caster.............................................................................................. 23

1.3.1 Neutral Toe Angle........................................................................................26

KINGPIN (KPI) ANGLE.....................................................................................28

1.4.1 Purpose of Kpi inclination..........................................................................28

Anti Dive and Anti Squat...............................................................................29

1.5.1 Methods to achieve Anti-dive and Anti-squat........................................30

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2. SELECTION OF WHEEL BASE AND TRACKWIDTH..............................................33

Salient Features for Larger Rear Track Width............................................33

Salient Features for Larger Front Track Width...........................................33

Procedure followed to determine Track Width..........................................33

3. TIRE and RIM SELECTION.................................................................................35

3.2.1 Aspect Ratio.................................................................................................35

Considerations for Selection.........................................................................39

3.5.1 Dry Tires....................................................................................................... 39

3.6.1 Dry Tires....................................................................................................... 40

3.7.1 Wheel Offset................................................................................................42

4. ROLL CENTER & MOVEMENT OPTIMIZATION....................................................47

Effects of height of Roll Center....................................................................47

5. FINALIZATION OF A ARM POINTS......................................................................49

5.1.1 Front A Arm Geometry................................................................................51

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Verification of Susprog Results....................................................................68

Push Rod/Pull Rod........................................................................................... 69

6.4.1 Effects at Lower frequencies.....................................................................70

6.9.1 What is damping?........................................................................................ 76

Shortlisted Shock Absorbers..................................................................88

7. ANTI ROLL BARS.............................................................................................. 93

7.1.1 Main Functions.............................................................................................93

7.2.1 Negative Aspects of Body Roll..................................................................94

Types of Anti Roll Bar.....................................................................................94

7.3.1 U-shaped Anti Roll Bar...............................................................................95

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Factors that Determine Stiffness.................................................................99

Components of U- shaped anti roll bar.......................................................99

Tubular Anti Roll Bar....................................................................................101

Some important Parameters to be used in Calculations........................102

7.8.1 Roll Gradient..............................................................................................102

Calculation Theory of Anti Roll Bars..........................................................106

7.9.1 Formulas for Required ARB Stiffness Required....................................106

7.15 Future Prospects...........................................................................................114

8. SHOCKER AND ANTI ROLL BAR RESULTS FROM SusProg3D...........................116

8.1.1 Shocker and Anti Roll Bar Geometry......................................................116

8.2.1 Shocker and Anti Roll Bar Geometry......................................................126

Final Calculations......................................................................................... 136

8.3.1 Spring rate.................................................................................................136

Final Damping Curve....................................................................................141

BEARING SELECTION................................................................................ 153

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Choosing the material...........................................................................160

Designing the CAD model on SolidWorks...........................................161

11.1.4 Stress analysis of the CAD model on Simulation Express Analysis

Optimization of the Design by removing excess material..............168

11.2 Upright........................................................................................................... 172