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Chapter 9

Analytic geometry in the space


This is a short introduction of geometry in the space. We will study just the necessary in
order to understand the following chapters. We recommend the reader to study the
appendix about planed geometry.
9.1- Vectors
9.1.1- Basic definition of a vector
The definition of a vector in the space is the same as in the plane.
Definition 1
A vector is the data of a direction, way and magnitude (we say also intensity or length).
And we have the same properties, the same definitions. For example if u and v are two
vectors, we can add these two vectors, subtract them and multiply each one by a real
number. If a and b are two real numbers we have:
a(u + v) = au + bv
(a + b)u = au + bu
For any vector u and v we can find three points A, B and C such that:
u = AB and v = BC and so we have:
u + v = AB + BC = AC (1)
Also we can find three points R, S and T such that:
u = RS
v = RT .
Definition 2

We say that u and v are collinear or proportional if R, S and T are aligned.


Otherwise we say that the 2 vectors are independent.

Independent vectors

Collinear vectors

Figure 1
Property 1
If u and v are collinear there exists a real number a such that: u = av
If R, S and T are nonaligned so to construct the vector RS + RT we draw the
parallelogram RSUT and RS + RT = RU .
In the figure 2 R, S, T are given you have to construct U.

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Figure 2

9.1.2- Coordinates of a vector in the space


In the space a vector or a point has three coordinates: x-coordinate, y-coordinate and zcoordinate.
In this course we will always considerate an orthogonal and unitary system of
coordinates. It means the three vectors of the base are orthogonal each other and have a
length equal to1 unity. This is an orthonormated system.

H
a

Cartesian system of
axes.

i
c

x
A
Figure 3
Definition 3
The coordinates of the point A or of the vector OA are (a,b,c) (See figure 3). It means
that:
OA = ai + b j + ck

A is the orthogonal projection of A on the plane (O, i , j ). The coordinates of A are


(a, b, 0).
Property 2
Let A( xA , y A , z A ) and B( xB , yB , zB ) , so the coordinates of AB are:

AB = ( xB xA , yB y A , zB z A ) (2)
If C is the middle of [AB] the coordinates of C are:
xA + xB y A + yB z A + z B
,
,

(3)
2
2
2

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If u is a vector with the coordinates (a, b, c) and if is a real number so the


coordinates of u are ( a, b, c) .
Work the exercises 1 and 2.
9.2- Length or magnitude of a vector
Definition 4
If v is a vector, its magnitude (or length) is denoted by v or v . If we consider a vector

AB , we can write only AB to designate the distance from A to B.


Let (a, b, c) be the coordinates of a vector u . We are going to calculate the length of u .
To do that let u = OA as in the figure 3.
OAA and OAH are right triangles. So we can use the Pythagorean theorem:
For the triangle OAH right on H we have:
OH 2 + A ' H 2 = OA' 2 so OA '2 = a 2 + b 2
The triangle OAA is right on A and AA '2 = c 2 so we have:

OA2 = OA '2 + AA '2 = a 2 + b 2 + c 2

So we have:
Property 3
Let (a, b, c) be the coordinates of a vector u .

u = a 2 + b2 + c 2

(4)

9.3- Equations for a straight line


9.3.1- Parametric equations
Definition 5
We can define a straight line passing through a point A and with the direction the vector
u as the set of all the points M such that:
AM = tu where t describes all the real numbers set.

A
Figure 4

Let ( xA , y A , z A ) be the coordinates of A and u =(a, b, c). We consider that M has the
coordinates ( x, y, z ) .
So lets write analytically that: AM = tu , so we have:

x x A = ta

y y A = tb that is
z z A = tc

x = at + x A
y = bt + y A

(5)

z = ct + z A

This last system is a system of parametric equations of the straight line (A, u ).

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Examples:

1- Let A(1,2,3) and u = ( 1 ,1,4). Find a system of parametric equations of the

straight line (A, u ).


2- Let A(3, 1 , 4) and B(1,5,1). Find a system of parametric equations of the
straight line (AB).
Solutions:
x = t + 1
1- y = t + 2

x = 2t + 3
2-

z = 4t + 3

y = 6t 1
z = 3t + 4

9.3.2- Symmetric equations


With the same notations as in 9.3.1

x x A = ta
y y A = tb
z z A = tc
Property 4
A straight line ( A, u ) with A( xA , y A , z A ) and u = (a, b, c) assuming that a, b and c are all
non null, can be described by the following system:
x xA y y A z z A
(6)
=
=
a
b
c
This is by definition a system of symmetric equations.
Remark:
If the line lies in one of the planes xy, xz or yz we cannot write such a system.
Example:
Find a system of symmetric equations of the line ( A, u ) where: A(3, 2,5) and

u = (1,1,1) .
Solution:
We have: x + 3 = y + 2 = z 5 .
Work the exercise 3
9.4- Plane: definition and equation
Definition 5a
A plane can be defined in the space with three nonaligned points A, B and C: the plane
(A, B, C) is the set of the points M such that:
AM = sAB + t AC ( s, t ) 2
Note: ( s, t )

means that r and s are both describing the real numbers set.

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Plane (A,B,C)

B
A

Figure 5
Definition 5b
We can define a plane with one point A and two director vectors u and v independent.
The plane ( A, u , v ) is the set of the points M such that:

AM = su + tv where s and t are two real numbers.


Important observation: Three points are always on a same plane. If these three points
are not aligned so there exists a unique plane which passes through these points.
Properties 5:
1- By definition two planes are parallel if they dont have any intersection or if
they are identical.
2- If two planes are not parallel so the intersection of these planes is a straight line.
With these considerations we can determine a system of parametric equations of a
plane.
Property 6
Let be A ( xA , y A , z A ) , u = (a, b, c) and v = (a ', b ', c ') . So for M ( x, y, z ) on the plane

( A, u , v ) we have:

x x A = sa + ta '
y y A = sb + tb '

(7)

z z A = sc + tc '
This is a system of parametric equations.
(We have that writing: AM = sAB + t AC )
Definition 6: A vector is orthogonal to a plane if this vector is orthogonal to all vectors
of this plane. Such vector is called a normal vector to the plane.
Properties 7:
1- If a vector is orthogonal to a plane all collinear vector is orthogonal too.
2- For each plane there exists a unitary vector (it means with length 1), orthogonal
to this plane.
3- There exists a unique plane orthogonal to a given non null vector and passing
through a given point.

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Figure 6
Work the exercise 4
9.5- Dot product
9.5.1- Definition- Analytic expression
Definition 7
By definition the dot product or the scalar product of u and v is defined by:

(8)

u . v = u v cos(u , v )

The properties stated in the plane are the same in the space. For more details see the
appendix. Nevertheless lets remind some important properties.
Properties 8
1) The dot product is symmetric: u.v = v.u
2) The dot product is bilinear, that means:

( )

(u + v).w = u.w + v.w and u .v = u.v


2

3) We have: u.u = u . We also write u or u 2 .


4) Let u and v be two non-null vectors then:

u v u.v = 0
Theorem 9:
1) If the components of u and v are ( x, y , z ) and ( x ', y ', z ') on a Cartesian orthogonal
and normal system of coordinates, so we have:
(9)
u.v = xx '+ yy '+ zz '
2) We have:
x = u.i y = u. j z = u.k (9b)
Proof:
We have:

v = x i + y j + z k

u =x i + y j + z k

So: u . v = (x i + y j + z k ).(x i + y j + z k )
Now we have to expand this product, but we have:
i 2 = j 2 = k 2 = 1 and i. j = i.k = j.k = 0
With these considerations we get the result.

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The formulas (9b) can be deduced applying (9), with i = (1,0,0); j = (0,1,0); k = (0,0,1)
Property 10
From the definition 7 and the theorem 9 we deduce that:
u.v
(10)
cos(u, v) =
u v
Work the exercises 5 and 6.
9.5.2- Cartesian equations of a plane defined with a normal vector
Lets consider a plane, a normal vector u = (a, b, c) of this plane, and passing through
the point A ( x A , y A , z A ) . A point M(x,y,z) belongs to this plane if and only if:

u and AM are orthogonal, so if and only if: u. AM = 0


So we have: AM = ( x xA , y y A , z z A ) . Then we have the following theorem.
Theorem 11
Let u = (a, b, c) be a non null vector and A( xA , y A , zC ) a point of the space, and P be the
plane orthogonal to u and passing through A, then for all points M ( x, y, z ) P , we
have:
a( x xA ) + b( y y A ) + c( z z A ) = 0 (11)
This is the Cartesian equation of this plane, we write usually:
ax + by + cz = k where k is a real number.
Example:

Let A(1,3,5) and u = (2, 4, 6) . Find a Cartesian equation of the plane orthogonal to u
and passing through A.
Solution:
Let M(x,y,z) so we have AM .u = 0 thus: 2( x 1) + 4( y 3) + 6( z 5) = 0
And we have: 2 x + 4 y + 6 z = 44 .
Work the exercises 7 and 8
9.5.3- Vector and scalar projection

Q
O

Figure 7a

O
Figure 7b

Definition 8
Let u = OP and v = OQ be two vectors of the space. Let Q be the orthogonal projected
of Q onto the line (OP). (See figure 7).
Then the vector OQ ' is the orthogonal projection of v onto the vector u . We denote

pu (v ) this vector. It is also the vector projection of v onto u .

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The scalar projection is the magnitude of the vector projection: pu (v) .


Remark
A projection is not necessarily orthogonal; another direction of projection may be
considered. So if we say simply projection, we must be sure about the context to
know the exact nature of that.
Property 12
We have:

pu (v ) =

u.v
u

(12a)

pu (v) =

and

u.v
u

(12b)

Proof:
Let be the angle between u and v . So we have:
OQ ' = OQ cos (Case of the figure 7a)
Or OQ ' = OQ cos( ) = OQ cos (Case of figure 7b).
We have:
u.v = (OP)(OQ) cos
Then:
u.v u.v
u.v
(Case 7a) or OQ ' =
(case7b)
OQ ' =
=
OP
u
u
In the case a: u.v 0 because 0
In the case b: u.v 0 because
Then we have: OQ ' =
Note: We have:

u.v
u

u.v
u

= pu (v)

0 in case of an acute angle (figure a),

u.v
u

0 otherwise (figure

b).
Lets consider that the orientation on the line (OP ) is positive from O toward P.
If M is any point of this line we denote by OM the algebraic distance from O to M. This
the distance from O to M if the orientation from O to M is positive and the opposite if
this orientation is negative. For example OQ ' > 0 in the figure a, but in the figure b

OQ ' < 0 . And since the note we have: OQ ' =

u.v
u

In general we have: OM = OM n , where n is the unitary vector having the direction


of the line and the positive way.

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In our case we have: n =


Then we have: OQ ' =

u
u

u.v u
u u

u.v
u

Example
In a plane orthonormated Cartesian system we give a point A( xA , y A ) and the line L of
equation: ax + by = c , with a or b different of 0. Using a projection, prove that:

d ( A, L) =

axA + by A c

a 2 + b2
The symbol d ( A, L) means distance from A to L. This is by definition the shortest
distance between this point and this line, which is actually the distance from A to its
orthogonal projection onto L.
Hint: remember that the vector u = (a, b) is orthogonal to the line. The vector:
n=

u
u

1
a 2 + b2

( a, b)

is orthogonal to L and unitary.


Solution:
Lets do a figure:

A
M
P

Figure 8
The distance we want to calculate is AP. We cannot proceed directly because we do not
know the coordinates of P.
Let M(x,y) be a point of L. Then: AM = ( x xA , y y A ) .
The vector AP is the orthogonal projection of AM onto AP . Then we have:
AP. AM
AP =
AP
So:

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AP
. AM
AP

AP =
The vector

Thus:

AP
AP
is unitary and orthogonal to L. Then we have:
= n where = 1 .
AP
AP
AP

=
(a, b)
AP
a 2 + b2

AP =

AP =

a 2 + b2
1

[ a ( x x A ) + b( y y A ) ]

ax + by axA by A
a 2 + b2
The point M lies in the line L thus: ax + by = c , and then:
ax + by A c
(Because: x = x )
AP = d ( A, L) = A
2
2
a +b
Work the exercises 9 and 10.
9.6- Cross product
9.6.1- Definition
First we have to define an orientation in the space:
Definition 9
If the vectors i, j , k are oriented in the order thumb-index-major of your right hand, so
we say that the system (i, j , k ) is right-handed.

Figure 10

Definition 10

Let u and v be two vectors, the cross product or the vector product denoted by

u v is the vector w such that:

-The vector w is orthogonal to u and v .

- ( u , v , w ) is a right-handed vectors system.


-

u v = u v sin(u, v)

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w
uv = w

Proof:

Figure 11
Properties 13:
1-
For all vectors u , v we have: v u = u v (the vector product is
antisymmetric)
2-
Lets assume that u and v are non null vectors, so we have:
u v = 0 u and v are collinear.

1- Let w = u v . Then the system u , v, w is right handed. Thus the system

(v, u , w) is also right handed (Do a figure!).


Then w has the same way as v u , and by definition of the cross product it has
also the same direction and same magnitude. Then these two vectors are equal.
2-

( )

( )

u v = 0 if and only if sin u, v = 0 , so if u, v = 0 or . It means that

the two vectors are collinear.


Examples:
Let (O, i, j , k ) be a Cartesian orthonormated right-handed system of coordinates.
So:

i j = k

j k = i
And:

k i = j

( i j ) j = k j = i and i ( j j ) = i 0 = 0
These two last examples show that the vector product is not an associative
operation.
9.6.2- Geometric interpretation
Property 14
Let u = OA and v = OB be independent vectors and C the point of the plane (OAB)

such that OACB is a parallelogram. So the area of this parallelogram is equal to u v .

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Proof

Figure 12a
Figure 12b
The formula to compute the area of OABC is: h OA .
Consider the case of the figure 12a, i.e. the angle AOB is acute.
OBH is a right triangle on H, so we have:

h=OB sin( (OA, OB) ). And the area is : OA OB sin( (OA, OB) )= u v .
The proof for an obtuse angle is left to the reader.
9.6.3- Properties
Properties 15
Let u , v and w be three vectors so:
(1) If a is a real number, we have:

(13)
(a u ) v = u (a v ) = a (u v )
(2) If a and b are two real numbers so we have:

(14)

(a u ) (b v ) = ab( u v )

(3) w (u + v) = w u + w v (15a) and (u + v ) w = u w+ v w

(15b)

(15)

(4) If t is a vector we have:

(u + v ) ( w+ t ) = u w+ u t + v w+ v t

(16)

Proof:
Let: t = u v
(1) If a>0, then the system (au , v, at ) is still right handed and the vector ( au ) v has
the same direction and way as at .
In addition to that we have: (au ) v = au v sin(au , v) = a u v sin(u , v ) = at .

( )

Then the vector aw has the same direction, way and magnitude as au v . So they
are the same vectors.
For a<0 lets do a figure:

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au

aw

Figure 13
Just see the figure to observe that the direction and the way are the same for aw and
( au ) v .
Let: = (u , v ) then (au, v) = .
We have:
(au ) v = au v sin( ) = (a u ) v (sin ) = a u v sin = a w = aw

( )

Then the vectors aw and au v have the same direction, way and magnitude. Then
they are the same.
By the same reasoning we prove: u (av) = au v
(2) (au ) (bv) = a(u (bv)) = a (bu v) = abu v (applying (1) twice).
(3) The proof of this one is difficult, so we have to do it from particular cases until the
most general case. First remark that if u, v, w are proportional each other then the
equalities are true, both member of each equaling 0 .
Lemma 1:
For all real number and for all vectors v , w we have:

w ( w + v ) = w v
So that proves that (25) is true if u and w are co linear.
Proof of lemma 1:
Lets assume 0 . See the figure 14, following page.
So we have to compare these two vectors. Let:
p1 = w ( w + v) and p 2 = w v
A cross product is orthogonal to each of its factor.
So p 2 is orthogonal to w and v .
p1 is orthogonal to w and is also orthogonal to the vector w + v .

Then we have: 0 = p1 .( w + v) = p1 .v . So we deduce that p1 is orthogonal to v .

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Then both vectors p1 , p2 are orthogonal to w and v . We assume that w and v are
independent, and then there is a unique direction orthogonal to both vectors. Then
p1 , p2 have the same direction.

In black: w + v

v
O

w A

In red: w

Figure 14
For > 0 , the system (w, v + w, p1 ) is still right handed, because the way from w
to v is the same as the one from w to w + v .
To continue lets write:

w = OA w = OB v = OC w + v = OE
We construct D such that v = AD , so OADC is the parallelogram determinate by the
vectors w, v passing through O.
We construct F such that: AF = w + v , so OAFE is the parallelogram determinate by
w, w + v .

OBEC is the parallelogram formed by the vectors w and v .


We can deduce that C , D, E , F are aligned, because by definition of all these
parallelograms we have:

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(CD ) //(OA) ( EF ) //(OA) = ( AB) and ( EC ) //(OB) = (OA)


Then the lines (CD),( EC ),( EF ) are parallel each other, because they are parallel all to
the line (OA) . So they are identical, because they have a common point.
We can deduce that the parallelograms OADC and OAFE having the common base
(OA) , have the same associated altitude. Then they have the same area.
So by the property (13) we have: p1 = p 2 .
Then p1 , p2 are equal because they have the same direction, way and magnitude.
So the lemma is proved for 0 .
For < 0 we write:
w ( w + v) = w ( ( w) + v)

= w v (Because > 0 !)

Then the lemma 1 is completely proved.


Lemma 2:
If (u , v, w) are orthogonal each other then we have:

w (u + v) = w u + w v
Then in that lemma we are going to prove the formula (15a) for the particular case
where the 3 vectors are orthogonal each other.
Proof of lemma 2
Let p = w (u + v) , p1 = w u and p 2 = w v . We have to prove that: p = p1 + p 2 .

G=H

Figure 15
We set:

OA = u OB = v OC = w OD = u + v p1 = OE = w u OF = p2 = w v
OH = w (u + v)

OG = p1 + p 2

We may have: OG = OH , lets prove that.


There is a unique plane passing through O and orthogonal to w , since the property 7,3.

454

u and v are orthogonal to w , so they are both lying and that plane. Because u , v are
independent the triplet (O, u , v) defines a unique plane, this plane is the set of the
points M such that we have the existence of s, t real verifying: OM = su + tw .
So the vector: OD = u + v lies on that plane.
The vector OH = w (u + v) is orthogonal to w by definition of the cross product, then
it lies on the plane (O, u , v) and has the direction orthogonal to u + v in that plane.
Lets assume that (u , v, w) is right handed, so ( w, u , v ) is also right handed. So the
vector OE = w u has the same direction and the same way as v , so there is 1 > 0
such that:
p1 = w u = 1 v
But: w u = w u = 1 v , so we have: 1 =

u w
v

The system ( w, v, u ) is right handed, so there is 2 > 0 such that:

p2 = w v = 2 u
But: w v = w v = 2 u , so we have: 2 =

v w
u

Then:

OG = p1 + p 2 = 1 v 2 u lies on the plane (u , v )


2

OD.OG = (u + v).(1 v 2 u ) = 1 v 2 u

=0

Then we conclude that p1 + p 2 is orthogonal to u + v on the plane (u , v ) . In a plane


there is a unique direction orthogonal to a given non null vector.
Then we can conclude that w (u + v ) and w u + w v have the same direction.
To prove that they have the same way we remark that the vectors (OA, OD, OB ) are in
that order in the plane (O, u , v) by definition of the sum of two vectors. By the same

way the vectors OE , OG, OF are in that order. But the vectors OB , OE are collinear
with the same way. Then the order is: (u, u + v, v, w u + w v) . The system

( w, u + v, OH )must be right handed. Then if (u, v, w) is right handed, the vectors


OG, OH must have an acute angle with the vector v . We know yet that they have the
same direction, so that proves that they have the same way.
We have:

OH = w (u + v)
The vectors w and u + v are orthogonal then:
OH = w u + v

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And because u v :

OH = w

u + v

(Pythagorean theorem)

We have:
2

OG = p1 + p 2 = 1 v + 2 u = 12 v + 2 2 u

Substituting 1 , 2 by the values previously calculated we find:


2

OG = w

u + v

So we have:

OG = OH
Finally these two vectors, having the same direction, way and magnitude, are equal.
We did this proof in the case where u , v, w was right handed. If this system is not

right handed so the system (u, v, w) is right handed.


We have:
w (u + v) = w (u + v) (By the formula (13)).

= ( w) u + ( w) v

= w u + w v

Then the lemma 2 is completely proved.

Now lets prove the formula (15a).


We can assume that u, v, w are independent, that means that they are not coplanar. In
effect, these cases are covered by the lemma 1.
We are going to construct an orthonormated right handed Cartesian system in order to
have:
v = a 'i + b ' j
u = a '' i + b '' j + c '' k
w = ai
We choose the unitary vector i collinear to w , j orthogonal to i and coplanar to

( w, v ) . Then k is constructed in order to have (i, j , k ) right handed.


So we have:
w (u + v) = ai ((a '+ a '')i + (b '+ b '') j + c '' k )
= ai ((b '+ b '') j + c '' k ) (Since the lemma 1)
= a(b '+ b '')i j + ac '' i k (Since the lemma 2)
= a (b '+ b '')k ac '' j (Because (i, j , k ) is right handed, see examples after property 13).
In the other way we have:
w u = ai (a '' i + b '' j + c '' k ) = ab '' k ac '' j (Since lemma 1)
w v = ai (a ' i + b ' j ) = ab ' k (Since lemma 1)
Then we can see that: w (u + v) = w u + w v .
So we proved (15a).
To prove (15b) we write:

456

(u + v) w = w (u + v) = w u w v = u w + v w
Then the formula (15) is completely proved.

(4) The formula (16) can be proved with the help of the formula (15).
9.6.4 Analytic formula

To get the analytic formula of u v let:

v = a ' i + b ' j + c ' k So we can use the formulas above to have:

u = a i + b j+ c k

u v = (bc ' b ' c) i (ac ' a ' c) j + (ab ' a ' b) k


To remember that, we can write:
Property 16
Let u = (a, b, c) and v = (a ', b ', c ') . Then we have:

i
j k

b c a c a b
u v = a b c =
i
j+
k
b' c'
a' c'
a' b'
a' b' c'

(17)

Examples:
1) Find a Cartesian equation of the plane passing through the point A(1,2,3) and
parallel to the vectors u = (1,3,1) and v = (3, 2,1) .
Solution:
The vector n = u v is normal to the plane. Then if we have its coordinates we will be
able to find the Cartesian equation by using the method described in 9.5.2.

j k

n = 1 3 1 = 1i 2 j + 7 k
3 2 1
Then, a Cartesian equation of the plane is:

1( x 1) 2( y 2) + 7( z 3) = 0
x 2 y + 7 z = 18
2) Are the points A(3,2,1) , B(2, 1,3) and C (1,1,1) aligned? If not, find a Cartesian
equation of the plane passing through these 3 points.
Solution:
AB = (5, 3, 2) , AC = (4, 1,0) .

AB AC = 5 3 2 = 2i + 8 j + 7 k
4 1 0
So the points A,B,C are non aligned.
An equation of the plane (ABC) is:

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2( x + 3) + 8( y 2) + 7( z 1) = 0
2 x + 8 y + 7 z = 17
2) We give the points A(1,5, 1) B(3, 7,10) and C (1,1,1) . Find the area of the
triangle ABC.
Solution
1
This area is:
AB AC .
2
AB = (4,, 2,11) and AC = (0, 4, 2)

AB AC = 4

11 = 48i + 8 j + 16k

1
AB AC = 4 41
2
Work the exercises 11, 12 and 13
9.6.5- Scalar triple product
Definition 11
Let u, v, w be 3 vectors of the space. The scalar triple product denoted by u , v, w is:

u , v, w = u.(v w) (18)

Property 17:
The volume of the parallelepiped determined by (u , v, w) is u, v, w .

To prove that lets do a figure (See figure 16):


The volume of the parallelepiped (u , v, w) is equal to the area of the parallelogram

(v, w) time the altitude of (u , v, w) .


But: u.(v w) = u v w cos , where is the angle between u and any vector n
perpendicular to the plane (v, w) and such that (v, w, n) is right handed(vector in blue on
the figure).
Lets assume that the angle is acute. (I let the reader to do the proof for an obtuse
angle ).
But u cos is the altitude of the parallelepiped (consider a right triangle) and we saw
in 9.6.2 that v w is the area of the parallelogram (v, w) . Then we did the proof. J

458

u
w

Figure 16
Properties 18
1) The 3 vectors (u , v, w) are coplanar if and only if u, v, w = 0

2) The system (u , v, w) is right handed if and only if u, v, w > 0 .

3) The scalar triple product is invariable by any circular permutation of the 3 vectors
i.e.:
u, v, w = v, w, u = w, u, v (19)

4) If we exchange the place of two vectors then the sign of their scalar triple product
changes.

5) Let u = (a, b, c) , v = (a ', b ', c ') and w = (a '', b '', c '') then:
a b c
b' c'
a' c'
a' b'
u, v, w = a ' b ' c ' = a
(20)

b
+
c

b '' c ''
a '' c ''
a '' b ''
a '' b '' c ''
Important remark
If 3 vectors are not coplanar, we say that they are independent.
Proof:
1) Lets assume that all the vectors are non-null. If v and w are collinear then the
result is true, because two different directions will definite just one plane.
Then lets assume that v w 0 .
So the two vectors u and v ware orthogonal. Let n = v w . The set of the vectors
orthogonal to a given vectors define a unique plane (see 9.4). Then u , v and w are
coplanar because they are all orthogonal to n .

459

2) Consider the figure 16. u, v, w > 0 means that the angle > 0 . That occurs if

and only if the vectors v wand u are in the same side with respect to the

( )
( v, w, u ) , then for (u, v, w) . Remark that the orientation does not change by

plane v, w . Because (v, w, v w) is right handed by definition, so it is for

circular permutation.
3) So the volume of the parallelepiped u , v, w will be u , v, w , since the

orientation. This volume does not change whatever the permutation of the 3
vectors. The number u , v, w is the algebraic volume of u , v, w , we saw that

the orientation is not modified by circular permutation. Then the scalar triple
product is invariable by this type of permutation.
4) In that case we change the orientation, so the sign of the result.
5) You just have to use the formulas!
Example:
We give the 4 points A(1,1,1) , B(3,2,1) , C (1,4, 2) , D(3, 2,1) in an
orthonormated right handed Cartesian system. Are these 4 points coplanar? If they
are not, find the volume of the parallelepiped defined by the vectors ( AB, AC , AD) .

Solution:
We just have to calculate: AB, AC , AD .

AB = (4,1,0) AC = (0,3, 3) AD = (4, 3,0)


4 1 0
3 3
0 3
AB, AC , AD = 0 3 3 = 4

1
= (4)(9) 1(12) = 48

3 0
4 0
4 3 0
Then these 4 points are not coplanar and the volume of the parallelepiped defined by
the vectors ( AB, AC , AD) is 48 cubic unities.
Remark:
Circular permutation means that each element must change its place.
Work the exercises 14 and 15.
9.7- Exercises
Exercise 1
We give the coordinates of A and B. Find the components of AB , and the coordinates
of the middle of [AB]. Calculate the distance AB.
1 1 2
1
1 7 3
1- A(1,0,1) B(-3,-3,-3) 2- A( , , ) B(-1,-5,1) 3- A(1,5, ) B( , , )
2 3 3
3
5 3 5
Exercise 2
We give the points A,B and C. For each case find the coordinates of the point D such
that ABCD is a parallelogram whenever it is possible.
Hint: ABCD is a parallelogram if and only if: AB = DC .
1) A ( 3, 7, 2 ) B (1,1,1) C (4, 1, 2)

4 1 3
3 1 2
6 3 2
2) A , , B , , C , ,
3 6 4
8 6 5
7 8 7

460

3) A(2, 1,5) B (1,1,1) C (2,7, 11)


Exercise 3
A) Find a system of parametric equations and a system of symmetric equations for the
straight lines:
1- (AB) where A(1,2,3) B(-1,2,4). What restriction we would have to do for the
parameter if we want just to represent the segment [ AB ] ?

1
2- ( A, u ) ,A(-1,3,4) u = ( , 2, 1)
2
3- (CD) with C(3,4,5) D(-1,-2,3)
4- The straight line is parallel to (AB) where A(1,0,1) B(2,-1,1) and passing through
C(3,1,4).
Exercise 4
Find a system of parametric equations of the following set of the space.
1- Plane ( A, u , v ) with A(1,0,1) u = (-1,-1,-1) v = (1,2,3)
2- Plane (A,B,C) with A(3,0,1) B(1,1,1) C(-1,0,1)
3- Interior of the triangle (I,J,K) with I (1,0,0); J (0,1,0) and K (0,0, 1) .
4- Section of the plane passing through (ABC) and above the circle of center O and
radius 1in the (xy)-plane with: A(2,0,0), B(0, 4,0), C (0,0,5) . (Do a figure)
Exercise 5

In these examples find u . v , u , v and cos( u , v ).

1- u (2, 4, 5)

v (2, 4, 5)

2- u =-2 i +7 j

3- u = i + j

v =k

v = 2 i + 3 j+ 3k

Exercise 6
We consider a sphere of center O and radius R. Let A,B and C be 3 points of this
sphere. Let H,K be the respective projections of B and C onto the line (OA). We set:
a = BOC, b = COA, c = AOB .

= HB, KC (We mean the measure of the angle between these two vectors).
Do a figure!

1) Prove that: OB.OC = OH .OK + HB.KC


2) Deduce: cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos
That is the fundamental formula of spherical trigonometry.
Exercise 7
We give a vector and a point. Find a Cartesian equation of the plane passing through
this point and orthogonal to this vector.
1) u = (1,1,1) and A(3,5,7)
2) u = (3, 4,5) and A(1,1, 4)

461

3) u = (0, 0,1) and O(0,0,0) . Which is that plane?


Exercise 8
We consider the plane P1 with equation: x + y + z = 1 and another one P2
with Cartesian equation: 3x 2 y + z = 11.
1- Let A(4,3,1). Find a Cartesian equation of the plane P3 which is passing through
A and parallel to P1.
2- Find parametric equations of the straight line L passing through A and
orthogonal to P2.
3- Determine an approximate value of the angle between P1 and P2. (hint: this is
the same as the angle between 2 orthogonal vectors.)
Exercise 9
We give the vectors u and v . Find pu (v ) , then find pu (v) by using the formula (12b).
Check your answer by calculating directly from the components of pu (v ) .
1-

u = (1, 1,5)

2-

1 4 1
u = ( , , )
3 3 5

3-

u = (1,1,1)

v =
, 2 3, 3
5

v = ( ,1, 3)

4-

u = (1,3,5)

v = (0, 0,1)

v = (5, 2, 1)

Exercise 10
Let A( xA , y A , z A ) be a point of the space and P the plane with Cartesian equation:

ax + by + cz = d
We denote by d ( A, P ) the distance from the point A to the plane P. This is by definition
the distance from A to H, where H is the orthogonal projection of A onto P.
Prove that:
d axA by A cz A
d ( A, P) =
a 2 + b2 + c 2
Exercise 11
! !
In this exercise we give u and v . Compute u v
1 3
2
1
1- u = (1,1,3) v = (1,3, 2) 2- u =

v =
4 8
3
5

1
3

3
4

Exercise 12
Find a Cartesian equation for the planes:
1- The plane which passes through P(0,2,-1), and a normal is n = 3i 2 j k
2- The plane which passes through the points (1,1,-1), (2,0,2) and (0,-2,1).
3- The plane which passes through the points P(2,4,5) and perpendicular to the
x = 5+t
straight line: y = 1 + 3t

z = 4t

462

4- The plane passing through A(1, 5, 4) and parallel to the vectors u = i + j k and

v = (3,5, 7) .
Exercise 13
For each case, find the point of intersection of the two straight lines if any. If the
intersection exists find the Cartesian equation of the plane determined by these two
lines.
1- L1: x=-1+t y=2+t z=1-t L2 : x=1-4s y=1+2s z=2-2s
2- L1 : x=t y=3-3t z=-2-t
L2 : x=1+s y=4+s z=-1+s
3- L1 : x=2t-3 y=-7t+2 z=-t
L2 : x=1+2s y=5-2s z=-2s+8
Exercise 14
We give some points A, B, C and D. Are these points coplanar? If they are not,
calculate the volume of the parallelepiped determinate by these 4 points.
1) A(1,1,1), B(3, 1, 2), C (3, 4,5), D(5, 3, 1)
5
1 1 1 3
1 1 2
2) A , , , B , 2, , C (1, 5, 4 ) , D , ,
7
3 4 7 4
2 4 3
3) A(1, 2.1), B(3, 1, 2), C (3, 3. 1), D(1,1,1)
2 3
1 1 2
1 2 1
4) A , , , B ( 1, 3, 5 ) , C , , , D 1, ,
3 4
2 3 3
2 5 4
Exercise 15
1) Let u, v, w be 3 vectors of the space. Prove the following formula:

( )

u (v w) = (u.w)v u.v w
Hint: you could choose a Cartesian system, orthonormated, right handed such that
u = (a, b, c) , v = (a ', b ', c ') , w = (a '', b '', c '') , but that would be awkward. I suggest to
choose a Cartesian system such that: u = (1, 0, 0) , v = (a ', b ', 0) and w = (a '', b '', c '') ,after
having noticed that the equality is obviously true for u = (0, 0, 0) .
2) Let x be another vector of the space. Prove that:
(u v).( w x) = (u.w)(v.x) (u.x)(v.w)
Hint: Doing that with coordinates would be horrible. Better set a = u v , and then
you recognize in the first member a scalar triple product. Then apply the fact that
this scalar triple product is invariable by circular permutation and then use the
formula proved in 1).
Exercise 16 Synthesis
Let v1 , v2 , v3 be 3 vectors with:

v1 = OC1 = (a, ma,0) v2 = OC2 = (b,0, mb) v3 = OC3 = (0, c, pc)


The real numbers a,b,c are strictly positive, and m,p any real numbers.
1) Calculate the components of: OW = v1 v2 .
2) Let (O, i1, j1, k1 ) be the Cartesian system, with:

i1 =

i+ j
2

j1 =

463

i + j
2

k1 = k

Prove that this Cartesian system is orthonormated right-handed. Calculate the


components of OW in that Cartesian system.
3) Calculate the volume of the tetrahedron OC1C2C3 . For which values of m,p the 3
vectors v1 , v2 , v3 are coplanar?
9.8- Solutions of the exercises
Exercise 1
We will call I the middle of [ AB ]
1- A(1,0,1) B(-3,-3,-3)

AB = (4, 3, 4)

AB = 41

I 1, , 1
2

1 1 2
2- A( , , ) B(-1,-5,1)
2 3 3
1205 1 7 1
3 16 5
AB = , ,
I , ,
AB =
6
2 3 3
4 3 6
1
1 7 3
3- A(1,5, ) B( , , )
3
5 3 5
352 4 110
4 8 4
3 11 7
AB = , ,
I , ,
AB =
=
45
15
5 3 15
5 3 15
Exercise 2
Let D( xD , yD , zD ) .
1) A ( 3, 7, 2 ) B (1,1,1) C (4, 1, 2)

AB = (4,8, 1) = DC = (4 xD , 1 yD , 2 zD )
Then: D(0, 9,3)
4 1 3
3 1 2
6 3 2
2) A , , B , , C , ,
3 6 4
8 6 5
7 8 7
7
41
143 3 89
AB = , 0,
D
, ,

20
24
168 8 140
3) A(2, 1,5) B (1,1,1) C (2,7, 11)
AB = (1, 2, 4) D(1,5, 7)
Exercise 3
A) Find a system of parametric equations and a system of symmetric equations for the
straight lines:
1- (AB) where A(1,2,3) B(-1,2,4). What restriction we would have to do for the
parameter if we want just to represent the segment [ AB ] ?

x = 2t + 1
y=2
z =t +3

x +1
= z 3 and y = 2.
2

464

The restriction would be: t [0,1]

2- ( A, u ) , A (-1, 3, 4) u = , 2, 1
2

1
x = t 1
2
y 3
2x + 2 =
= z + 4
y = 2t + 3
2
z = t + 4
3- (CD) with C(3,4,5) D(-1,-2,3).
CD = (4, 6, 2)
x = 4t + 3
3 x 4 y 5 z
y = 6t + 4
=
=
4
6
2
z = 2t + 5
4- The straight line is parallel to (AB) where A(1,0,1) B(2,-1,1) and passing through
C(3,1,4).
So the line has the direction of: AB = (1, 1, 0) .
x =t +3

y = t + 1

x 3 = 1 y and z = 4

z=4
Exercise 4
1- Plane ( A, u , v ) with A(1,0,1) u = (-1,-1,-1) v = (1,2,3)
x = t + s + 1

y = t + 2 s
z = t + 3s + 1
2- Plane (A,B,C) with A(3,0,1) B(1,1,1) C(-1,0,1)
AB = (2,1, 0), AC = (4, 0, 0) .
x = 2t 4 s + 3

y=t
z =1
3- IJ = (1,1, 0) and IK = (1, 0 1)
x = s + t 1

y=s

0 s 1,0 t 1

z = t
4- Section of the plane passing through (ABC) and above the circle of center O and
radius 1in the (xy)-plane with: A(2,0,0), B(0, 4,0), C (0,0,5) . (Do a figure)

465

Projection of the
circle: ellipse

Circle

AB = (2, 4, 0), AC = (2, 0,5)


So the system of parametric equations of the entire plane is:
x = 2 s 2t + 2

y = 4s
z = 5t
To be inside the ellipse, we must have: x 2 + y 2 1 , that is: (2s + 4t + 2)2 + 16s 2 1
Exercise 5
In these examples find u.v , u , v and cos(u, v)

1- u (2, 4, 5)

v (2, 4, 5)

3
u = 5 v = 5 cos(u, v) = .
5
2- u = 2i + 7 j
v=k

u.v = 15

u.v = 0 u = 53 v = 1 cos(u, v) = 0 (These two vectors are orthogonal).

466

3- u = i + j

v = 2 i + 3 j+ 3k

u.v = 2 + 3 u = 2

v = 14 cos(u, v) =

2+ 6
2 7

Exercise 6
See figure in next page.
1)
We have: OB.OC = OH + HB . OK + KC = OH .OK + OH .KC + HB.OK + HB.KC

)(

We have: (OH ) ( KC ) and ( HB) (OK ) .


Then we can deduce:
2)
We have:

OB.OC = OH .OK + HB.KC

(*)

OB.OC = OB OC cos a = R2 cos a

In the right triangle OHB we have: OH = OB cos b = R cos b and


HB = OB sin b = R sin b .
In the right triangle OKC we have: OK = OC cos c = R cos c and
KC = OC sin c = R sin c
And we have by definition: HB.KC = ( HB)( KC ) cos = ( R sin b)( R sin c) cos .
Then by substituting in (*):

R 2 cos a = R 2 cos a cos b + R 2 cos sin a sin b

And simplifying by R 2 , we have the formula.


Remark:
If the points A,B,C are in that order on a circle of center O, we have, with the same
notation: b = a + c a = b c . In that case ( HB) //( KC ) then we have = 0 and the
formula becomes the one you know in trigonometry.

467

H
A

Exercise 7
We give a vector and a point. Find a Cartesian equation of the plane passing through
this point and orthogonal to this vector.
1) ( x + 3) + ( y 5) + ( z 7) = 0 x + y + z = 9
2) 3( x + 1) + 4( y 1) + 5( z 4) = 0 3x + 4 y + 5 z = 27
3) z = 0 , this is the xy-plane.
Exercise 8
1) Then the vector: n1 = (1,1,1) is normal to P2. Then a Cartesian equation is:

( x 4) + ( y 3) + ( z 1) = 0 x + y + z = 8
2) So n2 = (3, 2,1) has the direction of the line.
x = 3t + 4

y = 2t + 3
z = t +1

468

3) Let be this angle. We have: cos =

n1 .n2
n1 n2

2
3 14

Then, with a calculator, we find: 74


Exercise 9
1-

pu (v) =

u.v

pu (v) =

pu (v) =
2-

u.v
u

8
27

u=

8
8 8 40
(1, 1,5) = , ,
27
27 27 27

8
3 3

8 3
or
9

82 + 82 + 402
1728 24 3 8 3
=
=
=
27
27
27
9

12
3
1 4 1
270
1 4 1 90 3 360 3 54 3
pu (v) = 2 u = 5
( , , ) =
3( , , ) =
,
,

434
3
3
5
217
3
3
5
217
217
217

u
225
12
3
u.v
180 3
36 3 18 1302
5
pu (v) =
=
=
=
=
5 434
217
434
434
u
225
3 .
u = (1,1,1)
v = ( ,1, 3)
u.v

pu (v) =

u.v
u

pu (v) =
4-

pu (v) =

u=

( 2)
2 2 2
(1,1,1) =
,
,

2
3
3
3
3

3
2
3

u = (1,3,5)

u.v

pu (v) =

u=

v = (0, 0,1)

5
1 3 5
(1,3,5) = , ,
35
7 7 7

35
7

Exercise 10
Lets do a figure:
Let H be the orthogonal projected of A onto the plane P and M ( x, y, z ) any point of the
plane.

469

H
M

We have: AH = p AH ( AM ) . Then we have:

AH =

AH . AM
AH

AH

. AM =
(a, b, c).( x xA , y y A , z z A )
AH
a 2 + b2 + c 2
Where = 1 .

AH
is orthogonal unitary (See the example in 9.5.3)
AH
1
AH =
a ( x x A ) + b( y y A ) + c ( z z A )
a 2 + b2 + c 2
1
AH =
d axA by A cz A
2
a + b2 + c 2
And we have the result.
Because

470

Exercise 11
1- u v = (7, 5, 2)
1 23 49
2- u v = ( , ,
)
16 40 180
Exercise 12
Find a Cartesian equation for the planes:
1- 3x 2( y 2) ( z + 1) = 0 3x 2 y z = 3
2- Let A(1,1,-1), B(2,0,2) and C(0,-2,1). AB = (1, 1,3), AC = (1, 3, 2)

AB AC = (7, 5, 4) is normal to this plane. A Cartesian equation is:

7( x 1) 5( y 1) 4( z + 1) = 0 7 x 5 y 4 z = 6
3- 1( x 2) + 3( y 4) + 4( z 5) = 0 x + 3 y + 4 z = 34
4- u v = (12, 10, 2) .

12( x 1) 10( y + 5) + 2( z 4) = 0 6( x 1) 5( y + 5) + ( z 4) = 0 6 x 5 y + z = 35
Exercise 13
1- L1: x=-1+t y=2+t z=1-t L2 : x=1-4s y=1+2s z=2-2s
We have to solve:
t=0
1 + t = 1 4 s
t + 4s = 2

1
s=
2 + t = 1 + 2s
t 2 s = 1
2
So we can see that the two lines intersects at the point: I (1, 2,1) .
Let: u = (1,1, 1); v = (4, 2, 2)
We have: u v = (0, 6, 6) .
So for the Cartesian equation: ( y 2) + ( z 1) = 0 y + z = 3.
2- L1 : x=t y=3-3t z=-2-t
L2 : x=1+s
We have to solve:
t = 1+ s
t=0

3 3t = 4 + s
s = 1
So the intersection is I (0,3, 2) .
Equation of the plane: x + y 2 z = 7 .

y=4+s z=-1+s

17
2t 3 = 1 + 2 s
5 . But that does not give the
3- Solving the system :
, we find
7
7 t + 2 = 5 2 s
t=
5
same z-coordinate in both lines. So the lines are skew.
s=

Exercise 14
We have to calculate: AB, AC , AD

A(1,1,1), B(3, 1, 2), C (3, 4,5), D(5, 3, 1)

471

AB, AC , AD = 2 3 4 = 2 10 + 2 20 + 1 10 = 70

6 4 2
Then the points are not coplanar and the volume of the parallelepiped determinate by
ABCD is 70 cubic unities.
Exercise 15
1) Just do carefully the calculi:
First calculate v w and then u (v w) . So calculate the right member. You must find
the same result.
2) With the suggested notation we have:
(u v).( w x) = a.( w x) = a, w, x = w, x, a = w. x a = w. x (u v)

( ))

= w. ( x.v)u x.u v
And then we have the formula.

472

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