Chapter 2

Chapter 2
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

University of the Philippines - Diliman
Electromechanical Transducers
Devices that convert electric energy input into
mechanical energy output, or vice versa, through
a coupling magnetic or electric field are called
electromechanical transducers.
Electrical
System
Transducer
Mechanical
System
Note: Coupling between the electrical system and

the mechanical system exists through the energy
that is stored in the magnetic or electric field.
Classification of Transducers
Mode of Operation:
Gross-Motion Transducers
Incremental-Motion Transducers
Coupling Field:
Magnetic Field Transducers
Electric Field Transducers
Magnetic Field Transducer

Single Excitation
Reference
Position
x
i
K
M
D
Coil
Stationary Iron Core
Movable
Armature
Applications: microphone, speaker, telephone

Magnetic Field Transducer

Multiple Excitation
stator
I
rotor
K
D
Applications: motors, generators

Electromechanical Principles
I.
A force is exerted on a current-carrying

conductor in a magnetic field, and between
current-carrying conductors by means of their
own magnetic fields. The process is reversible
because a voltage is induced in a circuit that is
moving in a magnetic field.
II. A force is exerted on a ferromagnetic material

to align it with the densest part of the magnetic
field. If the magnetic field is caused by a
current-carrying coil, the process is reversible
since motion of the ferromagnetic material
causes a change in flux which induces a
voltage in the coil.
Electromechanical Principles
III. A force is exerted on the plates of a charged
capacitor and on a dielectric material in an
electric field; conversely, relative motion of the
plates and the dielectric material results in a
change of the charge or the voltage between
the plates, or both.
IV. Piezoelectric Effect
V. Magnetostriction Effect
Applications: (I, II)motors, generators, telephone
receiver, microphone; (III)condenser microphone;
(IV)phonograph pick-up, cassette head.
Energy Balance
For any electromechanical transducer, energy
balance must be satisfied; that is
Input
Energy
Output
Energy
Energy
Stored
Energy
Loss
For example, in an electric motor,

Input
Electric =
Energy
Change
Output
Energy
Mech. + in Magnetic + Lost as
Field Energy
Energy
Heat
Note: We shall always assume a transducer that

converts electric energy to mechanical energy.
Components of Heat Loss

A. Electrical loss in resistances, also called i2R
loss or copper loss
B. Mechanical loss due to friction and windage
C.
Loss in the coupling field

1. Core loss (magnetic field)
2. Dielectric loss (electric field)
Modified Energy Balance

Segregate the energy loss into its components.
Input
Output
Change
i2R
Mech.
Field
Electric Mech. +
in Field +
+
Loss =
Loss
Loss
Energy
Energy
Energy
Mathematically, we get
where
dWe = net electric energy input to the transducer
dWm= energy converted to mechanical form
dWf = energy absorbed by the coupling field
The Transducer
i2R loss
.+
vS
.-
Field loss
Mech. loss
+
e COUPLING x
FIELD
-
Electrical Net Electrical

Input
Input
.
.
Mechanical
Output
For a linear system with N electrical sources,
Magnetic Field System

Consider the transducer
shown. Assuming i is
R
increasing,
vs
x
fF
fm
+
e
-
polarity as shown. From

we get
armature
Note: A change in flux results in the flow of electric

energy into the circuit.
The magnetic flux will change due to:
1. A change in the voltage source vs which
changes the current i;
2. Motion of the armature which changes the
air gap length;
3. Both.
Energy in the Magnetic Field

With the armature held fixed in position, the
voltage source sees
x1
a non-linear lumpedinductance element.
x2
x3
For a fixed position x, the total electric energy

delivered in an increment of time, dt, is
Since the armature is at a fixed position, the

mechanical energy output must be zero.
From the energy balance equation

we get
The second subscript m denotes the magnetic field.
Note: The electric energy input is absorbed and
stored in the magnetic field.
Assume that the flux linkage changes from 1 at t1

to 2 at t2. We get
or
If the initial flux linkage is

zero, then
i
Since F=Ni and =N, we get
F
Note: The energy in the magnetic field is
determined by the excitation current (or mmf) in
the coil, the configuration of the magnetic material
and the coil, and the magnetic properties of the
core.
State Functions
We shall assume a single-valued magnetization
curve; i.e. hysteresis will be neglected.
A set of values (, x, i)
defines a unique point in
the magnetization curve.
, x and i are called state
variables.
A set of values for , x
and i defines a state point.
The field energy is independent of the history of

the system.
Coenergy
Define the coenergy state function.
i
Note:
Linear Magnetic Field System
x
Wfm
x
Wfm
Wfm
If the system is linear, we get
Since
, we also get
Wfm
Also, since =P F, we get
Likewise, for a linear system,
And we get the familiar equation
Note: In this course, the examples will be limited

to linear systems only.
Example: Given a flux density Bc=1Wb/m2, find

the energy stored in the magnetic field. Assume
c = 5,000. Neglect fringing.

Area of core, Ac=9 cm2
Gap length, g=0.05 cm
g
i
Length of core, lc=30 cm
Coil turns, N=500
Calculate Reluctances
Equivalent Circuit
Since
Rc
NI
we get
The energy stored in the magnetic field
Rg
System of Inductances
Consider an electromechanical device with N
windings. Assume the mechanical configuration is
fixed in position. Let us increase the flux linkages in
sequence from zero to their final values.
The energy stored in the magnetic field is
The final value of Wfm is the same as when all flux

linkages are increased from zero to their final
values simultaneously.
Similarly, the coenergy is
Note:
Example: Given a transducer with 3 mutuallycoupled windings. Assume
a) Find the co-energy Wfm(i1,i2,i3).

b) Find the energy stored in the magnetic field
Wfm(1, 2, 3)
c) Find Wfm and Wfm when i1 = 5 A, i2 = 4 A and
i3 = 3 A.
a)
b) Inverting the given equations, we get
c) Substitution gives Wfm=158.5 Joules

Likewise, we get 1=30, 2=8 and 3=45.
Substitution gives Wfm=158.5 Joules
Note:
Linear Inductances
In the case of rotating machines, the inductances
depend on rotor position.
i2
vs2
+
-
e2
-
i1
+
e- 1
+
v
- s1
Coenergy
For a linear system with 2 windings
or
Note: Wfm=Wfm
For a linear system with N windings,
Example: For the magnetic field transducer shown,

the iron core may be assumed to be infinitely
V
permeable.
Determine the energy
stored in the magnetic
field. Assume that the
spacer is nonmagnetic.
spring
plunger
spacer
t
N-turns
Calculate reluctance
of the air gap
x d
d
2
w
N-turns
For the spacer, we get

Apply superposition
Rs
Rs
Rs
Rs
11

12

22

NI
21

Rg
Due to symmetry, we get
Rg
NI
and
Solving for the inductances, we get
L12
Equivalent circuit
+
L11
L22
Equivalent inductance
Energy in the Magnetic Field
or
Electric Field System

Consider the transducer
shown.
Electric Energy Input
x
Fixed
plate
ff
i
is
Movable
plate
fm
G
+
e -
Note: Electric energy flows when charge changes.

Energy in the Electric Field

With the movable plate held fixed in position, we
get a family of
q
x1
curves for different
values of x.
x2
x3
e
For a fixed position x, the total electric energy

delivered in an increment of time, dt, is
Since the armature is at a fixed position, the

mechanical energy output must be zero.
From the energy balance equation
we get
The second subscript e denotes the electric field.
Note: The electric energy input is absorbed and
stored in the electric field.
Assume that the charge changes from q1 at t1 to q2

at t2. We get
or
If the initial charge

is zero, then
e
Coenergy
Define the coenergy state function.
e
Note:
Linear Electric Field System

q
x
Wfe
Wfe
If the system is linear, we get
Since q = Ce, we get
System of Capacitances
Consider a system of N capacitances. Let us
increase the charges in sequence from zero to their
final values.
The energy stored in the electric field is
The final value of Wfe is the same as when all

charges are increased from zero to their final
values simultaneously.
Similarly, the coenergy is
Note:
Mechanical Energy
Initially, the state of the system is described by
x=x1, i=i1 and =1. The armature is then
released and because of the magnetic force, the
gap closes. The final state of the system is
described by x=x2, i=i1 and =2.
x2
x1
R
vs
+
-
2

1

+
e
-
Final
.
.
x2
x1
Initial
armature
i1
Motion is very, very slow:

If the motion of the armature is very, very slow,
the rate of change of the flux linkage is almost
zero. Since
x2
and
x1
We get e = 0; i = i1.
Note: Locus is vertically up from a to b.
i1 i
Motion is very, very fast:

If the motion of the armature is very, very fast, the
gap closes at zero time and the flux linkage
remains at = 1.
x2
l
Locus is horizontally left
from a to a then from a
to b along x = x2.
2

1

b
a
x1
Note: The actual locus is hard to determine.

i1 i
x2
x2
x1
i1 i
From the diagrams,
x1
i1 i
Area oacoinitial energy stored in the magnetic field

Area obdo final energy stored in the magnetic field
Wfm = Area obdo - Area oaco
The energy supplied by the source is
The trajectory from

point a to point b
describes the change
in the current as the
system goes from the
initial point to the
final point. Thus
We = Area cabdc
x2
2

1

b
a
x1
i1 i
Applying energy balance, we get

Substitution gives
or
x2
2

1

b
a
x1
Note: Wm=Area oabo
o
i1 i

Consider an electric field system whose state is
initially described by (x1, q1,e1). If motion in the
mechanical system results in a change in state to
(x2, q2,e1), then the mechanical work done can be
x2
shown to be
q
q2

Wm = Area oabo
q1

b
a
x1
o
e1 e
Example: The capacitance of the transducer

fm
shown is described by
in F
x
E
where x is in meters.
Initially, E=200V and x=0.01m. Then, the system
is subjected to the following cycle:
1. With E=200V, x is increased to 0.02m;
2. With x=0.02m, E is decreased to 100V;
3. With E=100V, x is decreased to 0.01m;
4. With x=0.01m, E is increased to 200V.
For this cycle, find the mechanical work done, the

change in the energy stored in the electric field,
and the net energy flow into or out of the battery.
Neglect all losses.
q, coul
E, volt
1
200
0.01
3
0.01
0.005
0.02 x, meter
4
100
0.02
f
h
3
c
100
2
200 E, volt
Energy Balance
Part 1 of the Cycle
Part 2 of the Cycle

Since x is constant, Wm2=0.
Since q=Ce, we get q=50x10-6 e, or e=20,000q
Part 3 of the Cycle
Part 4 of the Cycle

Again x is constant, so Wm4=0.
Total mechanical work done
Total change in field energy

Since the initial point is the same as the final
point,
.
Total energy from the battery
Note: Energy is delivered to the battery.

Mechanical Forces
In the magnetic field transducer shown, let the
armature move an infinitesimal distance dx from its
initial position x. The mechanical work done is
Wm = fmagdx = Area oabo
dx x
R
vs
+
-
+
e
-
fmag
x+dx
e
d
x
a
fext
o
In the limit, as dx
Area oabo
Thus
lim fmagdx = Area oado

dx
x+dx
h
c
Area oado
x+dx
h
c
x
a
But
Area oado = Area oaco Area odco
which is the decrease in field energy if the virtual

displacement is done at constant . Thus
The magnetic force is
Similarly, as dx
Area oabo
Thus
lim fmagdx = Area oado

dx
x+dx
h
c
Area oaeo
x+dx
h
c
x
a
But
Area oaeo = Area oego Area oago
which is the increase in coenergy if the virtual

displacement is done at constant i. Thus
The magnetic force is
Interpretation of Equations
From
and
we get
But
Comparing the last two equations, we get
Note: fmag is evaluated at constant flux linkage.

In a similar manner, by using
We get the differential

or
Substitution gives
or
Comparing with
we get
Note: fmag is evaluated at constant current.

For an electromechanical system with n windings

but only one mechanical variable, we get
Note: In the evaluation of fmag, a minus (-) sign is

used with Wfm(,x) while a plus (+) sign is used
with Wfm(i,x).
Linear Magnetic Field System

For a linear system
We get
and
Also, since
we get
and
Likewise from Wfm=Li2, we get
Summary
The magnetic force acts in a direction that tends
to:
1. Decrease the stored energy at constant flux
linkage;
2. Increase the coenergy at constant current;
3. Decrease the reluctance; and
4. Increase the permeance and inductance.
The 5050 Rule

In a linear magnetic field system, the inductance
is a function of the displacement variable x.
or
The incremental electric energy input is
The energy stored in the magnetic field is

or
Substitute into
We get
or
Note:
1. A differential change in current does not
affect the mechanical force.
2. The increment of field energy at constant
current is equal to the mechanical energy
delivered.
Linear Inductances
Recall for this system,
i2
The magnetic
torque is
vs2
+
-
e2
-
i1
+
e- 1
+
v
- s1
Example: Consider a magnetic field transducer

with the following self and mutual inductances.
Assume that all resistances are negligible.
a) For constant currents i1=10 Amps and i2=7.5

Amps, compute the mechanical work done in
increasing from 0 to 90 degrees.
b) During the motion in part (a), calculate the
energy supplied by VS1.
a) From
we get
b) From
we get
Since
we get

In the electric field transducer shown, let the
Wm = felecdx = Area oado
q
h
+q
-q
x
dx
o
x+dx
e
d
x
a
But
Area oado = Area oaco Area odco
which is the decrease in field energy if the virtual

displacement is done at constant q. Thus
The electric force is
In the electric field transducer shown, let the

Wm = felecdx = Area oaeo
q
h
x
dx
o
x+dx
e
d
x
a
But
Area oaeo = Area oego Area oago
which is the increase in coenergy if the virtual

displacement is done at constant e. Thus
The electric force is
Linear Electric Field System

For a linear system,
We get
and
Also, since
we get
Example: A dielectric slab with dielectric constant

k is inserted between the plates of a capacitor.
Find the force felec acting on the dielectric slab.
x
b
+
e
d felec
Equivalent circuit
k
l
C1
C2
The equivalent capacitance
The energy state function
The electrostatic force
Note: Since k>0, felec > 0 and the dielectric slab is

being pulled into the capacitor.

Chapter 2 - Principles of Electromechanical Energy Conversion Ver2

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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Note: Coupling between the electrical system and

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Magnetic Field Transducer

Applications: microphone, speaker, telephone

Magnetic Field Transducer

Applications: motors, generators

A force is exerted on a current-carrying

II. A force is exerted on a ferromagnetic material

For example, in an electric motor,

Note: We shall always assume a transducer that

Components of Heat Loss

Loss in the coupling field

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Modified Energy Balance

Electrical Net Electrical

For a linear system with N electrical sources,

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Magnetic Field System

polarity as shown. From

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Note: A change in flux results in the flow of electric

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Energy in the Magnetic Field

For a fixed position x, the total electric energy

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Since the armature is at a fixed position, the

From the energy balance equation

Assume that the flux linkage changes from 1 at t1

If the initial flux linkage is

Since F=Ni and =N, we get

The field energy is independent of the history of

Linear Magnetic Field System

If the system is linear, we get

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Also, since =P F, we get

Likewise, for a linear system,

And we get the familiar equation

Note: In this course, the examples will be limited

Example: Given a flux density Bc=1Wb/m2, find

c = 5,000. Neglect fringing.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

The energy stored in the magnetic field

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

The final value of Wfm is the same as when all flux

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Example: Given a transducer with 3 mutuallycoupled windings. Assume

a) Find the co-energy Wfm(i1,i2,i3).

b) Inverting the given equations, we get

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

c) Substitution gives Wfm=158.5 Joules

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Example: For the magnetic field transducer shown,

For the spacer, we get

Due to symmetry, we get

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Energy in the Magnetic Field

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Electric Field System

Note: Electric energy flows when charge changes.