Boiler - Steam Generators

Contents:
Introduction
Types of steam generators
Main components
Thermodynamic analysis
Operation
Maintenance
Summary

Introduction
1. Function of steam generator:
To heat & convert water from
liquid phase to superheat
steam at the specified
pressure by addition of heat

Feedwater

BOILER
Heat

Fuel
2. Heat is obtained by
burning of fuel i.e.
chemical energy =>
thermal energy (heat)

Steam

Types of Steam Generators (1)

1. Can be classified by its:
Capacity
Operating pressure
Fuel type
2. Capacity:

Application
Heat transfer direction
Water circulation

Steam generation capacity (tonne/hour, kg/s)

Steam thermal energy
(MWh)

3. Operating pressure :
the pressure at which the
boiler is operating
4. Fuel type : coal, oil, gas

Example:
Kapar Power Station Phase I
266 kg/s, SH outlet 172 bar, 538C
Oil and gas fired

Types of Steam Generators (2)

5. Applications:
UTILITY
130 < P <240 bar
T~540C
125<m<1250 kg/s
125<W<1300 MW

INDUSTRIAL
P < 105 bar
M < 125 kg/s

6. Heat transfer direction :

Fire-tube boiler

Water-tube boiler
Heat

Heat
Hot gas

Water

Water

Hot gas

Types of Steam Generators (3)

a. Fire-tube boiler:
* A water-filled vessel with
combustion product in tubes
* Heat transfer is from hot gas
from tube to water in the vessel
* Limited in size, steam pressure,
& low level of operating safety
* No longer used in power plants
Still used in industrial plants
( P <18 bar, m <6.3 kg/s)

Heat
Hot gas
Water

Types of Steam Generators (4)

b. Water-tube boiler :
* Water flows inside tubes & the
combustion gases flow outside
* Heat transfer is from hot gas
to water in the tubes
* Higher in capacity, steam pressure,
& high level of operating safety
* Widely used in power plants
* Various designs: forced circulation,
natural circulation, once-through

Heat
Water
Hot gas

Types of Steam Generators (5)

7. Water circulation:
a. Natural circulation: water circulates
by virtue of density difference (factor 8)
between the water in the downcomer Downcomer
and risers

Steam drum

Riser

b. Controlled-circulation: water circulation

is helped by pumps; e.g TNB Janamanjung
c. Forced circulation : water circulation entirely
dependant on external pumps.
d. Once-through supercritical boiler:
Water-to-superheat steam formation
happens in one pass, No steam drum

Heat

Pump

Types of Steam Generators (6)

Supercritical Boilers
Today many
modern steam
power plants
operate at
supercritical
pressures (P >
22.06 MPa) and
have thermal
efficiencies of
about 40% for
fossil-fuel plants.

Main Components (1)

1. Major components of steam generator:
BOILER
STEAM DRUM

Drum
Superheater
Reheater

SUPERHEATER
Boiler

Economiser

REHEATER
ECONOMISER
AIR HEATER

Air
heater

Main Components (2)

2. Steam flow:

From boiler
feed pump

Economiser
Drum

Steam Drum

Superheater
Reheater

Boiler:
Downcomer
Boiler

Boiler:
Riser

Economiser

Air
heater

Steam Drum
Superheater
To HP Turbine

Main Components (3)

3. Economiser:
a. Raises water temperature to saturation temperature,
at the boilers operating pressure; (steaming
avoided)
b. Utilises high temperature gas leaving
superheater or reheater (convective)
c. Important because increase efficiency:
~1% for every 5.5C rise in Tfeedwater
d. Conditions to prevent internal corrosion
of economiser tubes:
Exit T > above SOx or acid dew point in flue gas.
Dissolved O2< 0.007 ppm
8 < pH < 9

Drum
Superheate
r

Boiler

Reheater
Economiser

Air
heater

Main Components (4)

4. Steam drum:
a. Chamber that separates water & steam
b. Water-steam separation methods:
* primary separation: removes water
from steam
* secondary separation (drying) :
removes remaining mist and droplets from steam
* methods: baffles, screens, bent plates, cyclones
c. Other functions of steam drums:
* control water-steam mixture during load changes
* chemical dosing point for water treatment
* removes particulate matter from steam

SATURATED STEAM CONNECTIONS

DRUM SLING

EXTENT OF
ILLUSTRATION

METH OD OF ATTACHING
CYCLONE SEPARATORS TO
CONNECTING BOXES

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0

ro.....
c

::J

;:j:

Q)

::J
SECONDARY STEAM
SCRUBBER ELEMENTS

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"0

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C/)
C/)

.....

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NORMAL WATER
/LEVEL IN DRUM
CYCLONE
SEPARATORS

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.....
......
C/)
CL.

co
C/)
<E"
::J
PRIMARY STEAM
SCRUBBER ELEMENTS

CYCLONE SEPARATOR
CONNECTING BOX

ECONOMISER RISER
CONNECTIONS

DRAIN POT

FEED WATER
FROM ECONOMISER

VORTEX
INHIBITOR

KEY

WATER
TO BOILER

~STEAM

~ WATER AND STEAM

_.WATER

FIG . 2.6 Boiler drum

()
:::J"
Q)

"0

......

co
.....
N

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Main Components (5)

5. Furnace-Combustion Chamber:
a. Converts saturated water to
saturated steam
b. Also refers to entire steam generator
c. Consists of water walls:
downcomers and risers
d. Water tubes located on the furnace
walls and on top of the furnace
e. Radiation => primary mode of heat
transfer
f. Heat source is from fuel combustion via burners

FIG.

1.8

Corrosion of furnace wall tubes at Drakelow C Power Station

FIG. 2.20 Photograph of a panel of co-extruded tubing installed in a furnace sidewall at Eggborough Power Station
Note the nearness of the end burner to the sidewall. allowing little room for error in setting up the burner conditions.

Main Components (6)

6. Superheater:
Drum

a. Converts saturated steam to

superheated steam
b. Normally built in 2 stages: primary
superheater & secondary superheater
c. 2 types (according to source of heat):
Convection: - placed in gas passage
- heat transfer by convection
Radiation : - placed above furnace
- heat transfer by radiation

Superheater
Reheater

Boiler

Economiser

Air
heater

Before

During

After

FIG.

1.3

Typical off-load water cleaning of platen

superheater elements

Main Components (7)

7. Superheater (..continued):

Pendant

c. Two types (according to construction):

Pendant: - tubes hung from the roof
- not drainable
Platen : - tubes arranged side by side
to form a wall
d. Main criterion in superheater tube
selection is its temperature strength
e. Degree of superheat is determined by:
* position of the superheater
* amount of superheating surface
* velocity of steam through the tubes

Platen

Main Components (8)

8. Reheater:
a. Reheat steam from HP turbine

Drum
Superheater

b. Used to limit excessive moisture in

steam to about 10~16%
c. Usually pendant type and placed
behind the secondary superheater
d. Cold reheat: from HP turbine to reheater
Hot reheat: from reheater to LP turbine

Reheater

Boiler

Economiser

Air
heater

Main Components (9)

9. Air heater:
a. Exchanges heat from outgoing exhaust
gas to incoming fresh air

Drum
Superheater
Reheater

b. Increases system thermal efficiency

Boiler

Economiser

c. Two types:
* recuperative > heat transfer direct
from gas to air across heat-exchanger
* regenerative > heat transfer from gas to
air via intermediate heat-storage medium

Air
heater

Boiler view

Heat transfer area

d. Main problems:
* corrosion => keep flue gas above acid dew point Tadp
* chokage due to fly ash clogging => regular cleaning

Thermodynamic Analysis (1)

1. Steam generator performance is represented by its efficiency B
2. Boiler efficiciency calculation: Input/output method

B =

Thermal energy transfer to working fluid

Thermal energy released by fuel

m& S (h2 h1 ) + m& RH (h4 h3 )

=
Q& in

Reheater outlet

Reheater outlet

Fuel

 Reheater inlet

Heat

Superheater
outlet

 Reheater inlet


Air

Superheater
outlet

Exhaust gases

Feedwater inlet

Simple model

Heat loss

Feedwater inlet

Actual

Thermodynamic Analysis (2)

3. Other method:
heat loss method

(HHV) Lossi
B =
(HHV)

100%

4. Major sources of losses from boiler system:

a. Incomplete combustion
[2.5~3.0%]
b. Unburned carbon
[1~2%]
c. Sensible heat of dry gas
[~10%]
d. Evaporation of moisture in fuel [5~6% for coal]
e. Evaporation of moisture in air [ 0.5~0.8%]
f. Thermal radiation of boiler
[~0.2%]
5. Methods to calculate boiler losses:
a. approximate: data from fuel analysis & flue gas Orsat analysis
b. more accurate: ASME Power Test Code 4.1

Thermodynamic Analysis (3)

6. Thermal loads in steam generators:
a. Economiser:

Drum
Superheater

qe = m& (heo hei )

Reheater

b. Boiler:
c. Superheater:
d. Air heater:

qb = m& (hg heo )

Boiler

Economiser

q sh = m& (hsh hg )

qah = m& a (hae hai )

m& a C p (Tae Tai )

7. Heat rate HR:

rate of heat added to steam generator
Heat Rate =
Net plant power output, kW

Air
heater

Operation (1)
1. Steam generator is primarily designed to generate steam at rated
load, i.e. under specified pressure, temperature and flowrate
conditions
2. This is achieved once stable conditions has been established
a. correct thermal gradient
c. expansions completed
b. all clearances are normal
d. shaft alignment within limit
3. Types of plant start-up:
a. Cold start
b. Warm start
d. Very hot start

c. Hot start

Operation (2)
4. Typical conditions for cold start:
a. plant shut down for
long period (> 48 hours)

d. boiler depressurised
& drained

b. turbine metal temperature

< 298C

e. turbine shaft at rest

c. feedwater system drained

5. Typical conditions for warm start:
a. plant shut down for
between 8 to 48 hours
b. turbine metal temperature
between 298 - 400C

c. boiler steam between

50C above turbine
metal temperature
d. turbine shaft on barring

Operation (3)
6. Typical conditions for hot start:
a. plant shut down between 2 to 8 hours
b. turbine metal temperature > 400C
c. boiler steam 50C above turbine metal temperature
d. turbine shaft on barring
7. Typical maximum rate of metal
temperature increase is 5C per minute

8. Planning and operational activities required to bring large

unit from cold to full load are indicated by its critical path

Dr. Mohd Hariffin Boosroh

Operation (4)

Steam Turbines: Boiler

CRITICAL PATH OF BOILER START-UP

Feed pump check

D/A filling pump check

Fill D/A

Prime & start feed pump

Prime HP heaters

Fill boiler

Sootblower system check

Main steam and reheat drains check

Reheat safety v/v check

HP chemical dosing check

Boiler drains & vents check

Boiler dampers & actuator check

Dose prepared

Dose to chemist instruction

Fill boiler

Start air heater

Boiler inspection doors check

Precipitator check

ID fan pre-start check

FD fan pre-start check

Burner pre-start check

PA fan, blowdown vessel, sprays and pumps pre-start check

Boiler recirculation & spray

Start ID fan

Start FD fan

Burner i/s

Raise boiler pressure

Maintenance (1)
1. Typical problems/maintenance:
a. Tube scales
d. Foaming
b. Tube fouling
e. Tube corrosion
c. Tube slagging
f. Caustic embrittlement
2. Corrosion:
* metal oxidation which forms rust that goes into
solution in the boiler water
* also due to electrolytic action of two metals
* prevention: removal of dissolved O2 via deaeration,
Corrosion 1
sacrificial anodes

Maintenance (2)
3. Scale formation:
* hard substance created when mineral salts
come out of solution as their solubility drops

steam

* typical components: calcium sulphate, calcium

and magnesium carbonates, and silicates
* adhere directly to heating surfaces =>
substantially decreases heat transfer efficiency

Tube rupture due

to scale

* results in metal fatigue/failure causing overheating,

energy waste, high maintenance costs and safety risks
* prevention: settling tanks, distillation of water,
chemical treatment e.g. slaked lime, soda, phosphates

Maintenance (2)
4. Fouling:
* Accumulation of ash on heating surfaces
* Occur when volatile matters & Al2O3, SiO2
etc. co-exist

steam

* Prevention:
- approach temperature of convection heat surface is limited to
under vapor point of volatile constituents (approx. 800oC)
- Sooblowing
5. Slagging:
* Melting ash that adheres to furnace wall & heating surfaces
* Composed of composed of Al2O3,SiO2,Fe2O3,MgO,CaO etc.
* Prevention:
- Design burner zone heat rate within adequately suitable range
- Sootblowing

Maintenance (3)
6. Foaming:
* concentrations of soluble salts create bubbles in steam
* can cause priming: bubbles break & create liquid
that later form slugs of water
=> destructive to steam blades, valves & piping
* prevention: steam traps

Steam traps

7. Caustic embrittlement:
* hairline cracks in highly stressed areas due to high
concentrations of alkaline salts
* alkaline salts liberate hydrogen, absorbed by iron in
steel, changing its physical properties

Maintenance (4)
8. Water treatment:
* Purpose: to provide plant with properly treated water in
sufficient quantities to meet plant needs
* Treatment methods:
Chemical treatment

Conditioning the water to pre-determined

levels by using a variety of chemicals

Demineralization

Replacement of specific inorganic

salts by ion exchange

Deaeration

Removal of dissolved oxygen and carbon

dioxide by heating and bombarding the
water with steam
Deaerator

Summary
1. Steam generators are applied for utility and industrial uses
2. Types of steam generators: fire-tube and water-tube
3. Types of water-tube steam generators: natural-circulation,
controlled-circulation, and once-through
4. Main components: boiler (furnace), drum, economiser,
superheater, reheater, air heater
5. Performance is represented by boiler (steam generator) efficiency
6. Boiler start-up operation is determined by the its initial state:
cold, warm or hot start-up
7. Boiler tube maintenance: scaling, fouling, corrosion,
foaming and caustic embrittlement

Industrial Fire-tube Boiler

1. Water Level Controls

2. Main Steam Outlet Valve
3. Steam Separator
4. Safety Valve
5. Manhole for Access and Inspection
6. Flue Outlet Flanged Rear or Top
7. Twin Reflex Gauges
8. Feed Water Pump Interconnected to Boiler

9. Reverse Flame
10. Off Inspection Belly Handholes
11. Supporting Beams
12. Steam Space
13. Self-Adjusting Hinges
14. Automatic Burner High/Low Modulating
15. Tubes
16. Opening Door with Ceramic Fibre Insulation
17. No Tubes Above Furnace

Water-tube Boiler
MHI Boiler

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COMPARESON OF TYPE OF STEAM GENERATOR

TYPE

Natural
Circulation Boi:er
Si-t

Flow
Scheme

Forced
Circulation Boiler

-Jnh

SH
w

~~~ecoN

EVAP

Once through
Steam Generator

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EVAP

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Oncethrough Steam
Generator
(Capable ol sliding
pressure operation)

tiDir,
.-.,..

SEP
~BRP

.EVAP

?'

'ECON

Circu'ia'tion Pump
Applicable
Pressure Range

Subcritical

Subcritical

Subcritical
Supercrltical

Subcritical
Supercrltlcal

Steam Condition
(CJCampte)

t 7MPa >< 538/538'C

t7MPa x 538/538'C

24MPa >< 538i538'C

Efliclency

1.00

1.00

1.02

1.02

Applicabele
capacity

- 900 MW

-900 MW

- 1300MW

- 1300 MW

24MPa x 538/536'C

Economiser

Economiser tubes with fins

Steam Drum
STEAM DRUM INT
Cyclon e
Se parat or

HORIZONTAL SEPARATOR
DRY BOX

Gl RTH BAFFLE
CHEVRON DRYER

Riss er No
In ne r Chemical
Fee d Pipe

Intermittent
-.......
'- "'..._ BIOIJlJd a11.1n Pipe
''- Cont inuous
Blor11.1d Oll\rn Pipe
Vo rtice Breaker

CONTINUOUS BLOW

--+-'t:,_....~~Y

DOWN INTERNAL PIPE

405 t/h steam drum

Waterwalls

Waterwalls/Risers

Red hot
risers

Boiler furnace

Superheater inspection

Air Heater
Ljungstrom (ABB)
Ljungstrom

Rothemuhle (B&W)

Burners (1)

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Burners (2)

Burner CFD simulation

Tube scale & corrosion

Creep failure of reheater tube due to thick oxide scale

Scale and corrosion inside tube

Boiler tube maintenance

Tube Material and Chemical Composition

1\abc Material

Si

Mn

STB340

::10. 18

ST64t0

:!i0.32

:00.35
n

0.30- 0.60
0.30 - 0.60

MITISTil480
STOSIO

::10.30
::10,25

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1.00-1.50

MJTISTDAJO

:00.10

0.20-0.80

:00.80

STOA12
STilA20
MlTISTBA2l

:00.10

0.29-1.06

0.10- 0.20 0.10- 0.50 0.30- 0.80

n
0.10-0.20
0.30-0.60
N

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STIIA22

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:00.50

0.30- 0.60

STUA23

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:00.08

~0.5

0.30- 0.70

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MITISTOA28

0,.08- 0.12 0.20- 0.50 0.30- 0.60

SUS304tl'l'll

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SUS316H1'8

SUS32111TIJ
SUS347HTil

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Application
EVA I'

II

II

ECON

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IiCON

Ni

Cr

Mo

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Others

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0.45- 0.65

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0.50- 0.80

0.40-0.65

II

II

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liVA I'

0.80- 1.25

0.20-0.(5

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0.80- 1.25

0.45- 0.65

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EVA I'

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1.80-2.20

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v : 0.18-0.25

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8.00- 9.50

0.85- 1.05

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12.00-16.00

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N : 0.250-0.400

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12.50-15.50

23.00- 26.00
21 .00 - 23.00

0.05-1.20

MITISUS309J2TB

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23.00 - 26.00

0.50- 1.20

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N : 0.250- 0.400

:00.10

:01.50

17.00-23.00

23.00-27.00

0.07-0.14
0.04-0.10

::1 1.00

II

9.00-12.00

17.50- 19.50

f.VA P

~0.75

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9.00- 13.00

17.00- 20.00

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"

EVA I'
F.V,\1'

MITISUS321J I II 'I'll

Nb: 0.20-0. 60 N : 0.15-0.35

Nb: "O.lO
(Nb/2+Ti)/C: 0.6 - 2.5

II

Nb: 8XC %:SI.OO

F. VA l'

II

v : 0.20- 0.30 Nb: ;:5;0.20

MITIS US347J lilT II

MITISUS410J211TIJ

Chemical Ctunposition (%)

::10.14

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0.30 - 0.70

17.00- 20.00

11 .00- 13.00

10 0.0~0

0.80- 1.20

:00.030
:00.030

: 0.0.'10-0.070 Al : ~0.04

:0.80-1.20

F.VAP

EVAP

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Sootblowers

Sootblower operation

Sootblower gun

Tube fouling

,(

Tube scaling & corrosion

Tube corrosion
Tube scale

Tube split due to corrosion

Steam traps
Disc steam trap

Float steam trap

Deaerator
z:

1-

LLI

>.

,__
..-----

Iii
~ ~~iii~

Boiler heat transfer area

eat Tr,anafrer
e:lul1
eat
Transf 'S.urfaG

In BoHars

Relali

at

baorbed

100

HeB' Absorb

r,..;,ne:der Sur face

~ -

lEe o nr.;ma z-e r

. . Bel ler !Bank

~r

l iester

El

Su ocr hef' rer

Dr. Mohd Hariffin Boosroh

Boiler furnace

Steam Turbines: Boiler

Types of Flames

FGD Process Flow diagram

DESULFURilED GAS

flUE GAS

STACK

HEAT EXCHANGER

AMBIENT AIR

SEAWATER -----------------'-----~-----o~.-a.

SEAWATER DISCHARGE