Safety features on LNG ships*

F.S. Harris
F.S. Harris Ltd, 14 Karen Close, Hethersett, Norwich NR9 3DG, UK
The technology to transport liquefied natural gas (LNG) safely by sea is well established and
many variations of cargo containment systems have been tested and developed since the
early 1950s. Examples of four current LNG ships incorporating different containment
systems are briefly described. Safety features are examined, now considered standard
practice on a modern LNG carrier, which have made a major contribution to the outstandingly good record of LNG ship operations. Examples are given of some LNG ship casualty
incidents.
Keywords:

LNG; safety; sea t r a n s p o r t a t i o n

How many safety features are there on a typical liquefied

natural gas (LNG) carrier? A difficult question to
answer, especially considering the complexities of the
construction and characteristics of the cargo. Without
doubt it is the cargo itself that makes one of the largest
contributions to the overall safety of L N G ships.
The capital costs of gas carrier new-buildings, the
multinational nature of a complete project, together with
the potential market value of the gas, govern that only
major companies are involved in the L N G shipping
business. Responsible owners and operators of LNG
carriers include oil and gas majors, and state controlled
companies such as Shell, BP, British Gas, NYK, MOL, K
Lines, Gazocean, Phillips Petroleum, Marathon Oil,
Energy Transportation, Woodside Petroleum, BHP Petroleum, Gotaas-Larsen, Burmah Oil, Malaysian International Shipping and SNTM-HYPROC.
At the carriage temperature of - 163C, the density of
L N G is 450 kg m - 3, which is less that half the weight of
water. This comparatively light and clean cargo is
shipped on dedicated routes in a uniformly loaded condition. On the return ballast leg the large water ballast
capacity of the L N G ship is also loaded uniformly with
the result that the hull girder is not subjected to large
bending moments or excessive shear force loads which
can be experienced on oil tankers or bulk carriers of
similar dimensions.
The shipping sector is a vital link in the overall L N G
chain for the success of the complete project and therefore the ships must be reliable and safe. Sister ships
operating on the same dedicated trade offer a considerable margin of safety in an emergency situation if a
transfer of cargo at sea should be required.
Designers were given the challenge of transporting
L N G by sea and to solve the problems relating to a light

*Paper presented at the "Low Temperature Engineering and Cryogenics Conference', 13-1 5 July 1992, Southampton, UK
0011-2275/93/080772~96
1993 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd

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Cryogenics 1993 Vol 33, No 8

cargo requiring to be carried at atmospheric pressure in a

fully refrigerated condition at - 163C. From the 1950s
onwards marine engineers, naval architects, chemists,
scientists, cryogenic specialists, multinational companies,
learned bodies and shipbuilders across the world have
strived to produce the perfect L N G containment system.
The multitude of problems were overcome and 34 years
ago in 1958 the first commercial carriage of L N G by sea
was made by a 5125 m 3 converted cargo ship Methane
Pioneer.
What can be said about all of the successful containment systems, and most of the unsuccessful ones too, is
that they represent the highest professional standards in
terms of engineering, design, testing and construction.
Containment

systems

Today the total number of L N G ships in service and on

order is 90. To illustrate the current stage reached, details
of four examples of recent designs incorporating different
containment systems are briefly described, which in
themselves highlight many of the safety features to be
found on L N G carriers.

Technigaz membrane
Beginning with the smallest ship, Figure 1 shows an
outline arrangement of the 18 800 m 3 L N G carrier on
order, for the Nippon Yusen Kaisha (NYK)/Perbadanan
National Shipping Line joint partnership, from Japanese
shipbuilder NKK, incorporating the French developed
Technigaz Mark III membrane containment system.
The key to the Technigaz membrane system is the use
of waffled stainless steel for the membrane primary
barrier. The membrane is a flexible liner with a series of
corrugations perpendicular to each other which resist
thermal changes and ship bending deflections. The Mark
III design benefits from the experience gained from
earlier Technigaz membrane designs and includes an

Safety features on LNG ships: F.S. Harris

Shipbuilders
Owners
Delivery
Length o.a.
Length b.p.
Breadth moulded
Depth moulded
Draught
Service speed

Figure 1

NKK
NYK/Perbad
1993
130.00 m
124.00 m
25.70 m
16.60 m
6.50 m
15.0 knots

1 8 8 0 0 m 3 Technigaz membrane LNG carrier outline arrangement

aluminium foil-fibreglass composite secondary barrier

(Triplex) and a load bearing insulation system consisting
of a bonded sandwich of plywood and fibreglass-reinforced rigid polyurethane foam.
The hull structure is arranged with internal flat surfaces for the insulation and membrane, which are provided by a double bottom, double side hull and double deck,
with transverse cofferdam bulkheads between each cargo
hold.
A prototype 630 m 3 vessel Pythagore was delivered in
1964 to Gazocean from Duchesne et Bossiere shipyard
Le Havre with two cargo tanks. The containment was
provided by two stainless steel membranes, cellular insulation and two layers of plywood. The ship carried two
L N G cargoes and then traded with L P G and ethylene
until 1973.
The N K K new-building will trade, as part of a 20 year
supply contract, from Bintulu, Malaysia to Japan for the
city gas utility Saibu Gas, which serves the northern part
of Kyushu Island. The contract price was reported as
around US$78 million.

IHI SPB prismatic tank system

Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co. Ltd, Japan
have developed L N G carrier designs based on selfsupporting prismatic tanks made from aluminium alloy,
similar to the pioneering Conch L N G system. The concept has been named the IH[ SPB System, with SPB an
abbreviation of 'Self-supporting Prismatic-shape IMO
type B'. The design meets IMO type B requirements with
a partial secondary barrier and is based on extensive
structural and fatigue analysis of the tanks and tank
supports, and rigid quality control conditions. The cargo
tanks are positioned by use of supports, keys and chocks
which prevent bodily movement of the tank under static
and dynamic loads, while allowing contraction and expansion of the tanks under temperature variations and
hull deflections.
In 1988, IHI delivered a 1516m 3 ethylene carrier
Kayoh Maru which incorporated the SPB LNG system.
The tanks were designed as L N G tanks and tested at
- 165cC with liquid nitrogen. Figure 2 shows the outline
arrangement of the 87 500 m 3 SPB L N G carrier, two of

i L
!iIll ' ~!

Shipbuilders
Owners
Delivery
Length o.a.
Length b.p.
Breadth moulded
Depth moulded
Draught
Service speed
Figure 2

IHI
Phillips/Marathon
(2) 1993
239.00 m
226.00 m
40.00 m
26.80 m
10.10 m
18.5 knots

87 500 m 3 SPB LNG carrier outline arrangement

Cryogenics 1993 Vol 33, No 8

773

Safety features on LNG ships: F.S. Harris

which are under construction at IHI's Aichi works, for
Phillips 66 Natural Gas Company and Marathon Oil
Company. The ships are due for delivery in 1993 and will
trade from Kenai, Alaska to the Tokyo Bay area of
Japan, and will replace the 71 500 m 3 Gaz Transport
membrane carriers Polar Alaska and Arctic Tokyo,
which have successfully served the same trade since 1969.

Gaz Transport membrane

In 1991, Chantiers de l'Atlantique of St Nazaire, France,
brought LNG carrier construction back to Europe after
an interval of 14 years, by winning a contract to built five
L N G carriers for Petronas, the national oil and gas
company of Malaysia. Figure 3 shows an outline arrangement of the 130 000 m 3 Gaz Transport membrane L N G
carrier. The cost of each ship was said to be US$260
million.
The key to the French developed Gaz Transport
system is the use of invar for the membrane. Invar is a
36~o nickel steel alloy that has a very low coefficient of
thermal expansion, with almost no shrinkage over the
temperature range of ambient to - 163C required for
tile carriage of LNG. The hull structure of ships built to
the Gaz Transport system are arranged with internal fiat
surfaces similar to the Technigaz design.
A layer of insulation, made from plywood boxes filled
with loose perlite, is attached to the inner hull as the
secondary insulation. Flat invar membrane strips with
upturned edges are fitted on the plywood boxes to form
the secondary barrier. Another layer of plywood boxes
filled with loose perlite is then fitted, followed by a second
invar layer to form the primary barrier.
The Gaz Transport membrane was developed during
the early 1960s and as a testbed the 29866 m 3 L PG
carrier Hypolite Worms was built by Constructions Navales et Industrielles de la Mediterranee (CNIM) with a
single invar membrane. Completed in 1968, with many
lessons learnt, the ship traded with L PG until converted
in 1974 and was sold, as a Ro-Ro cargo ship, to breakers
in 1984.

Moss spherical tank system

The spherical independent tanks sector for LNG carriers
is dominated by the designs of Norwegian gas specialists

r --

Figure 3

774

Moss Rosenberg. The development of the spherical tank

containment system stems in part from the successful use
of pressurized spheres for LPG carriers and from improved analytical methods which enable finite element
analysis to be made of the tank structural materials and
fracture mechanics studies to be carried out.
Figure4 shows an outline arrangement of the
137000 m 3 Moss spherical tank LNG carrier Ekaputra.
Delivered in 1990 from the Nagasaki Works of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd, Japan for Cometco Shipping
Inc., the ship is the largest LNG carrier built so far. The
cargo tank spheres are constructed of aluminium alloy
and are supported only at their equator by the ship's
structure. A full secondary barrier is not required and
instead a small-leak protection system or partial secondary barrier is fitted. Tanks are insulated with phenol resin
foam and polyurethane foam. A weather protection is
provided for the above deck parts of the spheres.
Ekaputra is now in service between Badak, Indonesia and
Kaoshiung, Taiwan with a contract to deliver about 1.5
million tonnes of LNG per year over 20 years. The order
placed in 1987 for this single new building was reported
as in the region of US$140 million.

International Gas Carrier Code

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) Code
for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying
Liquefied Gases in Bulk was published in 1976 to provide
international standards for the safe carriage of liquefied
gas by sea in bulk. An edition incorporating amendments
1-4 was published in 1983.
In June 1983 the Gas Carrier Code - 1983 Edition was
adopted by the Maritime Safety Committee of IMO as
The International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (IGC
Code). The 1983 Amendments to Chapter VII of the 1974
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS) makes the provisions of the IGC Code mandatory under that Convention. The IGC Code applies to
ships built or converted after 1986.
LNG carriers built since 1976 can be expected to have
incorporated into their design all the safety features
recommended by the Gas Carrier Code and each will
have been issued with a Certificate of Fitness.

Shipbuilders
Owners
Delivery
Length o.a.
Length b.p.
Breadth moulded
Depth moulded
Draught
Service speed

Chantiers de l'Atlantique
Petronas
(5) 1994/1997
271.60 m
260.80 m
43.30 m
25.40 m
11.00 m
21.0 knots

130000 m3 Gaz Transport membrane LNG carrier outline arrangement

Cryogenics 1993 Vol 33, No 8

Safety features on LNG ships. F.S. Harris

Name
Shipbuilders
Owners
Delivery
Length o.a.
Length b.p.
Breadthmoulded
Depth moulded
Draught
Servicespeed

Figure 4

EKAPUTRA
Mitsubishi
H.I.
CometcoShippingInc.
1990
290.00 m
276.00 m
46.00 m
25.50 m
11.80 m
18.5 knots

137 000 m 3 Moss spherical tank LNG carrier outline arrangement

M a t e r i a l s of Construction
Materials for the hull plating and stiffening, cargo tanks,
cargo piping and welding requirements are especially
selected and tested to suit their applications. Requirements include tensile tests, bend tests, Charpy V-notch
toughness tests and weld production tests. The extent of
the testing depends on the design temperature. Crack
arresting grades of steel are incorporated in the hull
structure at the deck, sheer strake and bilge strake.

Cargo c o n t a i n m e n t
The cargo containment systems, either with independent
tanks or membranes, are designed to take into account
combinations of various loads, including internal and
external pressure, dynamic loads due to the motion of the
ship, thermal loads, sloshing loads, loads corresponding
to ship deflections, tanks and cargo weight with the
corresponding reactions by way of the supports, and
insulation weight and loads by way of towers and other
attachments.

Piping systems for cargo or cargo vapours are segregated

from other piping systems. Entrances, air inlets and
openings to accommodation, service stations and control
stations do not face the cargo area. All air intakes and
openings in the accommodation, service station and
control station spaces can be closed gas-tight. Access to
spaces considered gas-dangerous and cargo tanks is
provided to allow entry and inspection by personnel
wearing protective clothing and breathing apparatus.

Cargo piping systems

Cargo piping systems, including vapour and vent lines of
safety valves, are free to contract and expand under
temperature changes and from movements of the cargo
tanks or hull deflections. Where necessary, piping must
include mechanical expansion joints, insulation, electric
bonding and sufficient safety relief valves. All liquid and
vapour connections, except safety relief valves and liquid
level gauging devices, have shut-off valves as close to the
tank as possible.

Ship survival capability

Pressu re relief systems

In connection with ship survival, IMO considers L N G

carriers as Type 1G ships. If the length of the ship is over
! 50 m the ship should be capable of sustaining side and
bottom damage anywhere along its length and remain
afloat in a condition of stable equilibrium, based on
assumed maximum areas of damage. Minimum distances
are required for the location of the cargo tanks from the
side and bottom shell depending on the length of the
L N G carrier.

Pressure relief systems are fitted at each cargo tank and

throughout the cargo piping and set to lift at the design
limit of the system. A typical setting for the relief valves
for a L N G carrier would be 0.25 kg cm-2. Each LNG
cargo tank is fitted with two pressure relief valves of
equal capacity. The pressure relief valves are connected
to a vent system to discharge through vent masts with
outlets located as high as possible above the main deck.

S u b m e r g e d cargo pumps
Segregation of cargo area
The cargo area of the L N G carrier is segregated from the
main machinery and boiler spaces, service and control
stations, chain lockers, drinking and domestic water
tanks and stores by gas-tight steel bulkheads. Cargo
spaces are located forward of the machinery spaces.

A pair of electrical submerged pumps are fitted at the

base of each cargo tank for discharge. Power is supplied
to the pump motor through stainless steel sheathed
cables which pass through a gas-tight seal in the tank
dome. Submerged pumps and their motors are cooled
and lubricated by the cargo.

C r y o g e n i c s 1 9 9 3 V o l 33, N o 8

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Safety features on LNG ships: F.S. Harris

Emergency shut-down
The emergency shut-down (ESD) systems on L N G ships
will operate automatically due to loss of electric or
control power, valve actuator power or fire at the tank
domes or cargo manifolds. In addition, at various locations around the ship, stop control points are provided to
close the emergency shut-down system and stop cargo
pumps and equipment as necessary.

domes, deck storage tanks, cargo manifolds and control

valves, as well as the boundaries of the accommodation
or control rooms which face the cargo area. A dry
chemical powder system with at least two hand hoses or
combined monitor/hand hose line is fitted to reach any
part of the deck in the cargo area. In addition, enclosed
gas-dangerous spaces are provided with fixed fire extinguishing systems. At least five firemen's outfits are
available on a L N G carrier.

Electrical arrangements

Personnel protection

Certified safe type electrical equipment is fitted in gasdangerous spaces to minimize the risk of fire and explosion. The systems include flame proof and intrinsically
safe equipment and wiring.

Crew members engaged in cargo operations are provided

with suitable safety equipment. A complete set of safety
equipment consists of self-contained breathing apparatus, protective clothing, boots, gloves and goggles, a steel
rescue line and an explosion proof lamp.

Purging and inerting

Each cargo tank can be safely gas-freed and safely purged
with cargo gas from a gas-freed condition. Gas sampling
points are provided for each cargo tank to monitor the
progress of purging and gas-freeing. As appropriate,
interbarrier and hold spaces can be made inert depending
on the type of containment system. Inert gas is produced
onboard L N G carriers from a generator located in the
machinery spaces. Production is carefully monitored
with alarms set at a maximum of 5 ~ oxygen content by
volume.

Instrumentation
The instrumentation on a L N G carrier is extensive in
order to monitor all aspects of the cargo handling
systems. Level indicators, liquid level alarms, pressure
gauges and thermometers are fitted throughout the cargo
tanks and cargo handling systems. A fixed system of gas
detection with audible and visual alarms is fitted with
sampling heads located in all spaces where vapour may
accumulate. The equipment will take samples on a continuous basis at intervals not exceeding 30 min. Portable
gas detection equipment is also carried onboard. Instruments are tested for reliability in the working conditions
and recalibrated at regular intervals.

Use of cargo as fuel

On L N G carriers the cargo boil-off vapours are utilized
as fuel in the main machinery rooms and boiler rooms.
The locations of the gas fuel pipe lines are carefully
arranged and do not pass through any accommodation
spaces with the whole system being controlled, ventilated
and monitored.

Fire protection and fire extinguishing

Four separate fire protection and fire extinguishing systems are available on L N G carriers. Structural fire
protection and equipment required for the accommodation and the ship in general are installed as per SOLAS. A
fire water main system is fitted which is capable of
reaching any part of the cargo area with at least two jets
of water. A fixed water spray system covers the tank

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Cryogenics 1993 Vol 33, No 8

LNG casualty incidents

L N G carriers have been involved in collisions, groundings, membrane damage, valve and pump failures, loss of
propulsion and L N G leaks during loading, but without
any serious consequences, other than financial, for the
operators. There has been no incident where a cargo tank
containment system has ruptured and caused a spill of
L N G to the sea. The following are some brief descriptions of casualty incidents.

19th November 1969: Polar Alaska

During L N G loading at Kenai, Alaska, gas leaking was
detected at the no. 1 cargo tank primary barrier on the
71 500 m 3 Gaz Transport membrane L N G carrier. Invar
strakes creased in numerous locations. Cable trays broke
loose and caused damage. The vessel continued in service
without using the no. 1 cargo tank and the damage was
repaired at a later date.

29th June 1979:E1 Paso Paul Kayser

After taking avoiding action to prevent a collision in fog
at 23:30 hours the 125 000 m 3 Gaz Transport membrane
L N G carrier ran on to rocks and grounded in the Straits
of Gibraltar when loaded with 95 500 m 3 of LNG. The
bottom shell and double bottom were extensively
damaged ever almost the full length of the cargo spaces.
The invar membrane was indented but remained liquidtight. There was no cargo spillage. The vessel was refloated on 4th July and on l l t h July the transfer of the
cargo of L N G to sister ship El Paso Sonatrach was
completed. The damaged ship was then gas-freed, inerted
and towed to Lisbon for temporary repairs. Later the
vessel proceeded under her own power to the ship's
original building yard at Dunkerque for full repair work.

3rd October 1980: LNG Libra

On a fully loaded voyage from Bontang, Indonesia to
Japan the 126 750 m 3 Moss spherical tank L N G carrier
was left without propulsion when the tail shaft fractured.
The Philippine Authorities gave permission for the vessel
to be towed to sheltered waters in Davao Gulf where the
L N G was transferred to sister ship L N G Leo using two
flexible cargo hoses. The transfer began at 23:10 hours on
10th October and was completed at 07:10 hours on 12th

Safety features on LNG ships. F.S. Harris

October. LNG Libra was then towed to Singapore for
repairs.

12th December 1980: LNG Taurus

The 126750m 3 Moss spherical tank L N G carrier
grounded in strong winds at Mutsure Anchorage, near
the end of a loaded voyage from Bontang, Indonesia to
Tobata, Japan. Approximately 40~o of the double bottom
was breached and open to the sea. Severe weather
conditions with gale force winds and 3 m waves around
the vessel hampered the salvage operations. Fuel from
the bunkers was transferred to a barge and the damaged
ballast spaces pressurized. The vessel was refloated on
16th December and then towed to Tobata where the full
cargo of L N G was discharged on 18th December.

June 1983: Tenaga Satu

Cargo pump defects caused damage to the no. I cargo
tank on the 130000 m 3 Gaz Transport membrane L N G
carrier. Approximately l l 0 m 2 of the invar primary
barrier was renewed and patches fitted at Yokohama,
Japan in June 1984.

9th February 1984: Ramdane Abane

During the discharge of Algerian L N G at Montoir,
France a cargo leak was noted through the no. 5 cargo
tank membrane on the 126 190 m 3 Gaz Transport membrane L N G carrier. The vessel was taken to the roads for
gas-freeing and inspection. Several suction manifolds
were also found to be cracked. Repairs were later carried
out at St Nazaire, France.

14th June 1985: Isabella

A cargo valve failed on the 35491 m a Gaz Transport
membrane L N G carrier at the beginning of the L N G
discharge at Barcelona, Spain after a voyage from

Skikda, Algeria. L N G from the no. 1 cargo tank overflowed on to the main deck, causing severe cracks to the
steelwork. The tank was discharged without further
incident. Extensive repairs were required resulting from
the spill.

15th February 1989: Tellier

Moorings broke on the 40081 m 3 Technigaz membrane
L N G carrier, due to 160 km h 1 winds, during L N G
loading at Skikda, Algeria. Four terminal loading arms
were damaged and L N G leaked to the main deck causing
extensive damage to the steelwork and upper primary
and secondary barriers in the no. 3 cargo tank. The vessel
delivered L N G to Fos, France on 16th February. Steelwork repairs were carried out at Marseilles and the ship
returned to service in June with one of the five cargo
tanks out of commission. Permanent repairs to the
containment system were completed at Marseilles in
October 1990.

Conclusions
The safe transportation of L N G by sea now spans 34
years. Developments have been gradual, with all components both large and small thoroughly tried and tested
before being used in practice. This brief presentation
shows that the safety features of L N G carriers have in no
small way contributed to the excellent operational record.

Acknowledgements
The assistance received from Chantiers de l'Atlantique
and Japanese shipbuilders N K K , IHI and Mitsubishi HI
in supplying information and data on their latest L N G
carrier designs is gratefully acknowledged.

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