a)

b)
c)
d)
e)
)
g)

Manual Metal Arc Process (MMA)

1) Mode of Operation:Manual

Stick (SMAW) Arc welding is a a manual process using a flux coated consumable
electrode with a metal rod at the core. Alternating current or direct current forms an arc
between the electrode and the base metal creates the required heat. In the United States
it is the most common method used.
The flux coating disintegrates and gives off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and
provides a protective layer of slag. Both protect the weld area from atmospheric
contamination. As the metal rod inside the electrode melts it forms a molten pool which
becomes the weld.
There are several variables the welder can control that will impact the width and height
of the weld bead, the penetration of the weld and the quantity of spatter.
Stick welding is inexpensive when compared with other methods such as TIG, is portable
and works with any thickness and in any position. The major downside is the slag created
during the welding process along with slower speeds (unless you are highly skilled).

2) Principle of Operation:
Arc is struck between short flux bonded metal electrode &
the work piece. Both the electrode & work piece surface melt to form a weld pool.
Simultaneously melting of flux coating on the rod will form a gas & slag which protects
the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere. One of the weld run is completed the
slag must be chipped off.
3) Basic Equipment requirement:
Transformer rectifier (constant current (dropping) characteristic)
Power / Power return cables
Electrode holders.
Visor with lens
Electrode
Electrode oven (bakes up to 350 C)
Holding oven (temp. up to 200 C)
4) Arc striking: The arc is struck by striking the electrode on the surface of the plate &
withdrawing it a small distance. Maintain short, constant arc length.
5) Weld refining & cleaning : Refining & cleaning compounds within the bonded flux.
6) Process variable parameters:
a) OCV (Open Circuit Voltage) Requirement to initiate or re-ignite the arc &
change with type of electrode being used. Arc voltage changes with change in
arc length.
b) Current : Type & value of current will be determined by the choice of electrode
classification, diameter, material type, thickness & welding position.
c) Polarity : AC/DC+/- (Electrode + or - & polarity reversible or straight) or
electrode coating being used.
d) Full electrode specification & diamter : Should be correctly written on electrode
& electrode box.
e) Electrode pre-use: Basic coated electrodes (i) should be baked at 350 C for 1
Hr. (ii) Held in holding ovens at 150 C (iii) Finally in a heated quiver (around
70C0 with welder for welding.
f) Speed of travel: High dependant on the skill of a welder.

7) Consumables: Core solid wire between 350 & 450mm & 2.5-6mm diameter, covered
with bonded flux coating core wire generally low quality steel. Electrodes are grouped
depending on the main constituent in their flux coating. The common groups arc
Basic Calcium carbonate & calcium fluoride (Electrode no. ending with5,6&8)
Cellulosic Cellulose (Electode no. ending with 0 &1)
Rutile Titania (Electrode no. ending with 2,3, &4)
8) Typical imperfections:
i) Slag inclusions : Poor welding technique & insufficient inter run cleaning.
ii) Hydrogen cracks : Incorrect electrode type or baking procedure.
9) Advantages:
i) Range of consumables.
ii) All positional.
10) Disadvantages
i) High level of generated fumes.
ii) Hydrogen control
iii) Positional capabilities : All positional but depend on consumable.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

1. Mode of Operation: Usually automatic but it can be semi-automatic.
2. Principle of Operation: Granular flux & bare solid wire is used. Arc is submerged
hence no visible sign of arc. Arc melts the electrode wire, flux & some base metal to form
weld puddle.
Submerged arc welding is a process in which the joining of metals is produced by heating
with an arc or arcs between a base metal electrode or electrodes and the work.
The arc is shielded by a blanket of granular fusible material on the work.
Pressure is not used.
Filler metal is obtained from the electrode or from a supplementary welding rod.
3. Basic equipment requirements:
(i)

(v)

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Flux
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)

Transformer / rectifier (constant voltage( flat )characteristic)

Head/Hose assembly
Power return cable
Wire feed unit
hopper / delivery / recovery system
Run on/off tabs
Tractor carriage
Fume extraction.

4. Arc Striking:
Wire contact is made by the advancement of the wire by mechanical drive.
5. Arc & Weld shielding:
Granular flux uses to generate protective gases & slag, & to add alloying elements to the
weld pool.
6. Weld refining & cleaning: Refining & cleaning compounds within the flux
7. Process variable parameters:
a) OCV (Open Circuit Voltage): Required to initiate or re-ignite the electric arc.

b) Arc Voltage: Changes with arc length. Arc is submerged any changes in arc length
will change in weld metal composition .
c) Current / WFS (Wire Feed Speed): Increasing the wire feed speed automatically
increases the current in the wire.
d) Polarity: AC/DC +/- .
e) Flux type & size:
(i)
Fused fluxes: acidic type.
(ii)
Agglomerated fluxes (Bonded fluxes): basic type.
The shape of the flux is granular
f) Electrode wire type & diameter: High quality wire in 2.4 6 mm diameter in coils.
Large diameter reduces penetration.
g) Electrode wire / flux specification: Composition & grading is selected to suit the
electrode & parent metal.
h) Wire Feed Speed( WFS): Increasing the wire feed speed automatically increases
the current in the wire.
8) Consumables: High quality drawn wire & granular flux.
i)

Typical welding imperfections:

a. Centerline cracks : Deep & narrow welds.
(ii)
Shrinkage cavities: caused by a weld depth / width ration of > 3/2
9) )Advantages
a)High productivity
b)No visible arc light
11)
Disadvantages

a. Restricted in positional welding

b. Variable compositions (Arc length)
Positional Capabilities: Flat only, but may be H/V butt welds.

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG) WELDING PROCESS

Mode of Operation: Manual but can be semi-automatic

TIG welding (GTAW or gas tungsten) is an arc welding process that
operates at high temperature (over 6,000 degrees Fahrenheit) to melt and heat
metals. While it is more expensive than stick welding, it is cleaner and more
versatile (works on steel, aluminum, brass and many other metals).It results is
high quality welds.
On the downside the equipment is more expensive and the process is slower than
other welding processes. Unlike GMAW or MIG welding, a non-consumable
(doesn't get melted) tungsten electrode is used. The electrode creates an
electrical arc which produces the required heat. The Tig torch is cooled by air or
water and the process uses a filler metal in rod form.
GTAW also requires a shielding gas such as argon or helium to protect the weld
from the atmosphere.
The gas tungsten arc welding process is generally not commercially competitive
with other processes for welding heavier gauges of metal if they can be readily
welded by the shielded metal arc, submerged arc, or gas metal arc welding
processes with adequate quality.
2)

Principle of operation: Small diameter solid wire and shielding gas

(inert gas) is used. The arc is produced between a non-consumable electrode
(tungsten) & the work piece. Operator must control the arc length & also add filler
metal into the weld pool if needed.

3)

Basic equipment requirements:

a) Transformer / Rectifier (constant current (drooping) characteristic)
b) Head / Hose assembly.
c) Power return cable.
d) Torch head assembly
e) Gas cylinder, hoses, regulators, flow meter.
f) Visor with lens.
g) Fume extraction.

4)

Arc Striking : The arc striking (scratch start) the core wire onto the plate and
withdrawing cause contamination of the tungsten and weld metal to work on this
high frequency arc is used cause interference. To work on this, lift arc is used
where the electrode is touched on to the plate & is withdrawn slightly.

5) Arc and Weld Shielding: Inert gas (pure argon & helium) is used to shield arc &
weld. Gas cut-off delay is used to shield weld metal at the end of a run.
6)
7)

Weld refining & Cleaning: Very clean high quality drawn wire is used.
Process variable parameters:
a) Voltage : Changes with change in arc length & type of gas being used.
b) Current : Changes with change in tungsten diameter. Slope in & slope out
controls the current at the start & end of the weld.
c) Polarity : DC ve for steels.
AC for Aluminum.
d) Inert Gas type: Pure gases argon & helium are used. Nitrogen added for
copper welding. Mixture (Arg+Heli) gives good gas cover & penetration.
e) Gas Flow rate : Should be correct for given joint design & position as given
in approved welding procedures.

f) Purging : Purging gas pure argon used to reduce atmospheric root

oxidation.
g) Tungsten type : Thoriated tungsten for DC and zirconated tungsten for AC.
Too fine vertex angle will melt the tungsten tip. With AC, the tungsten end
is chamfered & forms a ball end during aluminum welding
8)

Consumable : High quality drawn wire & inert gas (pure argon or helium or
mixture of both)

9)

Typical imperfection:
a) Tungsten inclusions: Caused by a lack of welder skill, too high current &
incorrect vertex angle.
b) Crater pipes : Caused by poor weld finish technique or incorrect use of
current decay.
c) Weld/root oxidation : If using insufficient gas cut-off delay or purge
pressure.
10) Advantages:
a) High quality weld
b) All positional
c) Low inner run cleaning
11) Disadvantages:
a) Small range of consumables.
b) High ozone levels.
c) Low productivity
12) Positional capabilities: All positional.

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding Process or Metal Active Gas (MAG) Welding
Process
1. Mode of Operation

Semi-automatic

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes, metal
inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a semi-automatic or
automatic arc welding process in which a continuous and consumable wire electrode
and a shielding gas are fed through a welding gun.
A constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW,
but constant current systems, as well as alternating current, can be used.
There are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW, called globular, shortcircuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each of which has distinct properties and
corresponding advantages and limitations.
Shielding is obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture.
2. Principle of Operation :
Copper coated or uncoated small diamter solid
continuous wire from a spool & shielding gas (Argon + Co2) is used. Arc is produced
between a metal electrode wire & the work piece to form a weld pool.
3. Basic equipment requirements:
a) Transformer / Rectifier (constant voltage (flat) characteristic)
b) Head / hose assembly
c) Wire liner
d) Power return cable
e) Wire feed unit, wire spool
f) Gas cylinder, hoses, regulators, flow meter
g) Visor with lens
h) Fume extraction.
4. Arc Striking: The arc is struck in three different metal transfer modes.
i) Dip transfer : The wire short circuits the arc & the molten metal forming on
the wire is transferred by the wire dipping into the weld pool.
ii) Spray transfer : The wire does not make contact with the weld pool. The
molten metal at the tip of the wire transfers to the weld pool in the form of spray
of small droplets.
iii) Pulsed transfer : Uses pulses of current to fire a single global of metal across
the arc gap.
5. Arc & Weld shielding : Cylinder fed inert / active gas shield for arc & weld.
6. Weld refining & cleaning : Very clean, high quality drawn wire.
7. Process variable parameters:
a) OCV (Open Circuit Voltage): Require to initiate or re-ignite the arc. Depend on
type of gas being used & type of transfer achievable.
b) Current /Wire feed speed (WFS): Increasing the wire feed speed automatically
increases the current in the wire.
c) Polarity : DC ve (Electrode positive Reversible)
d) Gas type : Mixture of argon & Co2 (5-20%) to get good penetration, stable
arc, very little spatter.
e) Gas flow rate : Adequate to give good coverage over solidifying & molten
metal to avoid oxidation & porosity.
f) Inductance: Causes a backpressure of voltage to occur in the wire & operates
only when there is a change in current. Reduce level of spatter.
g) Electrode diameter: (Generally produced in 0.6/0.8/0.1/1.2/1.4&1.6mm
diameter.
h) Contact tip/drive roller & liner sizes: Both should be of correct size for the wire
being used. Loss in contact between the wire & contact tip will reduce current
pick. Contact tip should be replaced regularly. The drive roller pressure is only
hand tight just to drive the wire. Liner should be of correct type & size for the
wire.
i) Wire Feed Speed (WFS) : Incrasing the wire feed speed automatically
increases the current in the wire.

8. Consumables : High quality drawn wire & inert active gas.

9. Typical imperfections:
i) Burn through : Incorrect metal transfer mode.
ii) Solica inclusions : Caused by poor inter run cleaning.
10. Advantages:
i) Material thickness range
ii) High productivity (o/f)
iii) Continuous electrode
11. Disadvantages
i) Small range of consumables
ii) High ozone levels
iii) Protection for site working.
12. Positional Capabilities:
Dip All positional
Spray Flat only
Pulse All positional.

Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)

Summary:
Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW) uses a tubular wire that is filled with a flux. The arc is
initiated between the continuous wire electrode and the workpiece. The flux, which is
contained within the core of the tubular electrode, melts during welding and shields the
weld pool from the atmosphere. Direct current, electrode positive (DCEP) is commonly
employed as in the FCAW process.
There are two basic process variants; self shielded FCAW (without shielding gas) and gas
shielded FCAW (with shielding gas). The difference in the two is due to different fluxing
agents in the consumables, which provide different benefits to the user. Usually, selfshielded FCAW is used in outdoor conditions where wind would blow away a shielding
gas. The fluxing agents in self shielded FCAW are designed to not only deoxidize the weld
pool but also to allow for shielding of the weld pool and metal droplets from the
atmosphere.
The flux in gas-shielded FCAW provides for deoxidation of the weld pool and, to a smaller
degree than in self-shielded FCAW, provides secondary shielding from the atmosphere.
The flux is designed to support the weld pool for out-of position welds. This variation of
the process is used for increasing productivity of out-of-position welds and for deeper
penetration.

Process
Flux core welding or tubular electrode welding has evolved from the MIG welding process
to improve arc action, metal transfer, weld metal properties, and weld appearance. It is
an arc welding process in which the heat for welding is provided by an arc between a
continuously fed tubular electrode wire and the workpiece. Shielding is obtained by a flux
contained within the tubular electrode wire or by the flux and an externally supplied
shielding gas. A diagram of the process is shown in figure 10-55 below.
The flux-cored welding wire, or electrode, is a hollow tube filled with a mixture of
deoxidizers, fluxing agents, metal powders, and ferro-alloys. The closure seam, which
appears as a fine line, is the only visible difference between flux-cored wires and solid
cold-drawn wire. Flux-cored electrode welding can be done in two ways: carbon dioxide
gas can be used with the flux to provide additional shielding, or the flux core alone can
provide all the shielding gas and slagging materials. The carbon dioxide gas shield
produces a deeply penetrating arc and usually provides better weld than is possible
without an external gas shield. Although flux-cored arc welding may be applied
semiautomatically, by machine, or automatically, the process is usually applied
semiautomatically.

In semiautomatic welding, the wire feeder feeds the electrode wire and the power source
maintains the arc length. The welder manipulates the welding gun and adjusts the
welding parameters. Flux-cored arc welding is also used in machine welding where, in
addition to feeding the wire and maintaining the arc length, the machinery also provides
the joint travel. The welding operator continuously monitors the welding and makes
adjustments in the welding parameters. Automatic welding is used in high production
applications.