Refreshment Course on

Hydrology and Hydraulics

Lecture 1

Fundamental Principles of Hydraulics

and Applications (Part 1)
C.W. Li
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University



1. Flow classification
2. Flow gauging
3. Boundary layer
4. Velocity profile and hydraulic
roughness

Viscosity

Viscosity (or dynamic viscosity) (Ns/m2) of a fluid is the physical

property measuring the resistance of the fluid to shear or angular
deformation. Its value can be obtained from the Newtons Law of
viscosity

= du/dy

Where =shear stress, du/dy = transverse gradient of the longitudinal

velocity u.

For fluid with =constant, it is called Newtonian fluid. Water is a

Newtonian fluid

The value of viscosity divided by density often appears in many

problems, so a term kinematic viscosity (m2/s) is defined as follow.
=/
3

Ideal and Real fluid, Viscous and inviscid flows

Ideal fluid - frictionless (zero viscosity, inviscid) and incompressible.

It is employed to facilitate easy analytical treatment of fluid flow.
Example includes flow outside the region next to a boundary.
Real fluid viscous and may be compressible.

Region where fluid can

be assumed ideal
Boundary layer where viscosity
should be taken account

Rotational and Irrotational Flow

Motion can be divided into translation and rotation.

A fluid element can have linear and angular deformation

Rotational and Irrotational Flow

Consider a fluid element aAb in

motion, the angular velocities of
Ab () and Aa() are sought.
v + (v / x )x v v
=
rad / s
x
x
u + (u / y)y u
u
=
= rad / s
y
y
Taking anticlockwise rotation
positive, the average rate of
rotation of the fluid element is
1
1 v u
= ( + ) =
rad / s
2
2 x y
Define vorticity =2. For
irrotational flow (zero rate of
angular deformation),
=

u+

u
y
y

v+

v
x
x

= 0;

or

v u
= = 0
x y
6

Turbulent & Laminar Flow

Reynolds apparatus
Low velocity
dye

Laminar flow

High velocity
Transitional flow

Higher velocity
Turbulent flow
7

Turbulent & Laminar Flow (II)

Laminar flow - the particles of fluid move along smooth paths in

parallel layers.

Turbulent flow -the particles of fluid move in very irregular paths,

causing a large scale exchange of momentum.

The viscosity of the fluid helps to damp out the turbulent tendencies of
the fluid particles.

A measure of the tendency of turbulence is given by the Reynolds

number Re = inertia force /viscous force

Re= UL/ ; U-velocity, L- length scale, -kinematic viscosity

For flow in a pipe, turbulence occurs at Re > 2000, L=pipe diameter.

Steady and Unsteady Flow

Steady flow - conditions at any point in the fluid do not change with time.
i.e. the temporal rates of change of velocities, density and pressure are
all zero.
Turbulent steady flow - temporal mean flow parameters do not change
with time.
Temporal mean
velocity

Unsteady flow - flow conditions at at least 1 point changetime

with time.

Uniform and non-uniform flows

Uniform flow - at every point the flow conditions

(velocities, pressure and density) are identical.
Example - flow in a pipe with the same cross
section along the length of the pipe.
Nonuniform flow - the flow conditions vary from
point to point at any time.

10

1D, 2D and 3D flows

One-dimensional (1D) flow - flow for which the variations or changes in the
conditions in the transverse direction of flow can be neglected. Example - flow
in a pipe, the flow condition in the central streamline at a point represents the
average condition of the flow at the associated cross-section.
Two-dimensional (2D) flow - flow for which the variations or changes in the
conditions in the normal directions to a parallel plane can be neglected.
Example - flow in a channel with rectangular cross-section.

Central streamline
Cross-sections
2D flow
3D flow - or 1D flow if averaged condition over the cross-section is interested

11

Open channel flow vs pipe

flow

Pipe flow - flow in pipe or duct

in which the cross-section is
completely filled. The major
driving force is pressure
gradient.

Open channel flow flow in a

conduit in which the cross-section
is not completely enclosed by
solid boundaries and hence there
is a free surface subjected to
atmospheric pressure (i.e. gauge
pressure = 0). The major driving
force is due to gravity.

12

Wave speed, subcritical, critical and supercritical flow

In flow with a free surface (i.e.

open channel flow), surface
waves can be generated by
disturbances and the wave
speed is given by

c = gy

where c=wave speed, y=water

depth
Waves will spread in all
directions if the water body is
stationary
Suppose the water is moving at
a velocity V at a particular
direction.

If V<c, waves can move

upstream. Upstream locations
are said to be in hydraulic
communication with the
downstream locations. The flow
is called subcritical flow
If V>c, there will be no
upstream communication with
downstream locations. Any
waves or disturbance will be
washed downstream. The flow
is called supercritical flow.
If V=c, the upstream
propagating wave remains
stationary and flow is called
critical flow.

13

V=0

V<c, subcritical

14

V=c, critical

V>c, supercritical

Gradually varied, rapidly varied and

spatially varied flows

Gradually varied flow (GVF) nonuniform flow but the curvature of the free
surface and of the accompanying streamlines is so slight that the transverse
pressure distribution at any section along the flow is hydrostatic. The flow can
be considered 1-D with the flow variables vary in the flow direction only.
Rapidly varied flow (RVF) nonuniform flow and the curvature of the free
surface and of the accompanying streamlines is large such that 1-D analysis
is not applicable. Examples include the hydraulic jump and curvilinear flow
over a spillway crest.
Spatially varied flow nonuniform flow with the nonuniformity comes from the
variation in the discharge rate along the flow direction and the associated
imbalance of gravity and resisting forces. Examples include the side channel
spillway flow and continuous rainfall additions to gutter flow.

15

16

RVF

GVF

RVF

GVF

RVF

GVF

Spatially Varied Flow

Rainfall or Lateral Inflow

17

Flow gauging methods

The discharge rates of small rivers or channels can be determined by

using:
Weirs and Flumes. The head-discharge relationship of weir and
flumes can be determined in the laboratory. Installing a weir or flume
in a channel and measuring the water level (head) will give the
discharge rate.
e.g. V-notch weir:

Q = C d 2 tan g1/ 2 H 5 / 2
15

Q=discharge, H=head, Cd=discharge coefficient, =subtended angle

of the weir
18

19

Flow gauging methods

Q = Qt

C1 C2
C 2 C0

20

Velocity-area method

21

22

Slope-stage-discharge method

Using the velocity-area method, the stage-discharge relationship

can be obtained if the surface slope of the channel is unchanged.
The surface slope may vary due to variable backwater effect (e.g.
the channel is connected to a tidal estuary). To estimate this
effect an auxiliary stage record is required near the main station.
The difference in elevation or fall is used as an index of the slope
between the stations. A rating curve is then drawn relating
discharge and stage for some fixed value of fall, z0. If the
discharge at any stage as read from this curve is Q0, then the
discharge Qa for the same stage and a fall of za is given by
n

z
Qa = a Q 0
z 0

For uniform flow, n=0.5. In practice, n often shows some variation

from this value.
23

Index-velocity method

Use the velocity measured by a hydro-acoustic current meter Vi as

an index of the cross-sectional mean velocity Vm and determine the
relationship of the two velocities.
Vm = a + b Vi

Determine the relationship between the stage (S) and the channel
cross-sectional area (A).
A = f(S)
Determine the discharge using
Q=Vm x A
by measuring Vi and S

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Example:
Measured Vi=0.2m/s
Vm=0.035+0.629Vi =
0.1608m/s
Measured stage S=3m
Area ~ 290m2
Q = 0.1608x290 =
46.6m3/s

25

Boundary Layer

The region of a flow in which the velocity is affected by the presence

of a solid boundary. The fluid in contact with the solid boundary must
move with the same velocity (can be zero) with the solid (no-slip
condition)

26

Boundary layer development in pipe flow

Boundary layers grow at the pipe entrance, merge together at

a distance downstream, and become fully developed further
downstream.

27

Boundary layer development in open channel flow

The free water surface in an open channel flow limits the

growth of a boundary layer. The boundary layer becomes fully
developed boundary layer at a distance downstream from the
inlet.

28

Boundary layer thickness

29

30

Growth of laminar boundary layer

31

Growth of turbulent boundary layer

32

Laminar flow between parallel plates

For steady state and fully

developed flow, the force balance
gives

p1 2r - ( p1 - p)2r - 2 L = 0

p =

2 L w
D

For Newtonian fluid

p
=
L r
Where p=pressure, p=pressure
difference across the element,
=shear stress, r=distance to
centerline, L=length.
Since p and L are independent of r,
=Cr, C is a constant
Shear stress profile is linear in r
At the plate surface r=D/2, =w,
the wall shear stress, so

2 r
= w
D

du
dr

>0 with du/dr<0, =kinematic viscosity

Subjected to boundary condition: r=D/2,

u=0 (no-slip).
The velocity profile is parabolic in r

33

Velocity
profile

r
Fluid element

2L

p12r

(p1-p)2r

34

Laminar flow under a constant shear in a wide channel

Under constant pressure, p=0,

the shear stress is a constant.

The velocity profile is linear in y

35

Turbulent velocity profile on smooth surface

36

Overlap region

37

Power law profile

38

Velocity profile (small scale roughness)

Equivalent Roughness, Eks
Pipe
Riveted steel
Concrete
Wood stave
Cast iron
Galvanized iron
Commercial steel
or wrought iron
Drawn tubing
Plastic, glass

11/27/2012

Feet

Millimeters

0.0030.03
0.0010.01
0.00060.003
0.00085
0.0005

0.99.0
0.33.0
0.180.9
0.26
0.15

0.00015
0.000005
0.0 1smooth2

0.045
0.0015
0.0 1smooth2

39

Small to medium scale

roughness

Large scale roughness

40

Velocity profile (large scale roughness)

41

Velocity profile (vegetated channel)

The roughness and hydraulic

resistance in a vegetated
channel are generally larger
than those of a gravel channel
For channels with submerged
flexible vegetation, Stephan
and Gutknecht (2002) found
that

42

Riblet surface

Drag reduction due to

rectification of streamwise
turbulence through the
hampering of transverse
velocity fluctuation, or lifting
the vortices with
decreasing eject and
sweep motion.
Drag reduction up to 10%

43

44

45

Added values of flow conduits with

riblet surfaces

Hydraulic resistance reduction

Better self-cleansing property
Lowering of flood levels

Energy saving if pumping is required

Hydraulic roughess

47

Hydraulic roughness of channel with submerged

flexible vegetation

n=

R 1h/ 6
g (a + b log(R h / k s ))

48

Kouwens Method

49

Kouwens Method

b) MEI is dependent on hv and is determined as follows

Retardance class
A
B
C
D
E

Average Height, hv, m

0.9
0.6
0.2
0.1
0.04

Green Grass: MEI = 319hv3.30

Dormant Grass: MEI = 24.5hv2.26

MEI, N m2
300.0
20.0
0.5
0.05
0.005

(S.I. hv is in m)

50

c) The Manning's coefficient is determined as follows

n=

R 1h/ 6
g (a + b log( R h / k s ))

The coefficients a and b are based on a classification of the three types of

flow conditions with vegetation: erect, submerged (bent), and flattened and is
determined from the following table. The initial shear stress that bends the
vegetation from an erect position is referred to as the vegetative critical shear
stress.
cv = min inum (0.78 + 354 MEI 2 + 40100 MEI 4 ,53MEI 0.212 )

51

Classification
Erect

Submerged (Bent)

Flat

Criteria

0
1
cv

"a"
0.42

"b"
5.23

1.0 <

0
2.5
cv

Linear interpolation

Linear interpolation

2.5 <

0
cv

0.82

9.90

52