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4.1 Introduction
Two-dimensional elastic problems were the rst successful examples of the application of the nite element method.1;2 Indeed, we have already used this situation to
illustrate the basis of the nite element formulation in Chapter 2 where the general
relationships were derived. These basic relationships are given in Eqs (2.1)(2.5)
and (2.23) and (2.24), which for quick reference are summarized in Appendix C.
In this chapter the particular relationships for the plane stress and plane strain
problem will be derived in more detail, and illustrated by suitable practical examples,
a procedure that will be followed throughout the remainder of the book.
Only the simplest, triangular, element will be discussed in detail but the basic
approach is general. More elaborate elements to be discussed in Chapters 8 and 9
could be introduced to the same problem in an identical manner.
The reader not familiar with the applicable basic denitions of elasticity is referred
to elementary texts on the subject, in particular to the text by Timoshenko and
Goodier,3 whose notation will be widely used here.
In both problems of plane stress and plane strain the displacement eld is uniquely given
by the u and v displacement in the directions of the cartesian, orthogonal x and y axes.
Again, in both, the only strains and stresses that have to be considered are the three
components in the xy plane. In the case of plane stress, by denition, all other components of stress are zero and therefore give no contribution to internal work. In plane
strain the stress in a direction perpendicular to the xy plane is not zero. However, by
denition, the strain in that direction is zero, and therefore no contribution to internal
work is made by this stress, which can in fact be explicitly evaluated from the three
main stress components, if desired, at the end of all computations.
vi (Vi )
xi
ui (Ui )
j
yi
4:2
4:3
The six constants can be evaluated easily by solving the two sets of three simultaneous
equations which will arise if the nodal coordinates are inserted and the displacements
equated to the appropriate nodal displacements. Writing, for example,
ui 1 2 xi 3 yi
uj 1 2 xj 3 yj
4:4
um 1 2 xm 3 ym
we can easily solve for 1 , 2 , and 3 in terms of the nodal displacements ui , uj , um and
obtain nally
1
a bi x ci yui aj bj x cj yuj am bm x cm yum
u
4:5a
2 i
Element characteristics
in which
ai xj ym xm yj
bi yj ym
4:5b
ci xm xj
with the other coecients obtained by a cycle permutation of subscripts in the order,
i, j, m, and wherey
1 xi yi
4:5c
2 det 1 xj yj 2 area of triangle ijm
1 xm ym
As the equations for the vertical displacement v are similar we also have
1
a bi x ci yvi aj bj x cj yvj am bm x cm yvm
4:6
2 i
Though not strictly necessary at this stage we can represent the above relations, Eqs
(4.5a) and (4.6), in the standard form of Eq. (2.1):
u
4:7
u
Nae INi ; INj ; INm ae
v
v
and ai 2=3 aj am
89
8 9
>
=
< ai >
e
e Ba Bi ; Bj ; Bm aj
>
;
: >
am
6 @x
6
6
Bi SNi 6
6 0;
6
4 @N
@y
4:10a
2
7
bi ;
7
7
@Ni
7 1 6
4 0;
@y 7
7 2
ci ;
5
@N
i
3
0
7
ci 5
4:10b
bi
@x
9
9
8
08
1
>
>
=
=
< x >
< "x >
B
C
D@ "y
e0 A
r y
>
>
>
>
;
;
:
:
xy
xy
4:11
can be explicitly stated for any material (excluding here r0 which is simply additive).
To consider the special cases in two dimensions it is convenient to start from the form
e D1 r e0
and impose the conditions of plane stress or plane strain.
4:12
4:13
Element characteristics
9
8
>
=
< "x0 >
"x0
e0
>
>
;
:
xy0
4:14
In this case a normal stress z exists in addition to the other three stress components.
Thus we now have
y z
"x0
"x x
E
E
E
y
"y x z "y0
4:15
E
E
E
21 xy
xy
xy0
E
and in addition
"z
which yields
x y z
"z0 0
E
E
E
z x y E"z0
On eliminating z and solving for the three remaining stresses we obtain the matrix D
as
2
3
1
0
E
6
7
1
0
4:16
D
4
5
1 1 2
0
0
1 2=2
and the initial strains
Anisotropic materials
9
8
>
=
< "x0 "z0 >
e0 "y0 "z0
>
>
;
:
xy0
4:17
91
"x x
E1
E2
E1
y 2 z
"y 2 x
E2
E2
E2
2 y z
"z 1 x
E1
E2
E1
4:19
21 1
xz
xz
E1
xy
1
G2 xy
yz
1
G2 yz
in which the constants E1 , 1 (G1 is dependent) are associated with the behaviour in
the plane of the strata and E2 , G2 , 2 with a direction normal to the plane.
The D matrix in two dimensions now becomes, taking E1 =E2 n and G2 =E2 m,
2
3
n n2
0
E2 6
7
0
4:20
D
4 n2 1
5
1 n22
0
0 m1 n22
Element characteristics
E2
1 1 1 1 2n22
2
n1 n22 n2 1 1
6
6
1 12
4 n2 1 1
0
7
7
5
4:21
m1 1 1 1 2n22
2
6
T4
cos2
sin2
sin2
cos2
sin cos
sin cos
4:22
3
2 sin cos
7
2 sin cos 5
2
4:23
cos sin
y'
m
x'
i
j
93
4:24
"y0
"z0
xy0
yz0
zx0 T
4:25
Although this initial strain may, in general, depend on the position within the
element, it will here be dened by average, constant values to be consistent with
the constant strain conditions imposed by the prescribed displacement function.
For an isotropic material in an element subject to a temperature rise e with a
coecient of thermal expansion we will have
e0 e 1
0 0
0T
4:26
as no shear strains are caused by a thermal dilatation. Thus, for plane stress, Eq.
(4.14) yields the initial strains given by
8 9
>
=
<1>
e
4:27
e0 1 e m
>
;
: >
0
In plane strain the z stress perpendicular to the xy plane will develop due to the
thermal expansion as shown above. Using Eq. (4.17) the initial thermal strains for
this case are given by
e0 1 e m
4:28
4:29
Element characteristics
4:31
where T is again given by Eq. (4.23). Thus, e0 can be simply evaluated. It will be noted
that the shear component of strain is no longer equal to zero in the x; y coordinates.
e
Kij BTi DBj t dx dy
4:32
where t is the thickness of the element and the integration is taken over the area of the
triangle. If the thickness of the element is assumed to be constant, an assumption convergent to the truth as the size of elements decreases, then, as neither of the matrices
contains x or y we have simply
Keij BTi DBj t
4:33
where is the area of the triangle [already dened by Eq. (4.5)]. This form is now
suciently explicit for computation with the actual matrix operations being left to
the computer.
etc:
4:34
95
Again, by Eq. (2.13b), the contribution of such forces to those at each node is given by
b
f ei Ni x dx dy
by
or by Eq. (4.7),
f ei
bx
by
Ni dx dy;
etc:
4:35
if the body forces bx and by are constant. As Ni is not constant the integration has to
be carried out explicitly. Some general integration formulae for a triangle are given in
Appendix D.
In this special case the calculation will be simplied if the origin of coordinates is
taken at the centroid of the element. Now
x dx dy y dx dy 0
and on using Eq. (4.8)
f ei
bx ai
b
bx
ai dx dy
2
by
by 2
by 3
4:36
8 9
bx >
>
>
>
>
>
>b >
8 e9
>
y>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
<b >
=
< fi >
x
e
e
f fj
>3
> by >
>
>
;
: e >
>
>
fm
>
>
>
>
>
>
b
>
>
x
>
;
: >
by
4:37
which means simply that the total forces acting in the x and y directions due to the
body forces are distributed to the nodes in three equal parts. This fact corresponds
with physical intuition, and was often assumed implicitly.
@
@x
by
@
@y
4:38
and this potential, rather than the values of bx and by , is known throughout the region
and is specied at nodal points. If f e lists the three values of the potential associated
with the nodes of the element, i.e.,
9
8
>
=
< i >
4:39
f e j
>
>
;
:
m
and has to correspond with constant values of bx and by , must vary linearly within
the element. The `shape function' of its variation will obviously be given by a procedure identical to that used in deriving Eqs (4.4)(4.6), and yields
Ni ; Nj ; Nm f
fe
4:40
Thus,
bx
@
fe
bi ; bj ; bm
@x
2
by
@
fe
ci ; cj ; cm
@y
2
and
4:41
The vector of nodal forces due to the body force potential will now replace Eq. (4.37)
by
3
2
b i ; bj ; bm
6c ; c ; c 7
j
m7
6 i
7
6
b i ; bj ; bm 7 e
16
e
7f
6
f 6
4:42
6 6 ci ; cj ; cm 7
7
7
6
4 b i ; bj ; bm 5
ci ;
cj ;
cm
97
nite subdivision it is an approximate solution as is, say, a Fourier series solution with
a limited number of terms.
As explained in Chapter 2, the total strain energy obtained during any stage of
approximation will be below the true strain energy of the exact solution. In practice
it will mean that the displacements, and hence also the stresses, will be underestimated
by the approximation in its general picture. However, it must be emphasized that this
is not necessarily true at every point of the continuum individually; hence the value of
such a bound in practice is not great.
What is important for the engineer to know is the order of accuracy achievable in
typical problems with a certain neness of element subdivision. In any particular case
the error can be assessed by comparison with known, exact, solutions or by a study of
the convergence, using two or more stages of subdivision.
With the development of experience the engineer can assess a priori the order of
approximation that will be involved in a specic problem tackled with a given element
subdivision. Some of this experience will perhaps be conveyed by the examples
considered in this book.
In the rst place attention will be focused on some simple problems for which exact
solutions are available.
x
0.44
0.07
0.07
0.44
0.07
0.07
0.00
0.07
0.07
0.86
0.07
0.07
0.00
0.07
0.06
0.86
0.07
0.08
0.45
0.07
0.08
0.45
0.06
0.06
0.48
0.08
0.06
0.48
0.06
0.08
0.83
0.04
0.04
0.00
0.09
0.09
Nodal averages
l
Value at
centres of
triangles
y = 1
Exact
(x = xy = 0)
= 0.15
Fig. 4.4 Pure bending of a beam solved by a coarse subdivision into elements of triangular shape. (Values of
y , x , and xy listed in that order.)
99
x = 1
Fig. 4.5 A circular hole in a uniform stress eld: (a) isotropic material; (b) stratied (orthotropic) material;
Ex E1 1, Ey E2 3, 1 0:1, 2 0, Gxy 0:42.
Exact solution for infinite plate
Finite element solution
1.0
1.0
3.0
2.83
1.0
(a) Isotropic
1.75
(b) Orthotropic
Fig. 4.6 Comparison of theoretical and nite element results for cases (a) and (b) of Fig. 4.5.
52
49
100
47
100
C
B
48
A
100
x
Restrained in y direction from movement
Fig. 4.7 A reinforced opening in a plate. Uniform stress eld at a distance from opening x 100, y 50. Thickness of plate regions A, B, and C is in the ratio of
1 : 3 : 23.
@p
@x
by
@p
@y
4:43
0.07
0.20
0.32
0.13
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.29
0.03
0.00
0.44
0.06
0.01 0.02
0.03
0.28
0.14 0.97
0.20
0.04
0.41
0.20 0.01 0.04
0.06
0.02
0.41
0.36
0.18 0.34
0.10
0.21 0.01 0.04
0.51
0.11
0.02
0.06
0.30 0.47
0.51
0.54
0.54
0.16 0.01
0.08
0.04
0.05
0.11
0.04
0.46 0.53
0.09 0.02
0.71
0.08
0.63
0.66
0.08
0.04
0.62
0.05
0.11
0.67
0.11
0.83
0.26
0.02
0.04 0.81
0.02 0.97
0.74
0.08
0.12 0.02 1.09
0.14
0.67
0.01
0.76
0.01
0.96
0.20
2.61 1.86 1.58
0.04
0.07
0.96
0.72
0.38 0.02 0.03
0.12
0.08
4.50
1.44
2.08
0.27
0.04
1.10
0.13
0.78
0.05
0.17
0.86
1.78
0.92
2.20
0.66
0.03
0.14
0.08
0.36
7.49
0.79
1.89
0.08
0.86
0.88
1.95
1.25
0.13
0.27
0.04
0.91
0.51
0.55 0.27
0.04
1.03
1.24
2.03
0.01
0.16
0.86
0.97
0.06
0.04
0.32
0.56
1.15
1.15
0.89
0.12
0.87
2
0.06
1.05
0.23
0.05
1.35
0.40
0.49
0.97
1.06
0.99
0.00
0.11
0.98
0.75
0.05
0.27
0.37
0.73
0.71
/m 2
Tensile zone
10
to
nne
=1
ton
ne/
m2
x = 2(1 y 2 )
1
2
3
E1 = 10
4
E2 = 1
y = 1
5
6
7
8
u = 0 Region analysed
x
Fig. 4.8 A valley with curved strata subject to a horizontal tectonic stress (plane strain 170 nodes, 298 elements).
as an internal pore pressure. Both solutions indicate large tensile regions, but the increase
of stresses due to the second assumption is important.
The stresses calculated here are the so-called `eective' stresses. These represent the
forces transmitted between the solid particles and are dened in terms of the total
stresses r and the pore pressures p by
r0 r mp
mT 1; 1; 0
4:44
i.e., simply by removing the hydrostatic pressure component from the total stress.10;13
The eective stress is of particular importance in the mechanics of porous media
such as those that occur in the study of soils, rocks, or concrete. The basic assumption
103
207 ft 0 in
Buttress web
thickness 9 ft
125 ft 0 in
60
10 ft
121 ft 11 in
60
121 ft 11 in
10 ft 6 in
47 ft 0 in
12 ft 0 in
Sectional plan AA
(a)
Dam EC
Fault
(no restraint
assumed)
Altered grit E = 101 EC
Mudstone E = 12 EC
Zero displacements
assumed
Grit EG = 14 EC
Zero displacements
assumed
(b)
Fig. 4.9 Stress analysis of a buttress dam. A plane stress condition is assumed in the dam and plane strain in
the foundation. (a) The buttress section analysed. (b) Extent of foundation considered and division into nite
elements.
in deriving the body forces of Eq. (4.43) is that only the eective stress is of any
importance in deforming the solid phase. This leads immediately to another
possibility of formulation.14 If we examine the equilibrium conditions of Eq. (2.10)
we note that this is written in terms of total stresses. Writing the constitutive relation,
Eq. (2.5), in terms of eective stresses, i.e.,
r0 D0 e e0 r00
4:45
and substituting into the equilibrium equation (2.10) we nd that Eq. (2.12) is again
obtained, with the stiness matrix using the matrix D0 and the force terms of
22
16
11
8 22
18
37
15
84
42
11
47
Arrow indicates
tension
18
16
16
178
+17
375
355
7
327
337
8
11
+17
+8
18
95
84
2
13
15
240
2
238 246
288
290
285
14
+12
+20
10
211
+59
+26
202
54
265
+4
+5
100
7
473
17
296
15
54
39
303
29
97
11
14
70
70
25
23
14
7
332
78
67
+8
+31
+38
21
332
+4
313
51
+20
13
333
28
Arrow indicates
tension
310 347
358
38
200 lb/in2
2
+23
+10
118
77
00
310
315
-320
300 lb/in2
+2
9
329
+16
13 +144
84
85
188 253
345
Compression ()
205
18
27 78
30
317
11
70 +136
46
Tensile zone
99
52
304
170
14
309
249
+37
84
14
108
142
29
Tensile zone
92
12
328
71
48
39
65
200 lb/in2
34 25
14
273
17 282
5
199
0
+2
43
10
66
60
30
39 29
202
198
18
41
31
66
33 15
29
300 lb/in2
30
Compression ()
80
79
71
75
16
46
+22
2
54
61
+17
17
+3
42
71
69
+3
47 1
4
62
17
87
+9
59
7
59
+3
+3
+8
(b)
Fig. 4.10 Stress analysis of the buttress dam of Fig. 4.9. Principal stresses for gravity loads are combined with water pressures, which are assumed to act (a) as external
loads, (b) as body forces due to pore pressure.
BT mp dvol
4:46
BT mN0 dvolpe
4:47
Ve
Ve
4.4.4 Cracking
The tensile stresses in the previous example will doubtless cause the rock to crack. If a
stable situation can develop when such a crack spreads then the dam can be
considered safe.
Cracks can be introduced very simply into the analysis by assigning zero elasticity
values to chosen elements. An analysis with a wide cracked wedge is shown in
Fig. 4.11, where it can be seen that with the extent of the crack assumed no tension
within the dam body develops.
Compression ( )
Upstream
lb/i
/in
0 lb
40
Tensile zone
0
20
Tension ( + )
Arrow indicates
tension
Cracked zone
(material
considered)
as E = 0
Fig. 4.11 Stresses in a buttress dam. The introduction of a `crack' modies the stress distribution [same loading as Fig. 4.10(b)].
200 lb/in2
Temperature drops
linearly here
Tension ( + )
00
Arrow indicates
tension
Compression ( )
100 lb/in2
Fig. 4.12 Stress analysis of a buttress dam. Thermal stresses due to cooling of the shaded area by 15 8F
E 3 106 lb/in2 , 6 106 =8F.
Water level
1.3 x
106 lb
8
5
25
12
57
62
31
42
49
3
51
Load effect
of prestressing
13
59
94
9
147 8
323
15
29 520
105
374
55
407
31
1440
54
70
4 x 106 lb
80
32
60'
17
21
13
155'
7
5
9
35
10
6
9
3
29
1
Prestressing cables
and gate reactions
37
7
53
98
62
425
52
5 49
7
5
8
6
59
19 6
6
2
1
56
124
71
6
3
85
13
85
12
98
3
1
0
3
48 40
7
7
11
75
10
7
2
4
1
27
10
135
9
108
61
8
1
8
20 30 40 ft
105
3
0
14 1612
7
5
87
27
28 121
79
54
1
12
149
0
15
6
113
53
14
34
26
67
61 1
48
92
52
1
103
2
8
49
52
6 49
89
42
54
3
11
3
18
9
117
7
4
32
116
130
101
22
111
88
89
26
25
21
1
10
15
20
35
21
16
25'
Tailwater level
10
10'
25'
0 20 40 60 80 100 ft
12
198
107
250000 lb/ft2
Indicates tension
A more elaborate procedure for allowing crack propagation and resulting stress
redistribution can be developed (see Volume 2).
References
References
1. M.J. Turner, R.W. Clough, H.C. Martin, and L.J. Topp. Stiness and deection analysis
of complex structures. J. Aero. Sci., 23, 80523, 1956.
2. R.W. Clough. The nite element in plane stress analysis. Proc. 2nd ASCE Conf. on Electronic Computation. Pittsburgh, Pa., Sept. 1960.
3. S. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier. Theory of Elasticity. 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1951.
4. S.G. Lekhnitskii. Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Elastic Body (Translation from
Russian by P. Fern). Holden Day, San Francisco, 1963.
5. R.F.S. Hearmon. An Introduction to Applied Anisotropic Elasticity. Oxford University
Press, 1961.
6. O.C. Zienkiewicz and J.Z. Zhu. The superconvergent patch recovery (SPR) and adaptive
nite element renement. Comp. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., 101, 20724, 1992.
7. B. Boroomand and O.C. Zienkiewicz. Recovery by equilibrium patches (REP). Internat.
J. Num. Meth. Eng., 40, 13754, 1997.
8. O.C. Zienkiewicz, Y.K. Cheung, and K.G. Stagg. Stresses in anisotropic media with
particular reference to problems of rock mechanics. J. Strain Analysis, 1, 17282, 1966.
9. G.N. Savin. Stress Concentration Around Holes (Translation from Russian). Pergamon
Press, 1961.
10. O.C. Zienkiewicz, A.H.C. Chan, M. Pastor, B. Schreer, and T. Shiomi. Computational
Geomechanics. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1999.
11. O.C. Zienkiewicz and Y.K. Cheung. Buttress dams on complex rock foundations. Water
Power, 16, 193, 1964.
12. O.C. Zienkiewicz and Y.K. Cheung. Stresses in buttress dams. Water Power, 17, 69, 1965.
13. K. Terzhagi. Theoretical Soil Mechanics. Wiley, 1943.
14. O.C. Zienkiewicz, C. Humpheson, and R.W. Lewis. A unied approach to soil mechanics
problems, including plasticity and visco-plasticity. Int. Symp. on Numerical Methods in Soil
and Rock Mechanics. Karlsruhe, 1975. See also Chapter 4 of Finite Elements in Geomechanics (ed. G. Gudehus), pp. 15178, Wiley, 1977.
111