Continuing Education from the

American Society of Plumbing Engineers

CEU 225

On-Site
Wastewater
Reuse

July 2015

ASPE.ORG/ReadLearnEarn

READ, LEARN, EARN

Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from
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The world is not running out of water, but with the ever-increasing population and severe weather conditions such as
drought occurring more often, the world is running out of accessible potable-quality water. With this limited natural resource, measures to optimize its use are necessary. On-site water reuse can offer considerable savings of water resources and
costs when compared to the treatment required to bring other sources such as groundwater to drinking water standards.
On-site recycling of relatively clean, nonpotable water is typically considered for the following reasons:
The availability of potable water is in short supply or restricted, and local codes allow wastewater reuse.
The public sewage disposal capacity is either limited or inadequate.
Obtaining potable water or disposing of liquid waste is very costly.
Payback typically occurs in less than five years, and the system can reduce sewer and water usage fees, electrical
costs, and/or water heating costs, resulting in operating cost savings.
On-site water reuse can help a facility earn LEED points for reducing water use, up to six points for 50 percent
reduction in LEED BD+C: New Construction, v4.
The most common reuse of water is for the flushing of urinals and water closets, especially in high-rises, hotels,
schools, office buildings, and large dwellings. Appropriately treated water also may be used for the following purposes:
Landscape irrigation
Cooling tower makeup
Decorative pool and fountain fill water
Floor and general hard-surface washdown
Laundry water supply
Vehicle washing
Less frequently, wastewater is collected and used for potable purposes, but this practice still encounters some regulatory and public perception problems. However, due to drought, more municipalities are considering implementing such
systems.
Note: This chapter is written primarily to familiarize the reader with the general subject area. It is not intended for
system design without reference and adherence to other technical data and especially local code requirements.

TERMINOLOGY

In plumbing, wastewater is the general term for water that has been discharged or collected from a fixture, receptor, or
appliance. In general, graywater is the term used for wastewater from fixtures such as lavatories, bathtubs, showers, and
clothes washers. Wastewater from toilets,
Table 2-1 Water Reuse Issues of Concerns
urinals, dishwashers, and food disposals is
Parameter
Units
Low Riska
High Riskb
excluded due to the high organic loading
from these fixtures. This water is known
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)5c
mg/L
< 30
< 10
as black water.
Total suspended solids (TSS)c
mg/L
< 30
< 10
Turbidity

CODES AND STANDARDS

The number of jurisdictions requiring

water reuse is increasing. However, no
national model codes mandate wastewater reuse. The Uniform Plumbing Code
includes graywater use, but limits its use
to single-family dwellings. The International Plumbing Code includes graywater
recycling systems in an appendix.
Many specific local areas have established standards and guidelines for the
use of graywater in facilities and homes.
Where graywater use is permitted, the
authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) will

Fecal coliforms

NTU

<5

CFU/100 mL

< 200

CFU/100 mL

< 1,000d

< 1 CFU/100 mL

E colic

CFU/100 mL

< 200

< 1 CFU/100 mL

July 2015

< 1 CFU/100 mL

Viruses
Worms
Total nitrogen

mg/L

Total phosphorus

mg/L

Cl residual
mg/L
0.1 to 1.0
Units: mg/L = milligrams per liter; NTU = nephelometric turbidity units; CFU = colony-forming units
a
Low-risk applications include toilet flushing and subsurface irrigation.
b
High-risk applications include landscape surface irrigation and laundry.
c
Median values
d
Recreational water quality standards
Source: Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corp.

Reprinted from Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 2 2014, American Society of Plumbing Engineers.
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Total coliformsc

READ, LEARN, EARN: On-Site Wastewater Reuse

have established minimum treatment standards. In these areas, the engineer must learn and adhere to the applicable
regulations.
Table 2-1 is from the Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation and includes a summary of international treatment standards for water reuse. The limitations represented in Table 2-1 illustrate concerns that should be addressed
when developing a water reuse plan. Since such requirements are constantly undergoing revision, the local AHJ must
always be contacted for the current standards.
Some jurisdictions allow irrigation with untreated graywater, and this typically is accomplished subsurface. This
chapter assumes that the irrigation system is provided with treated graywater to the standards listed in Table 2-1.

GRAYWATER REUSE

Graywater reuse systems collect water discharged from fixtures, devices, and appliances that does not contain human
excrement or other high organic loading. This water can be treated to a level of quality consistent with its intended use.
A graywater system requires modifications to the standard plumbing systems throughout a facilityin particular,
duplicate drainage systems and duplicate water supplies. Rather than all plumbing fixture discharge going to the sanitary
sewer, the effluent from selected fixtures is routed for recovery by the graywater treatment system. The remainder goes
to the sanitary sewer. Potable water goes to lavatories, sinks, and showers, and the graywater supplies water closets,
urinals, irrigation systems, and other fixtures depending on local codes and the quality of the graywater treatment.
Special care must be taken during the installation of a graywater system. Clear identification and labeling of the
graywater system and piping are mandatory to minimize the risk of cross-connection during installation or repair of the
system.
Many newly formed, planned communities have adopted graywater systems for their irrigation systems. Warning
nonpotable water signs or colored piping is now visible across city landscapes. Blue, green, or purple dye has become
a clear identification of the use of graywater.

System Components

The following components generally are used for most systems. Their arrangement and type depend on the specific treatment system selected.
A separate graywater collection piping system
A primary waste treatment system based on code requirements and intended use, which may consist of turbidity
removal, storage, biological treatment, or filtering
Disinfecting components, which may consist of various methods such as ozone, ultraviolet irradiation, chlorine,
or iodine addition
Treated water storage and system distribution pressure pumps and piping

Design Criteria for Graywater Supply and Consumption

It is estimated that two-thirds of the daily wastewater discharged from a typical household is graywater. The remaining wastewater is black water from water closets and kitchen fixtures. The discharge from the separate piping systems
supplying the graywater system should be sized based on the applicable plumbing code.
The following issues should be considered in the design of any graywater system:
The design flow is based on the number of people in the home or facility.
Lavatory use is estimated at 0.25 gallon (0.95 liter) per use.
Men use urinals 75 percent of the time and water closets 25 percent of the time.
The average person uses a toilet three times a day.
The LEED v4 baselines for plumbing fixtures that affect
Table 2-2 LEED v4 Baseline for Plumbing Fixtures
the design of reuse and water conservation systems are shown
Fixture
Baseline
in Table 2-2.
Toilets

Design Estimates for Commercial Buildings

Urinals
Lavatory faucets, private

Graywater Supply
Estimates of graywater supply sources vary in commercial
buildings. In an office building, fixtures such as lavatories,
water coolers, mop sinks, and coffee sinks are estimated to
generate 1 gallon (3.79 liters) per person per day. Thus, for an
office building with 500 employees, you could expect to recover
500 gallons (1,893 L) per day for graywater reuse. Based on

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July 2015

1.6 gpf (3.5 gpf for blowout closets)

1.0 gpf

2.2 gpm at 60 psig

Lavatory faucets, public

0.5 gpm at 60 psig

Lavatory faucets, metering

0.25 gallons per cycle

Residential kitchen faucets

2.2 gpm at 60 psig

Showerheads

2.5 gpm at 80 psig

Pre-rinse spray valves

1.6 gpm (no psig specified)

Private lavatory faucets include both residential and private

commercial applications such as hotel guest rooms and hospital
patient rooms.
a

READ, LEARN, EARN: On-Site Wastewater Reuse

five working days per week and approximately 50 working weeks per year, 125,000 gallons (473,177 L) per year could
be available for graywater reuse.
Graywater Demand
The demand for fixtures served by treated graywater in an office building is estimated based on three toilet or urinal
uses per person per day. For calculation purposes, assume that the population is 50 percent male and 50 percent female
and that men use urinals 75 percent of the time and water closets 25 percent of the time. (This assumption is general
and may be adjusted for any particular installation. Be sure to clearly document all assumptions.)
In shopping centers, flow rates are based on square feet (square meters) of space, not the number of persons. The flow
demand is 0.06 gallon (0.23 liter) per day per square foot (square meter).
The calculations for food service resemble those for grease interceptor sizing. The number of seats, hours of operation,
single-serving utensils, and other, similar factors change the equations for graywater calculations.

Design Estimates for Residential Buildings

The number of occupants in each dwelling unit shall be calculated as follows:

Occupants, first bedroom: Two
Occupants, each additional bedroom:One
The estimated graywater flows for each occupant shall be calculated as follows:
Showers, bathtubs, and wash basins: 25gallons (95 L) per occupant per day
Laundry:15 gallons (57 L) per occupant per day
The total number of occupants shall be multiplied by the applicable estimated graywater discharge as provided above
and the type of fixtures connected to the graywater system.
Example 2-1
Calculate the flow of graywater per day for a single-family dwelling with three bedrooms and with showers, bathtubs,
wash basins, and laundry facilities all connected to the graywater system.
Total number of occupants = 2 + 1 + 1 = 4
Estimated graywater flow = 4 x (25 + 15) = 160 gallons per day [4 x (95 + 57) = 608 L per day]
Example 2-2
Calculate the flow of graywater for a single-family dwelling with four bedrooms and only the clothes washer connected
to the graywater system.
Total number of occupants = 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 5
Estimated graywater flow = 5 x 15 = 75 gallons per day [5 x 57 = 285 L per day]

Design Estimates for Graywater Irrigation Systems

Graywater irrigation system design and selection depend on a variety of elements: location, soil type, water supply
source, type of treatment facility, and application of use. Additional requirements must be considered for the use of
graywater systems for irrigation. Some of the parameters are groundwater level, geological stability of the region, plot
plan, distance of irrigation from adjacent properties, lakes, lot lines, drainage channels, water supply lines, and wells,
surface slope, and the interaction of graywater systems with private sewage disposal systems. Inspection and testing
are an inherent part of the design.
System components must be securely installed, and the manufacturer must be properly identified. The holding tanks
must be installed in dry areas, and, if underground, the tanks must be anchored and contamination issues taken into
consideration. The AHJ shall review all plans, and qualified and experienced contractors shall install the system in accordance with the contract documents.
To calculate the required demand for an irrigation
Table 2-3 Design Criteria for Graywater Irrigation of Six Typical Soils
system, a soil analysis of the subsurface area must
Minimum Irrigation Area per 100
be performed. Table 2-3 gives an example of the
Soil Type
Gallons of Estimated Graywater
Discharge per Day, square feet
design criteria for the use of graywater systems for
various soil types (coarse sand or gravel, fine sand,
Coarse sand or gravel
20
sandy loam, sandy clay, and mixed clay). As the soil
Fine sand
25
weight decreases and the soil becomes less porous,
Sandy
loam
40
the minimum square feet (square meters) needed
Sandy clay
60
for water absorption increases. For example, coarse
sand or gravel needs a 20-square foot irrigation area
Clay with considerable sand or gravel
90
per 100 gallons (1.86 square meters per 379 L) of
Clay with small amounts of sand or gravel
120
estimated graywater discharge per day. Clay with a

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July 2015

READ, LEARN, EARN: On-Site Wastewater Reuse

small amount of sand or gravel requires 120 square feet per 100 gallons (11.15 square meters per 379 L) of estimated
graywater per day.
The area of the irrigation field shall be equal to the aggregate length of the perforated pipe sections within the valved
zone times the width of the proposed irrigation field. Each proposed graywater system shall include at least three valved
zones. No excavation for an irrigation field shall extend within 5 vertical feet (1.5 m) of the highest known seasonal
groundwater table, and it shall not extend to a depth where graywater may contaminate the groundwater or ocean water.
The design of the graywater distribution in subsurface drip systems is based on the emitter manufacturers recommendations. The soil type and loading criteria from Table 2-3 are also applicable to drip irrigation systems.
Table 2-4 identifies the location and separation distance from a variety of structures and environments. These distances
need to be confirmed with local code requirements if the local code requirements are more restrictive. For example, any
building or structure shall be a minimum of 5 feet (1.5 m) from a graywater holding tank. The minimum distance from
any property line to a graywater holding tank is also 5 feet (1.5 m). The distance from the public water main to a holding
tank shall be a minimum of 10 feet (3.1 m). The table also identifies additional restrictions.

Graywater Treatment Systems

The graywater treatment system conditions the recovered water to a level consistent with both the intended use of the
conditioned water and the design requirements of the design engineer, applicable code, or responsible code officialwhichever is the most stringent. Typical treatments used for various types of projects include sedimentation, bioremediation,
aeration, filtration, and disinfection.
The sizes of available treatment systems vary from those installed for individual private dwellings to those serving
multiple facilities. As the treatment facility becomes more complex, the number of treatment activities increases, and the
quality of the water improves. Some of the treatment activities are basic screening, flow equalization, biological treatment, filtration, coagulation, sedimentation, disinfection, reclaimed water storage, membrane filtration, and activated
carbon filtration.
The selection of a treatment system also depends on the quality and type of the influent water. To decide which treatment
method is most appropriate,
the type of fixture discharge
Table 2-4 Minimum Horizontal Distances for Graywater System Elements
to be reclaimed and the treatDistance from
ment requirements of the
Distance from
Distance from
Distance
from
Untreated
authority having jurisdiction
Untreated
Treated Graywater
Element
Treated Graywater
Graywater
Graywater Holding Irrigation System,
must be determined.
Holding Tank, feet
Irrigation System,
Tank, feet
feet
Table 2-5 describes a
feet
few of the types of filtration
Buildings with below
5
5
2
2
and water treatment prograde foundations
cesses most commonly used
Buildings with no below
5
5
None
None
for graywater treatment.
grate foundations
Depending on the type of
Property line
5
5
2
2
filtration, the degree and
Water supply wells
8
25
8
25
types of contaminants removed vary. Basic filtration
High water level of water
8
25
8
25
body
concentrates on reducing
suspended solids, but it does
Sanitary private on-site
25
25
None
None
infiltration system (drain
not remove nitrates or phosfield)
phates. Coagulation helps
Sanitary treatment tank or
25
8
None
None
solids filtration and also
lift
station
(septic
tank)
absorbs some phosphates.
Chlorination is significant
Water service
10
25
None
None
only in microorganism inactivation and oxygen demand
Table 2-5 Graywater Treatment Processes for Normal Process Efficiency
issues. Tertiary treatment
Biological
Chemical
Total
Suspended
Phosphates
Oxygen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Dissolved
includes filtration of all catSolids
(P04)
Demand
Demand
Solids
egories, including membrane
Process
Average
Percent
Removal
technologies. Adsorption, or
Filtration
80
40
35
0
0
0
carbon filtration, is primarCoagulation/filtration
90
50
40
85
0
15
ily for the removal of high
molecular weight organics
Chlorination
0
20a
20a
0
0
0
and disinfectant residuals.
Tertiary treatment
95
95
95
1560
5070
80
Adsorption
0
6080
70
0
(carbon filtration)
a
Nominal, additional removals possible with super chlorination and extended contact time.
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10

READ, LEARN, EARN: On-Site Wastewater Reuse

The percent removal numbers in Table 2-5 are for illustration purposes only; exact percent removal will vary depending
on specific circumstances.

Economic Analysis

Any alternative plumbing system will pose an additional cost. Thus, an economic and energy analysis should be performed
prior to incorporating a graywater use system into a project. See Table 2-6 for a sample comparison table.

Precautions

Table 2-6 Comparison of Graywater System Applications

System
Conventional
Type A
(minimal
treatment)

Piping
Base
Separate graywater riser/
separate WC stack

Treatment
Potential Uses
Water Savingsa
Savings
Since grayNone
N/A
0
0
water poses
Filtration,
chlorination,
Water
closets
20,000
gal/day
20,000 gal/day
a potential
color
(75,708 L/day)
(75,708 L/day)
health hazard,
17% (inc. irrigation),
26%
a great deal
22% (without irrigation)
of care must
Type A
Separate graywater riser/ Chemical filtration,
Water closets
35,000 gal/day,
35,000 gal/day,
be exercised
(enhanced
separate WC stack
chlorination, color
cooling towers,
(132,489 L/day)
(132,489 L/day)
treatment)
irrigation (pos.)
30% (incl. irrigation),
46%
once such a
38%
(without
irrigation)
system is inType B
Separate graywater riser
Tertiary sewage
All nonpotable
61,000 gal/day,
stalled. One of
treatment
uses
(230,909 L/day)
the greatest
52% (incl. irrigation)
dangers is the
a
Values for savings noted are based on the 250-room resort hotel example. Percentages are based on normal usage of 117,850 gal/
possibility that
day, including irrigation, and 91,150 gal/day, without irrigation.
the graywater
system will be inadvertently connected to the potable water system. To avoid this possibility, the water itself and the
piping must be made easily distinguishable, cross-connection precautions must be taken, and appropriate alarms must
be installed. The piping system must be clearly identified with labels placed visibly along the run of the pipe. If possible,
the piping material should be a different color so the possibility of mistaking and interconnecting the two systems is
unlikely. The color of reuse piping is frequently purple to alert future installers. The treated water also can be colored
by biodegradable food dye, or fixtures can be purchased in the color of the water if colored water is found objectionable.
To maintain water quality, alarms and monitors are important components of the graywater system. Frequent monitoring may replace alarms on low-risk installations; however, alarms and automatic solenoids are critical for high-risk
installations.
The most important consideration is educating the occupants and staff of a facility about the graywater system. Explaining the dangers and proper operating instructions helps ensure that an informed staff will operate and maintain
the system in the correct manner. A plan to transfer information from one employee to the next should be included in
the maintenance plan for the system.

Public Concerns and Acceptance

Although graywater systems have been approved for general use in some parts of the world (for example, the Bahamas
and Australia have mandated dual or graywater systems in all occupancies), they are still unfamiliar to many city and
county governments, facility engineers, and the general public. The use of graywater is a proven, cost-effective alternative to the use of potable water in various systems, but authorities may be reluctant to approve graywater systems for
the following reasons:
No generally accepted standard currently exists for the quality of recycled water. Several U.S. states, Japan, and
the Caribbean have adopted codes and guidelines, but no nationally or internationally recognized standard has
been created. This has resulted in rejection of the systems or long delays during the approval process of projects.
Many regulatory and plumbing codes do not have any specific restrictions against using graywater or have ambiguous language that could be interpreted for its use, but some officials impose special standards due to their
lack of experience.
Although the use of graywater is ideal in certain circumstances, the success of graywater systems depends solely
on public acceptance, and that requires an adequate educational effort. The use of colored water in water closets
may not be attractive to the occupants of a newly occupied high-rise. Thus, educating the users of graywater is
imperative. An understanding of the source and associated dangers and limitations of graywater is essential to
acceptance by the general public.
An economic analysis of graywater systems in healthcare facilities may favor dual-plumbing systems. However, the
presence of viruses, bacteria, and biological contamination in healthcare graywater systems (through lavatories, bathtubs,
showers, and sinks) may increase the cost of water treatment. Also, a legitimate concern regarding the spread of disease
through graywater systems must not be overlooked. Therefore, the application of graywater systems in healthcare facilities may require more rigorous treatment, because of the possibility of biological contamination.

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CE Questions On-Site Wastewater Reuse (CEU 225)

1. In LEED v4, how many points maximum can on-site water reuse
help a facility earn?
a. two
b. four
c. six
d. eight

7. For a residential building, what is the estimated graywater flow

from a clothes washer per person per day?
a. 5 gallons
b. 10 gallons
c. 15 gallons
d. 25 gallons

2. Appropriately treated water can be used for which of the following

purposes?
a. water closet flushing
b. cooling tower makeup
c. car washing
d. all of the above

8. Sandy clay soil requires _______ per 100 gallons of estimated

graywater per day for irrigation.
a. 40 square feet
b. 60 square feet
c. 90 square feet
d. 120 square feet

3. Wastewater from toilets, urinals, dishwashers, and food

disposals is called _______.
a. graywater
b. blue water
c. black water
d. potable water

9. An untreated graywater holding tank shall be placed at least

_______ feet from a septic tank.
a. 25
b. 8
c. 5
d. 2

4. What is the recommended international treatment standard for

turbidity for water used for toilet flushing?
a. < 2
b. < 5
c. < 10
d. < 30

10. In graywater treatment, what is primarily used to remove high

molecular weight organics and disinfectant residuals?
a. chlorination
b. coagulation
c. carbon filtration
d. none of the above

5. What color dye has become a clear identification of the use of

graywater?
a. purple
b. blue
c. green
d. all of the above

11. On average, coagulation removes _______ of phosphates from

graywater.
a. 0 percent
b. 35 percent
c. 40 percent
d. 85 percent

6. What is the estimated graywater flow from a 25,000-square-foot

shopping center?
a. 15 gallons per day
b. 150 gallons per day
c. 1,500 gallons per day
d. 15,000 gallons per day

12. Which of the following countries has mandated graywater

systems in all occupancies?
a. Australia
b. Japan
c. Bahamas
d. both a and c