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Article history:
Received 22 May 2008
Received in revised form 26 July 2008
Accepted 5 September 2008
Available online 18 October 2008
Keywords:
Photovoltaic
Electrical efciency
Solar radiation
Thermal energy
a b s t r a c t
The overall electrical efciency of the photovoltaic (PV) module can be increased by reducing the temperature of the PV module by withdrawing the thermal energy associated with the PV module. In this
communication an attempt has been made to develop analytical expression for electrical efciency of
PV module with and without ow as a function of climatic and design parameters. The four different congurations of PV modules are considered for the present study which are dened as; case A (Glass to glass
PV module with duct), case B (Glass to glass PV module without duct), case C (Glass to tedlar PV module
with duct), case D (Glass to tedlar PV module without duct). Further, experiments were carried out for all
congurations under composite climate of New Delhi.
It is found that the glass to glass PV modules with duct gives higher electrical efciency as well as the
higher outlet air temperature amongst the all four cases. The annual effect on electrical efciency of glass
to glass type PV module with and without duct is also evaluated. The annual average efciency of glass to
glass type PV module with and without duct is 10.41% and 9.75%, respectively.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) directly convert solar radiation into electricity
with peak efciency in the range of 912%, depending on specic
solar cell type. More than 80% of the solar radiation falling on
photovoltaic (PV) cells is not converted to electricity, but either
reected or converted to thermal energy. This leads to an increase
in the PV cells working temperature and consequently, a drop of
electricity conversion efciency. In view of this, hybrid photovoltaic and thermal (PV/T) systems are introduced to simultaneously
generate electricity and thermal power. In PV/T system applications the production of electricity is the main priority, therefore
it is necessary to operate the PV modules at low temperature,
the carrier of thermal energy associated with the PV module may
be either air or water. Kern and Russel [1] present the design and
performance of water and air cooled PV/T systems, while Hendrie
[2] and Florschuetz [3] include PV/T modelling in their works.
Numerical methods predicting PV/T system performance are
developed by Raghuraman [4], computer simulations are studied
by Cox and Raghuraman [5], a low cost PV/T system with transparent type a-Si cells is proposed by Lalovic et al. [6] and results from
an applied air type PV/T system are given by Loferski et al. [7]. Garg
and Adhikari [8] present a variety of results regarding the effect of
design and operational parameters on the performance of air type
PV/T systems.
Hagazy [9] and Sopian et al. [10] investigated glazed photovoltaic/thermal air system for a single and a double pass air heater for
space heating and the drying purposes. Kalogirou [11] has carried
out monthly performance of an unglazed hybrid PV/T system under forced mode of operation for climatic condition of the Cyprus.
He observed an increase of the mean annual efciency of the PV
solar system from 2.8% to 7.7% with thermal efciency of 49%.
Lee et al. [12] and Chow et al. [13] give interesting modelling results on air cooled PV modules. Jones and Underwood [14] have
studied the temperature prole of the photovoltaic (PV) module
in a non-steady state condition with respect to time. They
conducted experiment for cloudy as well clear day condition. They
observed that the PV module temperature varies in the range of
300325 K (2752 C) for an ambient air temperature of 297.5 K
(24.5 C). The main reasons for reduction of the electrical efciency of the PV module is packing factor (PF) of PV module, ohmic
losses between two consecutive solar cells and the temperature of
the module. The overall electrical efciency of the PV module can
be increased by increasing the packing factor (PF) and reducing
the temperature of the PV module by withdrawing the thermal energy associated with the PV module, [15,16]. Packing factor is the
ratio of total area of solar cells to the area of PV module. To increase the efciency of PV a sun-tracking design is presented by
Mohamad [17], the movement of a photovoltaic module was controlled to follow the Suns radiation using a programmable logiccontroller (PLC) unit. He has found that the daily output power
of the PV was increased by more than 20% in comparison with that
of a xed module. Based on the IV curves of a photovoltaic (PV)
module, a novel and simple model is proposed to predict the PV
698
Nomenclature
b
L
C
h
hp1, hp2
I(t)
IL
Isc
K
_
m
T
Utc,a
UTc,f
Ub
UL
VL
Voc
module performance for engineering applications. PV module performance is mainly depends upon solar-irradiance intensity and PV
module temperature [18].
Tiwari et al. [19] have validated the theoretical and experimental results for photovoltaic (PV) module integrated with air duct for
composite climate of India and concluded that an overall thermal
efciency of PV/T system is signicantly increased due to utilization of thermal energy from PV module. Tripanagnostopoulos
[20] presented a new type of PV/T collector with dual heat extraction operation with aspects and improvements of hybrid PV/T solar
energy systems. Design of PV integrated solar-collector for natural
circulation of water is presented by He et al. [21].
The methodology for the analytical treatment of the reliability of
PV systems is proposed by Hamdy et al. [22]. The method depends
upon the logic of the fault-tree technique. The reliabilities of the different components of a PV system are used to predict the reliability
of the overall system. The performance analysis of a photovoltaic
heat pump is presented by Jie et al. [23], in this system the PV/T collector is coupled with a solar assisted heat pump and works as an
evaporator and found that the photovoltaic solar assisted heat
pump (PV-SAHP) has better coefcient of performance (COP) and
photovoltaic efciency than the separate units. The COP of the
PV-SAHP reached 8.4 and the average value was around 6.5,
whereas the average photovoltaic efciency was around 13.4%.
Muntasser et al. [24] describes the Photovoltaic marketing in
developing countries and examine marketing opportunities for
PV technologies in less-developed countries, which were previously dominated by the industrialized countries and concludes
by making a global policy package proposal, in terms of an appeal
on the global community concerned with PV to propagate this proposal more convincingly, perhaps to emanate from an internationally recognized forum, like a PV conference and exhibition, with
cooperation and participation of PV manufacturers, suppliers,
industrialized countries, NGOs, nancial institutions and developing countries. Recently, Zondag [25] carried out rigorous review
on research work of a PVthermal collector and system, carried
out by various scientists till 2006. His review includes the history
and importance of photovoltaic hybrid system and its application
in various sectors. It also includes characteristics equations, study
of design parameters, and marketing, etc.
V, v
go
g
Subscripts
a
ambient
c
solar cell
eff
effective
f
uid (air)
inlet uid
fi
outgoing uid
fo
g
glass
p
blackened plate
T
tedlar
Greek symbols
absorptivity
product of effective absorptivity and transmittivity
b
packing factor
s
transmitivity
a
(as)eff
699
g go 1 bo T c T a
1c
2a
3 2
3
The rate of solarenergy
The rate of heat
6 available on blackened 7 6 transferfrom
7
6
7 6
7
6
76
7
4 surfacefrom non packing 5 4 blackened plate 5
area of PV module
to flowing fluid
2
3
An overall heat
4 loss from plate 5
to ambient
From Eq. (2a), the expression for plate temperature is
Tp
2b
dT f
dx hp;f T p T f U Tc;f T c T f b dx
dx
2
3
2
3
The rate ofheat
The mass flow
6 transfer from
7
4 rate offlowing 5 6
7
4 blackened plate to 5
fluid
flowing fluid
2
3
An overall heat
4
transfer from cell 5
to flowing fluid
_ aCa
m
Fig. 1. (a) Cut sectional view of glass to glass PV module with duct. (b) Cut sectional
view of glass to tedlar PV module with duct.
1a
3
2
3
An overall heat
The rate of heat
6 lossfrom top 7
6
7 6
7 6
7
4 energy available 5 6
7 4 transfer from cell 5
4 surface of cell 5
on solar cell
to flowing fluid
to ambient
2
3
The rate of
6
7
4 electrical energy 5
2
The solution of Eq. (3) with the help of Eqs. (1b) and (2b) and
initial conditions namely, at T f jx0 , Tf = T1 and at T f jxL , Tf = Tfo1,
we get,
T fo
asGG;eff It
bU L;GG L
T a 1 exp
_ aCa
m
U L;GG
bU L;GG L
T fi exp
_ aCa
m
Z
1 L
T f dx
L 0
3
2
bU
L
1 exp m_L;GG
asGG;eff It
a Ca
5 T fi
T a 41
bU L;GG L
U L;GG
_ a Ca
m
bU
L
1 exp m_L;GG
a Ca
bU
L
Tf
L;GG
1b
U tc;a U bc;f
If T = Ta and T f T f , then from Eqs. (1b), (1c), and (4b), the expression for temperature dependent electrical efciency can be obtained
as
L
.
where X o bUm_LGG
a Ca
bo
Tc;f
o
go 1 Utc;asgU
ac bc UUL;GG
hp1 ac bc hp2 ap 1 bc sg 1 1expX
Xo
Tc;f
1
go bo sg bc ac It
U tc;a U Tc;f
4b
_ a Ca
m
4a
The average air temperature over the length of air duct below
PV module is obtained as
produced
Tc
U hp1
o
1 UTc;f
1 1expX
Xo
L;GG
i
It
5
700
U T T c T bs b dx hT T bs T f b dx
sg ac bc sg 1 bc Itb dx U tc;a T c T a U b T c T a b dx
6a
sg gac bc Itb dx
2
An overall heat
Tc
An overall heat
The rate of heat transfer
4 transfer from cell to 5 4 from back surface of the 5
back surface of tedlar
tedlar to flowing fluid
Using Eqs. (8b) and (9a), the expression for back surface temperature of PV module can be obtained as
go 1
1
bo asGG;eff It
U tc;a U b
6b
i
7
bo go sg ac bc It
U tc;a U b
9b
10
The solution of Eq. (11a) with the help of Eqs. (9b) and (10) and initial conditions namely, at T f jx0 , Tf = T1 and at T f jxL , Tf = Tfo1, we get,
T fo
From Eqs. (1c) and (6b), the expression for the efciency of glass to
glass PV module can be obtained as
dT f
dx U b T f T a b dx hT T bs T f b dx
dx
2
3 2
3
The mass flow
An overall heat transfer
4 rate offlowing 5 4 from flowing fluid to 5
fluid
ambient
2
3
The rate of heat transfer
4 from back surface of the 5
tedlar to flowing fluid
U tc;a U b
_ aCa
m
produced
9a
T bs
bU L;GT L
1 exp
_ aCa
m
11a
The average air temperature over the length of air duct below
PV module is obtained as
3
2
bU
L
Tf
1 exp m_L;GT
hp1 hp2 asGT;eff It
a Ca
5
T a 41
bU L;GT L
U L;GT
0
_ a Ca
m
bU
L
1 exp m_L;GT
a Ca
11b
T fi
bU
L
1
L
T f dx
L;GT
go 1
g
12
L
.
where X o bUm_LGG
a Ca
An overall heat
7
6
6
lossfrom top 7
6
7
7
6 energy available 7 6
7
4
5 6
6 surface of cell 7
5
4
on PV module
to ambient
2
3 2
3
An overall heat
The rate of
6
7 6
7
7 6
7
6
4 transfer from cell to 5 4 electrical energy 5
The rate of solar
sg ac bc aT 1 bc Itb dx U tc;a T c T a U b T c T a b dx
13a
sg gac bc Itb dx
2
produced
Tc
If T = Ta and T f T f , then from Eqs. (1c), (8b), (9b), and (11b), the
expression for temperature dependent electrical efciency can be
obtained as
bo sg ac bc aT 1 bc It
U T hp1
U T hT hp1 hp2
1 expX o
1
1
U tc;a U T
Xo
hT U tT hT U tT U L;GT
bo go sg ac bc It
U T hp1
U T hT hp1 hp2
1 expX o
1
1
1
U tc;a U T
Xo
hT U tT hT U tT U L;GT
sg ac bc aT 1 bc Itb dx U tc;a T c T a U T T c T bs b dx
8a
sg gac bc Itb dx
2
_ a Ca
m
8b
An overall heat
7
6
6
7 6 loss from top 7
7
4 energy available 5 6
4 surface of cell 5
on PV module
to ambient
2
3 2
3
An overall heat
The rate of
6
7 6
7
4 loss from back side 5 4 electrical energy 5
of the cell
produced
701
h
Tc
asGT;eff
i
sg gac bc It U tc;a T a U b T a
U tc;a U b
13b
From Eqs. (1c) and (13b), the expression for the efciency of glass to
glass PV module can be obtained as
GT;eff It
go 1 bo aUstc;a
U b
1
i
14
bo go sg ac bc It
U tc;a U b
In addition to the above equations the relations used for dening the design parameters (Table 1) and different conguration of
glass to glass and glass to tedlar PV modules with and without duct
are given in Appendix.
To compare the theoretical and experimental results the correlation coefcient (r) and root mean square percent deviation (e)
have been evaluated by using the following expressions:
P
P
P
N X i Y i X i Y i
q
r q
P
P
P
P
N X 2i X i 2 N Y 2i Y i 2
16a
And
s
P 2
ei
e
N
16b
where
Xi Y i
100
Xi
ei
gexp
0:8 V oc Isc IL V L
Am It
15
2
Solar intensity, W/m
900
40
800
35
700
30
600
25
500
20
400
15
300
I(t)
200
10
Ta
100
0
Ambient temperature,C
0
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
Time (Hours)
go
sg
0.605 m
7.6 W/m2 K
1.0 m
0.0058 kg/s
1005 J/kg K
7.44 W/m2 K
0.9
0.8
0.5
0.83
0.0045
0.12
0.95
0.536
0.934
1.1 W/m K
0.003 m
8.59 W/m2 K
4.56 W/m2 K
0.62 W/m2 K
ac
ap
aT
bc
bo
3.36 W/m K
0.898
0.54
0.033 W/m K
0.0005 m
66 W/m2 K
6.68 W/m2 K
4.42 W/m2 K
0.62 W/m2 K
3.23 W/m2 K
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
Time (Hours)
Fig. 3. Hourly variation of electrical efciency considering with and without duct.
12.0
90.0
11.5
80.0
11.0
70.0
10.5
60.0
10.0
50.0
9.5
40.0
9.0
8.5
Cell temperature,C
Values
b
ho
L
_a
m
Ca
Utc,a
Eletrical efficiency, %
Parameters
Fig. 2. Hourly variation of solar intensity and ambient temperature for the month
of April, 2008.
Electrical Efficiency, %
Table 1
Design parameters of glass to glass and glass to tedlar, with and without duct of PV
modules
30.0
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
Time (Hours)
Fig. 4. Hourly variation of electrical efciency and cell temperature considering
with duct.
702
e= 3.92
r = 0.838
Theoretical
Experimental
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
Electrical Efficiency, %
Electrical Efficiency, %
Theoretical
e= 4.19
r = 0.827
Experimental
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
16:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
Theoretical
Electrical Efficiency, %
Electrical Efficiency, %
e= 3.41
r= 0.806
Experimental
11.0
10.0
9.0
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
Time (Hours)
Time (Hours)
14:00
15:00
e= 3.87
r= 0.849
Theoretical
Experimental
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
09:00
16:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
Time (Hours)
Time (Hours)
Fig. 5. (a) Hourly variation of electrical efciency considering with duct. (b) Hourly variation of electrical efciency considering without duct. (c) Hourly variation of electrical
efciency considering with duct. (d) Hourly variation of electrical efciency considering without duct.
V = 1 m/s (GG)
V= 1 m/s (GT)
V= 2 m/s (GG)
V= 2 m/s (GG)
a type
b type
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
c type
d type
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
Time (Hours)
b
Daily avg. electrical efficiency, %
Electrical Efficiency, %
12.0
11.17
11.0
10.0
10.65
9.73
9.86
9.0
Type a
Type b
Type c
Type d
Weather conditions
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
Time (Hours)
Fig. 6. Hourly variation of average air temperature over the length of duct by
varying the mass ow rate; glass to glass (GG) and glass to tedlar (GT).
703
a
Monthly avg. electrical efficiency, %
11.0
10.5
10.0
9.5
9.0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month of year
b
Monthly avg. electrical efficiency, %
10.5
9.5
9.0
8.5
8.0
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Month of year
Fig. 8. (a) Monthly average of electrical efciency considering a, b, c, d type weather conditions for glass to glass PV module with duct. (b) Monthly average of electrical
efciency considering a, b, c, d type weather conditions for glass to glass PV module without duct.
efciency and cell temperature for case A and case B with duct
are shown in Fig. 4. Figure shows that as the temperature increases efciency decreases and as the temperature decreases efciency increases, as expected. This result is in accordance with the
results reported by earlier researchers, Zondag et al. [15] and
Chow [16].
Eqs. (5) and (6) has been used for calculating the theoretical
efciency of glass to glass type PV module with and without duct.
Experimental results are validated with the theoretical results and
the variations are shown in Fig. 5a and b. Similarly, Eqs. (12) and
(14) has been used for calculating the theoretical efciency of glass
to tedlar type PV module with and without duct. The variations between experimental and theoretical results are shown in Fig. 5c
and d. The correlation coefcient (r) and root mean square percent
deviation (e) is also evaluated using Eqs. (16a) and (16b), respectively which are shown in the same gure. It is observed that there
is a fair agreement between theoretical and experimental values of
all the four cases. The correlation coefcient (r) and root mean
square percent deviation (e) is varies from 4.19 to 3.41 and 0.849
to 0.806, respectively.
Eqs. (4b) and (11b) has been used for evaluating the average air
temperature over the length of air duct by varying the mass ow
rate for case A and case C. It is observed that the average air temperature is higher in case of A than case C, due to the solar radiation is transmitted through the glass cover (non-packing area)
and absorbed by the blackened plate (below the module). In this
case the heat is convected to the owing air by two ways from back
4. Conclusion
1. In this paper, four different congurations of two types of PV
modules, glass to glass and glass to tedlar are studied.
2. The percentage difference between electrical efciency (Dg) of
glass to glass and glass to tedlar type PV modules with and
without duct are 0.24% and 0.086%, respectively.
704
Appendix A
asGT;eff sg ac bc aT 1 bc
U tc;a
Lg
1
K g ho
1
Ub
K T hi
hi 2:8 3v;
v 0:2 m=s
The values of ac, aT, bc, go, ap and sg are taken from Dufe and
Beckman [30], Tiwari [31] and Tiwari and Sodha [32].
References
hp;f
U Tc;f
and hp2
U tc;a U Tc;f
U p;a hp;f
1
Lg
1
K g ho
hp1
U tc;a
U Tc;f
K g hi
hp;f hi 2:8 3v;
U Tc;f U tc;a
U tT
U Tc;f U tc;a
U bp;a hp;f
UT
U bp;a hp;f
v 2 m=s
U L;GG U tT U T
(ii) Glass to glass PV module without duct:
asGG;eff sg ac bc sg 1 bc
U tc;a
Lg
1
K g ho
1
Ub
K g hi
hi 2:8 3v;
v 0:2 m=s
asGT;eff sg ac bc aT 1 bc ac gbc
hp1 and hp2 is the penalty factors due to glass cover and tedlar of
T
and hp2 Utc;ahThT
PV module, which are dened as, hp1 Utc;aUU
T
U tc;a
Lg
1
K g ho
1
ho 5:7 3:8V;
1
LT
UT
KT
V 0:5 m=s
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