Computer Science Department

Technical Report
NWU-CS-05-12
April 20, 2005

Histographs: Interactive Visualization of Complex Data with Graphs

Pin Ren, Benjamin Watson

Abstract
Graphs are a widely used and understood visualization. However, they quickly break
down when the visualized data is quite complex, requiring hundreds or thousands of
graphs. Our Histographs system builds on the techniques introduced with Information
Murals [7] to enable meaningful visualization of such data. Histographs map the
frequency of data elements at each display location to luminance, revealing data density
and trends. Our improvements include contrast-weighted histogram equalization to
improve the frequency-luminance mapping, splatting to make outliers visible, a second
derivative modulation to reveal changes in data trends, and the use of line integral
convolution show local data flow. Different data-to-space mappings can be implemented
interactively. A linked correlation matrix display and highlights inter-graph relationships.
Users can zoom in on data, as well as select with shape- and correlation-based brushing.
Histographs are a useful way of obtaining data overviews, and revealing hidden structure
in complex data sets.
Keywords: information visualization, data streams, splatting, histogram equalization, image
processing, market visualization, computer system visualization
 Histographs: Interactive Visualization of Complex Data with Graphs
Pin Ren*
Northwestern University
Figure 1: NYSE TAQ trading data for May, 2004. On the left, a log(price) histograph. Dark horizontal stripes indicate more trades in the middle
price range, thinner vertical stripes show increased activity as trading days close and open. Right, trades in each stock plotted relative to its
mean (SDMean(log(price))), and illustrates price trends with line integral convolution (LIC). Monthly and daily trends are much clearer.
ABSTRACT
Graphs are a widely used and understood visualization. However,
they quickly break down when the visualized data is quite
complex, requiring hundreds or thousands of graphs. Our
Histographs system builds on the techniques introduced with
Information Murals [7] to enable meaningful visualization of such
data. Histographs map the frequency of data elements at each
display location to luminance, revealing data density and trends.
Our improvements include contrast-weighted histogram
equalization to improve the frequency-luminance mapping,
splatting to make outliers visible, a second derivative modulation
to reveal changes in data trends, and the use of line integral
convolution show local data flow. Different data-to-space
mappings can be implemented interactively. A linked correlation
matrix display and highlights inter-graph relationships. Users can
zoom in on data, as well as select with shape- and correlation-
based brushing. Histographs are a useful way of obtaining data
overviews, and revealing hidden structure in complex data sets.
CR Categories: H.5.2 [Information Interfaces and Presentation]:
User Interfaces – Screen Design; I.3.8 [Computer Graphics]:
Applications
Keywords: information visualization, data streams, splatting,
*
{p-ren,watson}@northwestern.edu
Benjamin Watson*
Northwestern University
histogram equalization, image processing, market visualization,
computer systems visualization
1 GRAPHS FOR COMPLEX DATA
Visualizing large multivariate data sets is an ongoing research
effort. The goal in these visualizations is finding the overall trends
and hidden patterns, both by visual inspection and interactive
navigation and manipulation. Graphs are one widely used and
understood visualization technique. However if complex data is
graphed (consider “stacking” a few thousand scatterplots), many
data points are mapped to the same location, hiding most of the
information and greatly reducing the effectiveness of the
visualization.
Our aim is to make graphs useful for visualizing large, complex
data sets, while retaining as much of their intuitive accessibility as
possible. Our Histographs solution builds upon Jerding and
Stasko’s Information Murals (IM) [7], which mapped the number
of data points at a pixel to luminance, enabling effective display-
space scaling of 2D plots. Histographs adapt this solution to allow
effective projection (“stacking”) of a very large number of graphs
into 2D (Figure 1). We describe our solution in more detail below.
2 PREVIOUS WORK
Mapping high-dimensional data sets to limited 2D display space
has always been a basic visualization challenge. The scatterplot
matrix [4] visualizes N-dimensional data by arranging N2 graphs
into an N×N matrix. The dimensions corresponding to each
graph’s axes are fixed by its location in the matrix. Parallel
coordinates [6] map N data dimensions to N parallel axes. Points
Figure 2: NYSE data for Dec 1-10, 2004. Left, contrast-weighted equalization (CWE) maps frequency to luminance; right, the mapping is
formed with scaling as in [1]. Note the increased overall contrast and improved visibility of outliers with CWE.
in the data space appear as connected line segments joining points
on these axes. Dimensional stacking [9] maps N-dimensional data
into two dimensions by choosing two dimensions and creating
graph axes for them, subtracting those dimensions from the data
set, and then recursively embedding smaller graphs inside this
graph using the same technique, until graphs with only one or two
dimensions can be created. Histographs address the
dimensionality problem by choosing one axis from the data set
and mapping it to the horizontal axis in N-1 2D graphs, each with
one of the remaining N-1 dimensions mapped to its vertical axis.
These axes are then stacked. We illustrate this approach below
with New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) trading data containing
thousands of stocks, and a 262-dimension Windows system
performance data set.
High-dimensional or large data is not only difficult to map to
the display, but also to visualize clearly. Often, many data points
map to the same display location, obscuring data visibility. Zhai et
al. [16] address this occlusion problem with translucence, which
blends the colors of overlapping data objects. This is effective if
the number of data objects at any pixel is limited. Jerding and
Stasko's IM system [7] permitted large graphs to be scaled down
to small display sizes by mapping the number of data points at
destination pixels to luminance. Trutschl et al. [13] reposition
occluded points using a smart jittering algorithm. Although none
of these techniques were designed to handle a very large number
of occlusions, the frequency-luminance (FL) mapping used by IM
is easily adapted to this purpose. Wegman & Luo [14] and Artero
et al. [1] use this approach to resolve the occlusions generated by
large numbers of data records in parallel coordinates projections.
Histographs use this approach to resolve the occlusions generated
when high-dimensional data is projected into 2D.
3 BASIC HISTOGRAPHS
Like a histogram summarizes the distribution of samples using a
frequency-space mapping, a histograph summarizes a large
number (a “stack”) of graphs using an FL mapping. To generate a
histograph, the data elements in each 2D graph Gi is organized
and counted into a 2D data frequency image Fi,x×y, with resolution
corresponding to display resolution. The images for all the graphs
are then summed, forming a composite frequency array Fx×y = Σi
Fi,x×y. This array then becomes input for the FL mapping (see
Section 4).
The data-space mapping in each graph Gi is formed by
choosing one of the N dimensions in the data set and mapping it
to the horizontal axis in all graphs. We call this the abscissal
dimension. In all our work to date, we use time as our abscissal
dimension, meaning that we treat our data as time series [2][15].
We currently use a simple linear mapping of time to the horizontal
axis. We map each of the remaining N-1 ordinal dimensions to
the vertical axis on one of the N-1 graphs in the stack. Users can
select interactively from various vertical mappings, including
linear mappings between the Global minimum and maximum data
values over all the N-1 ordinal dimensions, and between the Local
minimum and maximum data values in the single ordinal
dimension corresponding to the current graph Gi. Users can also
transform the data interactively before it is mapped. Three
particularly useful transforms are log(), deriv() and gain(). The
latter subtracts the first data value in abscissal order in the current
graph Gi from all subsequent local data values. For time series,
this means subtracting the oldest value from all subsequent values
(Figures 3, 5 and 10).
When each of the N-1 ordinal dimensions is measured using the
same units (e.g. trades for thousands of stocks measured in US
dollars), these data-space mappings are quite useful. They are less
useful when units differ, as they do in our Tlab Windows
performance data set. For such cases, our system includes an
SDMean mapping. This operation finds a local mean µi and a
local standard deviation σi for each graph Gi and the data in its
matching ordinal dimension. Data is then linearly mapped
between -4σi and 4σi, with µi located at the center of Gi’s vertical
axis. Data values outside this range are clamped to the range. This
mapping places main trends at the middle of each graph’s vertical
dimension, and outliers above and below it (Figures 1, 2, 6-9 and
11-12).
To allow flexible, interactive zooming, we construct a temporal
hierarchy on the data. This hierarchy is built bottom-up during
Figure 3: gain (and loss) in stock price for Dec 7, 2004. On the left
CWE defines the luminance mapping, on the right histogram
equalization does. CWE has higher overall contrast while
preserving visibility of outliers and high-frequency data features.
precomputation from leaves that sample time regularly. Data
points need not be so regularly spaced, so when a leaf contains
multiple points, the points are aggregated using a simple or
weighted (e.g. trading volume) average. This process continues
recursively, with children being aggregated into their parents until
the entire hierarchy is filled.
Two data sets drive our work and illustrate this paper. The
NYSE TAQ data set records every trade made on that Wall Street
market, to a temporal resolution of one second. Each data record
includes the ticker symbol of the traded stock, the time and date of
the trade, as well as trade price and volume. The Tlab Windows
system monitoring data measures the performance of a small
cluster of PC in a departmental student lab. The data includes 29
different performance measures for each of the nine machines in
the cluster, recorded at a 1Hz rate for two months in 2001. The
measures include processor user time, memory usage, and the
number of sent TCP packages.
4 FREQUENCY-LUMINANCE MAPPINGS
The FL mapping is central to the utility of histographs, and should
effectively reveal variation in data density across the graph stack,
even when data in certain regions of the stack is quite sparse.
4.1 Contrast-Weighted Histogram Equalization
In the attempt to maximize contrast and minimize quantization,
visualizations (e.g. [1]) typically map data to luminance by
equating the lowest and highest data values to the lowest and
highest luminance values, and using a linear mapping between
them. Unfortunately, if the highest and lowest data values are
outliers, this linear mapping causes uneven distribution of actual
data values across luminance, resulting in poor contrast (Figure
2).
In image processing, histogram equalization (HE) [11]
addresses a similar problem by accepting an input luminance
image and producing a mapping of each distinct luminance in that
image to a new luminance. The differences between output
luminances are proportional to the frequency with which each
original luminance occurs in the input image. To apply HE to our
FL mapping problem, we replace the input luminance image with
an image-sized array of data frequencies. HE then eliminates
sensitivity to data outliers, but can overemphasize small
differences in data frequency, simply because they are common
(Figure 3).
Our solution is to adjust HE’s mapping to reflect the contrast
between input values, rather than the frequency with which they
occur. We call the resulting algorithm contrast-weighted
equalization (CWE). When applied to FL mapping, CWE accepts
an image-sized array of data frequencies Fw×h and outputs a
mapping FL|F|, where |F| is the number of distinct data frequencies
in Fw×h. At completion, FL|F| contains an increasing set of device-
Figure 4: NYSE data for Dec 1, 2004. Left, a histograph with
splatting. Right, the same histograph without splatting. Note the
increased visibility of splatted outliers.
independent luminances in the range [0,1]. As a first step, it
produces an intermediate array of summed contrasts C|F|:
DistinctF|F| = a list of all distinct frequencies in Fw×h
Set all elements in C|F| to 0
For each element F in Fw×h do
For each element N of F’s 8 neighbors do
C|F|[F] += |F - N|
End for
End for
FL|F|[0] = 0
SumC = 0
TotalC = sum of elements in C|F|
For i = 1 to |F|-1 do
SumC += C[DistinctF|F|[i]]
FL|F|[i] =SumC/TotalC
End for
The results of CWE can be seen in Figures 2 and 3. Note that if all
the inner loop in the first half of this pseudocode is replaced by
the simple operation C|F|[F] += 1 then the above is equivalent to
HE.
To ensure that all data frequencies in our histographs are
visible, we often find it useful to transform the FL mapping to a
device-dependent luminance range with a non-zero minimum.
When the number of data frequencies |F| in input is less than the
device’s luminance resolution, we ensure that each input
frequency maps to a distinct output luminance.
4.2 Splatting to Increase Visibility of Isolated Data
Even with a good FL mapping based on CWE, isolated data
elements can be hard to see (Figure 4). This occurs when data
elements represent outliers, or after user zooming has reduced
data density in the current histograph. Such isolated data elements
can be important precisely because they are unusual or isolated,
and should be visible even when the FL mapping quite
appropriately makes them low-contrast features in the
visualization. To address this problem, we add lower spatial
frequencies to isolated data elements using splatting, increasing
the visual salience of these elements without distorting the FL
mapping. These goals are quite different from van Liere and de
Leeuw [10], who use splatting uniformly throughout their graphs
to blur and reveal global structure.
To focus splatting on low-contrast, spatially isolated data
elements, our splats are adaptive both to the number of data
elements nearby, and to the luminance of the data elements
themselves. We begin with a simple neighborhood search around
each pixel Pxy containing data elements to find the radius rk that
defines the circular neighborhood around the pixel that contains
Figure 5: gain in stock price in May 2004, colored to reveal local Figure 6: trading for Dec 1, 2004. LIC reveals pricing trends in the
price trends. Red shows falling prices, while green shows rising lower price range between 10 and 11AM.
prices. High saturation indicates a broader trend. This histograph
reveals many events in the middle of the trading day.

Figure 7: Tlab Windows monitoring data for May 1-4, 2001, visualized relative to each parameter’s mean. Left, data frequency determines
nd
luminance; right, frequency is modulated by 2 derivative, highlighting several system events.

exactly k other data elements (we currently use k = 4). The splat is When two splats overlap, the maximum luminance is applied;
then defined by the exponential function splats are not additive. Splats never affect the luminance of pixels
containing data points.
0.75 ⋅ lum( P xy ) ⋅ exp⎛⎜ ⋅ log(1 lum( P xy )) ⎞⎟
Dist ( P xy,Q xy )

⎝ rk
⎠ 5 VISUALIZING HIGHER-ORDER TRENDS
By interpolating between data points, line graphs visualize an
where lum() returns the luminance of a pixel, Dist() the distance approximation of slope, giving viewers a sense of trend and flow.
between two pixels, and Qxy is the pixel being shaded. Note that As dense scatterplots, simple histographs do not visualize these
the exponential falls off both as a function of the local sparseness higher-order data characteristics. We have implemented a number
of data elements rk, and the luminance of the splatted pixel Pxy. of improvements to address these shortcomings.
Figure 9: Tlab Windows monitoring data for May 2001 with a linked correlation matrix view on the right. Green indicates positive correlation,
red negative correlation, with correlation strength mapped to color luminance. Each matrix row or column shows correlations of one system
parameter to all others. Brushing a correlated range in the matrix image selects similar data streams in parameter view.

Figure 10: correlation brushing on stock data.

Exploiting the notion of “flow” in graphs, we can treat mean

histograph slope as a vector, and visualize the mean slope vectors
at each pixel using line integral convolution (LIC) [3] (Figure 6).
We use the grayscale image created by the simple, unenhanced
histograph as the necessary texture input for LIC. We find that
assigning positive [1 0] vectors (pointing forward in time) to
histograph pixels without data enhances this visualization, and use
a constant integral length of 25 in LIC.

5.2 Visualizing Second Derivative

Figure 8: 2nd derivative modulation on trading data, revealing
strongly changing price trends before and after events such as
market closings, openings and important announcements.
5.1 Visualizing Slope
First, we map slope to chroma (Figure 5). Since each pixel will
typically cover data points from many graphs Gi, each with its
own local first derivative, we in fact visualize mean slope. We
map a negative mean first derivative to red, a positive mean first
derivative to green. Saturation increases with the absolute
magnitude of these derivatives. We approximate derivative by
differencing consecutive (temporally adjacent) data elements.
Sudden changes in data trends or graph “flow” indicate important
events and singularities in the data. Even if slope is visualized,
these events can be hard to identify in dense histographs. To
highlight these events, we modulate the FL mapping by
multiplying frequency with the mean second derivative at each
pixel before the mapping is constructed by CWE. Figure 7 shows
how this second derivative modulation highlights sudden changes
in computer system usage in a piecewise linear visualization of
the Tlab data. Figure 8 shows sudden changes in NYSE stock
price trends that straddle important market announcements or
events.
Like first derivatives, second derivatives in our visualization
are aggregated values summarizing the different second
Figure 11: shape-based selection, with saturation mapped to the
proportion of streams selected.
derivatives at corresponding pixels in each stacked graph Gi.
However unlike the first derivative, second derivatives are
produced with filtering across the temporal dimension to make
data events more visible. To find second derivatives, we first filter
each of the zero-order data values in every graph Gi by averaging
the five temporally adjacent surrounding values. We next
construct first derivatives at each pixel in each graph Gi by
differencing consecutive filtered, zero-order values. We then filter
these first derivatives as we did the zero-order data, generate
second derivatives from filtered first derivatives, and finally filter
second derivatives as we did zero-order data and first derivatives.
6 VISUALIZING GRAPH RELATIONSHIPS
To help users form and test hypotheses about relationships
between individual graphs or dimensions in a histograph, we
show a linked correlation matrix view (Figures 9 and 10). In this
(N-1)×(N-1) matrix, each row and column represents one graph or
dimension, and displays its correlations to all other dimensions. In
each matrix cell, red indicates negative correlations and green
positive correlations, while luminance increases with the absolute
magnitude of the correlation.
We calculate correlations using standard statistical techniques,
interpolating to fill gaps in the data when necessary. To
effectively cluster correlated graphs and dimensions in the matrix
we apply the correlation matrix ordering technique described by
Friendly [5]. This ordering is computed by projecting each graph
or dimension into the 2D space described by the first two
eigenvectors of the correlation matrix, and visiting those projected
dimensions in angular order.
Users can interactively specify a time range over which to
construct the matrix and examine correlations. Users can also
select correlated streams in the linked histograph by brushing on
the correlation matrix view. We discuss those features in more
detail below.
7 SUPPORTED INTERACTIONS
Interaction is a crucial part of any visualization system, especially
those designed for data exploration. As we have described above,
users can interactively change the data transformation and data-
space mappings. FL mappings such as CWE and splatting can be
Figure 12: two selected baskets of stocks.
turned on and off at will. Users can toggle visualization of higher-
order trends, and a linked correlation view.
We have also implemented several other interactions. With
click and query, users can click on a histograph pixel to reveal a
pop-up menu showing textual information about the data from
different dimensions aggregated by this pixel. For example with
the NYSE data, data revealed includes ticker symbol, price, and
slope. Users can also use the popup menu to perform a dimension-
by-dimension (graph-by-graph) selection operation. Our
annotation interaction allows user to add textual annotation linked
to any point in the histograph. Only a red dot marks the annotation
left behind, clicking on it later reveals the text.
Users often want to experiment with clustering several
graphs/dimensions by selecting streams with similar behaviors.
With shape based selection (Figures 11 and 12), users can select
graphs that have similar shape. With a lasso interaction, users
define a target shape. In the temporal range spanned by the shape,
if “most” (currently 90%) of a graphed dimension’s data falls
inside the lasso shape it will be selected. Target shapes can also be
dragged around the histograph to select a different time and
ordinal data ranges.
7.1 Linking and Brushing
Linking and brushing interactions are an important element of our
interface. In the linked correlation matrix view, users can brush
using a horizontal stroke or instead use more precise sliders. The
corresponding set of dimensions/graphs in the linked histographs
view will be selected for further attention (Figures 9 and 10).
Similar sliders may be used in the histographs view, causing a
recalculation of the correlation matrix to reflect any change in the
selected time range.
Users can easily create a duplicate, linked histograph view to
which alternate data transforms and mappings can be applied,
allowing users to see different aspects of the same data. Any sort
of selection in one view will also selects and highlights the same
set of graphs/dimensions in all linked views.
Interesting graph selections can be saved for further analysis
and comparison by dubbing the selection a “cluster” and assigning
it a color. Multiple clusters can be viewed at once for close
comparison and testing (Figure 12). Selections can also be used to

Figure 13: a data-space zoom into a smaller price range.
Figure 14: A data-space zoom into a smaller time range.
split the histograph into two histographs, one containing the
selected graphs and dimensions, and the other containing the
unselected data.
7.2 Zooming
Having seen an overview, users can zoom in on interesting data
features, obtaining more detailed and finer scale information
about the data set [12]. To zoom, users can draw a rectangular
region of any size anywhere in the histograph, simultaneously
selecting a time and ordinal data (e.g. price) range. For more
precision, sliders may also be used (Figures 13 and 14). When the
selection is complete, a new (unlinked) histograph appears,
displaying the selected time/data range, and any
graphs/dimensions that intersect this range. Zooms may also be
performed on zoomed views.
To maintain a visual correspondence between a zoomed view
and its parent context, we do not create a new FL mapping for the
zoomed view. Instead, we reuse the parent’s FL mapping.
Because zooming will usually result in smaller range of data
frequencies than the parent contains, we scale the values in the
zoomed view’s frequency image Fx×y to match the parent’s
frequency range. Users can discard this common FL mapping at
any time and create a unique FL mapping for the zoomed view
with CWE.
8 APPLICATION EXAMPLES
Our development of this system is driven by two applications and
their related data sets. Our finance collaborators are interested in
two uses of the system: macroeconomic analysis of market
segments or portfolios for use in education and training, and a
close research analysis of intraday trading patterns. We have
come much farther in serving the first use than the second. In
particular, overviews of long time periods (e.g. one month, Figure
1) reveal the large-scale trends nicely. The modulated view in
Figure 8 highlights interesting and significant market events and
patterns well. Correlation views like that in Figure 10 provide a
valuable clustering analysis. On the other hand, while intra-day
views such as Figures 3, 4 and 6 are quite interesting, they do not
yet provide all the features required to support active research. In
particular, we need to add views of price volatility into our
system. This will likely require the addition of price minimum and
maximum fields to our data structures. We would also like to add
much more support for hypothesis or model formation and testing.
Users should be able to describe a model and see it tested visually
and interactively against a real data set, zooming in on interesting
successes and failures.
Our computer systems collaborators are at the earliest stages of
their research, trying simply to understand what information is
available to them in dense system traces like those in our Tlab
data. For now the bar is quite low: visualization of any kind will
be important to them as they explore their data, particularly event-
focused views like Figure 7 that may help them identify system
failures or intrusions, and correlation views like Figure 9 that
identify relationships within the traces and reduce the data space
they are mining. Many systems traces are piecewise linear; we are
considering special views and projections designed for this sort of
data.
9 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Histographs are a new graph-based technique for visualizing and
interacting with large, high-dimensional data sets. N-dimensional
data is mapped to a stack of 2D graphs, which are then projected
and composited into a single histograph view using techniques
introduced by the Information Murals system [7]. We build on
these techniques by describing a new contrast-weighted
equalization for mapping data density or frequency to luminance,
an application of line-integral convolution to reveal data trends
and flow, and linked correlation view to show dimensional
relationships. We have demonstrated the use of histographs in two
applied domains: NYSE stock trades, and system traces in a local
PC cluster.
While we believe histographs can be used with a wide range of
high-dimensional data, our work to date has focused on data that
contains a temporal dimension, leading us to focus on techniques
for time series. We would like to expand our system to include
interaction techniques specialized for this type of data [2][15]. We
also would like to expand to non-temporal and non-numeric
datasets.
The histographs system was built with an index card metaphor
in mind: one graph on each index card, with cards stacked or
unstacked. We would like to further develop this metaphor.
10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our thanks to our collaborators Torben Anderson of Northwestern
Finance, and to Peter Dinda of Northwestern Computer Science’s
Systems Group.
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