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The reddish hues at sunset caused by scattering of sunlight - kovalam beach

WAVE /PHYSIC AL OPTIC S

Def The branch of the study of light,where the properties of light due to its
wave nature like diffraction, interference and polarization are dealt with.
Huygens Wave Theory ( HuygensFresnel principle )
This theory postulates that light propagates in the form of waves . Accordingly
, each point of an advancing wave front is in fact the center of a fresh disturbance
and the source of a new train of waves; also, the advancing wave as a whole may
be regarded as the sum of all the secondary waves arising from points in the
medium already traversed. The locus of all the particles of the medium vibrating
in the same phase at a given instant is called a wavefront .

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Considering a spreading wave , all points on the spreading wave circle are oscillating
in phase , since they are at the same distance from the source. Hence a wavefront
is a surface of constant phase. The speed with which the wavefront takes to travel
outward from the source is called the phase speed. The energy of the wave travels
in a direction perpendicular to the wavefront.

huygens wavefront

The light waves given by a point source forms a spherical wavefront in threedimensional space.The energy is considered to travel outward along straight lines (
called rays ) from the point source called the radii of the spherical wavefront.Note
the spacing between a pair of wavefronts along any ray is always a constant. Points
to note
1.
2.
3.
4.

Every point on a wavefront can independently produce secondary wavefronts.

Rays are always perpendicular to wavefronts.
All points of a wavefront has the same phase of vibration and same frequency.
The velocity of a wave is equivalent to that of its wavefronts in a particular
medium.
5. The time needed by light to travel frome one wavefront to the next one is the
same along any ray.

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Huygens wave ( light ) rays

Principle of Linear Superposition

In Physics ,the superposition principle, also known as superposition property,
states that, for all linear systems, the net response at a given place and time
caused by two or more stimuli is the sum of the responses which would have been
caused by each stimulus individually. This means that, if input A produces
response X and input B produces response Y then input (A + B) produces
response (X + Y). Mathematically, for a linear system , F, defined by F(x) = y, where
x is some sort of stimulus (input) and y is some sort of response (output), the
superposition (i.e., sum) of stimuli yields a superposition of the respective
responses:
.
The viability of the superposition principle is based on the fact that , by definition, a

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linear system must be additive . Superposition may sometimes imply linearity,

depending on whether homogeneity is included or implied in the definition of
superposition.

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Waves motion denote variations in some parameter through space and timeegheight in a water wave, pressure in a sound wave, or the electromagnetic feild in a
light wave. This parameter is the amplitude of the wave, and the wave itself is a
function specifying the amplitude at each point. Now , in any system with waves,
the waveform at a given time is a function of the sources (i.e., external forces, if
any, that create or affect the wave) and initial conditions of the system. In cases
like the classic wave equation , the equation describing the wave is linear. When
this is true, the superposition principle can be applied. This means that the net
amplitude caused by two or more waves traversing the same space, is the sum of
the amplitudes which would have been produced by the individual waves
separately. For example, two waves traveling towards each other will pass right
through each other without any distortion on the other side . Since light is
considered to be an electromagnetic wave , it obeys this principle. When two or
more light waves pass through a point , their electrical feilds combine to give a
resultant electrical feild.
Naturally , we are referring to Interference . Now , electromagnetic wave theory
states that the square of the electric feild strength is proportional to the intensity
of light , which in turn is related to its brightness. Hence , interference alters the
brightness of light. Therefore , the principle of linear superposition can account for
phenomena like double slit and thin film interference.
Is there a condition in which the principal of linear superposition cant be
applied in Optics ? Yes , there is . Nonlinear optics (NLO) deals with the
behaviour of light in nonlinear media, i.e, media in which the dielectric polarization
P responds nonlinearly to the electric feild E of the light. This nonlinearity is
usually observed only at very high light intensities (values of the electric field
comparable to interatomic electric fields, typically 108 V/m) like those provided by
pulsed lasers. Thus , in nonlinear optics, the principle of superposition is not
applicable .

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In Sound waves
Most of the phenomena associated with sound waves like beats , diffraction and
transverse / longitudinal standing waves can be accounted by both the principle of
linear superposition and by the constructive / destructive interference of sound
waves .

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INTERFERENCE

butterfly wing colors are caused by interference of

light

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microscopic view of butterfly wing scales showing

interference patterns

Constructive Interference when two identical waves , i.e , having the same
wavelength and amplitude arrive at a particular point in phase i.e their crests and
troughs align , obeying the principle of linear superposition , they reinforce each
other resulting in constructive interference. The resultant wave will have an
amplitude that is twice the amplitude of either of the incoming waves.

constructive interference

Visual Eg . Drop a stone in a pond whose water remains still . Now, waves /
ripples start to spread out. While the first wave is still rippling across the water,
drop another stone close to the place where the first one was dropped. This reults
in two surface waves, crests and troughs colliding and interfering. In some places,
they will interfere constructively, producing a waveor rather, a portion of a wave
that is greater in amplitude than either of the original waves .

Interference of waves from 2 point sources. Crests are blue, troughs red/yellow.
Interference involves two sinusoidal waves . Let them be
y1 = a1 cos ( t + 1 ) and y2 = a2 cos ( t + 2 ) . Now, the resultant
displacement based on the principle of superposition would be
y ( t ) = a cos ( t + )
a1 sin 1 + a2 sin 2 .

where , a cos = a1 cos 1 + a2 cos 2 and

a sin =

Note that the resultant wave is also sinusoidal with the same frequency but
different amplitude. On squaring and adding a cos and a sin ,
we get

a = [ a1 + a2 + 2 a1 a2 cos ( 1 2 ) ]

and tan = [ a1 sin 1 + a2 sin 2 ] / [ a1 cos 1 + a2 cos 2 ] .

0 and 2 = , we get

Now , if 1 =

a = [ a1 + a2 + 2 a1a2 cos ] , => from this equation it can be seen

that when = 0 ,2 , 4 . then, a = a1 + a2 . Hence , when the waves are in
phase , the resultant amplitude will be the sum of the incoming two amplitudes i.e
Constructive interference.

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[ Also note that tan = a2 sin / a1 + a2 cos ]

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