Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Researchers:
Castro, Bianca Chia R.
Ferido, Dyan Mariz C.
Submitted to:
Mr. Jay-Ar M. Igno
1. Introduction
Compounding is a type of word formation processes, as well as a derivational process. It
involves the creation of a word or a lexeme from two or more other words or lexemes. In this
paper, we shall call these lexemes as components, and the compound word as the resultant
formation of the two components. These components carry their own lexical category. In most
cases, these components are free morphemes. In languages such as English however, a
preposition (a bound morpheme) can be one of the components of a compound word.
This study is a comparative study of compound words in Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog,
a Philippine-type language. In both Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog, not all compounds are written
as a single word; some put a hyphen or a space between the two components to distinguish the
words from one another. There is inconsistency in the usage of different people. Usage of a
hyphen and a space, however, does not signal a change in meaning; the usage of a hyphen and a
space is mostly concerned with stylistics.
In both Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog, compound words may serve as verb bases compound words may further be derived as verbs, regardless of the lexical category of the
resultant formation.
This study will be mostly concerned with the semantic relations between the two
components constituting the compound word. As stated earlier, the two components may carry
similar or different lexical categories. Its resultant formation or the resulting compound word can
either be a noun, verb, or an adjective. In this paper, we will discuss concepts such as
headedness, attribution, and compositionality in relation to how compound words are formed.
4.
1) To enumerate the compound words that are found in Tagalog and Bahasa Indonesia using
2)
3)
secondary data.
To be able to classify the compound words according to:
the lexical categories of both morphemes
the semantic relation of constituents
To be able to generate a conclusion regarding which classifications accommodate both
compounds in aforementioned languages
5.
This study is limited to compound words composed of two free morphemes. Bound
morphemes like prepositions, nominalizing affixes, verbal affixes, adjectival affixes which serve
as a component is not covered in this study.
This study only covers words indigenous to Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog, and does not
include compound words with loan words as its components. Filipino words such as teksbuk
text book, kupkeyk cupcake, and naytklab nightclub are not included in the study, since they
follow the structure of English compound words.
As this paper is focused on determining semantic and structural relations between
components in compound words in Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog, compound words having
implicit semantic relations (TAG tubig-ulan rain water, anak-mayaman person born to
wealth) is sparingly discussed.
6.
of compounds. According to Bloomfield (1933), compounds fall into two main groups:
endocentric and exocentric. This is based on the analysis of the relation of the components to
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each other and the analysis of the relation of the compound as a whole to its components. In
analyzing the relation of the components to each other, Bloomfield distinguished syntactic from
asyntactic compounds. In analyzing the relation of the compound as a whole to its components,
Bloomfield raised the issue of endocentricity and exocentricity. (Benczes, 2006)
The compound word is considered endocentric if the compound has the same
grammatical function, or lexical category, as the head component. The compound word
greenhouse is a noun, similar to its head component, which is house. The compound word is
considered exocentric if the compound belongs to a different lexical category from its head.
Endocentricity and exocentricity, however, is not limited to grammatical functions. There
are compounds that belong to the same grammatical category as the head component, yet are
labelled exocentric by Bloomfield. (Benczes, 2006). The endocentricity and exocentricity of a
compound also depends on the hyponymical relationship between the head and the compound.
Researches on compounding in English are large in number. In Liebers Introducing
Morphology, compounding is considered a type of lexeme formation. According to Lieber
(2009), compounds are words that are composed of two (or more) bases, roots, or stems. In
English, free bases are used to compose compounds. Distinguishing a compound from a random
sequence of words can be problematic. In the case of English, compounds are often stressed on
their first or left-hand base, whereas phrases typically receive stress on the right. Lieber (2009)
cited greenhouse and green house as examples. The formers stress falls on the word green,
while the latters stress falls on the word house. This is one test for identifying compounds in
English.
English compounds are said to be right-headed. Other languages such as Turkish are also
right-headed. The rightmost base determines lexical and semantic category of the compound
word. Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog are said to be left-headed. The leftmost component of the
compound word determines the lexical category of the word.
In general, there are two ways of classifying compound words in English: (1) by
classifying them according to the lexical categories of its components (root and synthetic) (2) by
classifying them according to the semantic relation of the components.
also believed that having this language as their national language will help them in developing
their new nation. The Malay language arrived from Malacca into Indonesia because of the
annexation of Portuguese in 1511. Since the country is archipelagic, language was used in
commerce and trade. On the 17th century, Indonesia was colonized by Netherlands. Malay
language is still used for communication in this period though Dutch was learned by elites. Next
occupation that happened to Netherland East Indies is of the Japanese. Freedom was gained by
the Indonesian when they realized that nationalism is generally expressed in Dutch and other
languages making the nationalist movement created Sumpah Pemuda (Young Peoples Vow) of
the country formulated BI as the language for national unity and led to the series of events that
brought their independence in 1945. Year 1972, Malaysia and Indonesia shared the same
language that is Malay which allowed close communication and commerce between the two
countries. And eventually, the two diversified across time and acquired different innovations of
their own.
Writers such as Errinton (1986), Fokker (1960), Alisjahbana (2005), and Berg (1949)
explored the development of the said language as part of social and cultural change in Indonesia.
Moreover, some highlights are also given to linguistic continuity and discontinuities between BI
and other languages that are coexisting with it in Indonesia. A general account about the origin of
BI is also written in Alisjahbana (2005). More on linguistics is the concern of von de Wall (1864)
where he studied the morphology of Malay together with different morphological paradigms
such as productive, unproductive, and borrowed terminologies in the language. His study is
considered to be one of the firsts to be published about the Malay language. Gonda (1949) on the
other hand, used older data of languages in Indonesia which belong to Malay family to answer
questions of Malay. He then also makes an important remark about the ter- affix. The study
Fokker (1960) is the first article that deals with BI syntax intensively. But there are still stylistics
problems that are still unanswered by this publication hence, the need to more up-to-date studies.
6.2.1 Bahasa Indonesia in comparison with Bahasa Malaysia
Since the two languages are related, the differences between the two are hard to grasp.
This is mainly because one of them started off as a dialect (BI) which diversified with the Malay
language (now Bahasa Melayu / Bahasa Malaysia) (BM) and eventually became a language as
suggested by an article (Accredited Language Services, 2015). One difference that appears at
the surface of the spoken language is the intonation, vocabulary, and pronunciation. And from
those who are native speakers or near-native speakers, there are some notable differences found.
Seng (n.d.) sharing of vocabulary is not two-sided. Only vocabularies of BM are found in BI.
Some difference in vocabulary is also found. Example is the word for speak that is cakap in
BM while bicara in BI, and afternoon, evening that is BM petang while sore in BI. Words
with /e/ are usually pronounced as schwa [] then seen in the first syllable in Indonesian as said
by Lapoliwa (1981). However, in BM the /e/ is usually pronounced as a stronger version of
schwa everywhere it is seen. They also differ from outside influences that affect their language.
BI is mainly affected by Dutch and Javanese while BM is greatly affected by English. In treating
English loan words which ends in tion BI usually replaces it with as and si/i BM is more
restrictive and only utilizes the si/i ending since they are leaning more to the source language.
Both languages were highly influenced by Sanskrit since these languages are spoken in
economically strategic locations.
6.2.2 Studies on Compounding and Word Formation in Bahasa Indonesia
All of the few studies found in Indonesian greatly deals with morphology and/or word
formations in general. One of these is Kusuma & Mardijono (2013) which talks about the slang
words specifically used in the Indonesian version of Cosmo Girl!. They explored the processes
on how aforementioned words were formed and then classified them into groups making their
study purely qualitative in nature. They concluded that in this magazine, four types of word
making processes are prevalent that are clipping, blending, borrowing, and multiple processes.
Indonesian slang word formations dominantly fall in multiple processes as they revealed.
Moreover, they argued that from Chaedars and Yules word formation categories, addition,
deletion, and substitution must be added under multiple processes. Much like any other
languages, words in Indonesian may be divided into inflectional and derivational structures. A
portion of Tala (2003), is dedicated to Indonesian morphology where explanation for the two is
cited. The author discussed only the affixation process in derived words which involves the
prefixes, suffixes, and what he calls the confixes which are combinations of the two. Infixes
were disregarded since they are irrelevant to the study and are relatively few in Indonesian as the
writer explained. Derivational structures may be prefixed, suffixed, confixed, and doubleprefixed while the inflectional structures are only suffixed by enclitic possessive pronouns and
functional words or particles such as lah, -kah, -pun, and tah. A type of word formation that is
reduplication in Indonesian is studied thoroughly by Mistica, Andrews, Arka, & Baldwin
(2009). Changes brought by the morphological process are concisely interpreted by the writers.
Emphasis is given to verb reduplication with the agentive voice marking meN- affix.
Morphology of dialects of Bahasa Indonesia have also been studied. A notable work is of
Muhadjir (1981) where he focused on the morphology of the conventional and modern Jakartan
Dialect. Sentences in focus are transitive, semi-transitive, and intransitive verbal sentences. The
author also presents a static/dynamic dichotomy to capture other categories of verbal predicate
that is not based on the absence or presence of object or compliment, they are based on aspect of
action. Nevertheless, a portion is dedicated to morphophonemics since Jakarta dialect start of the
Malay languages. Analysis of root morphemes is also presented by the author even some
complete forms and reduplicated one. Separate chapters are given to discuss affixation since this
morphological process is productive in Malay languages. The last chapter deals with
reduplication in the dialect that is of category: reduplication of root morpheme and affixation
processes and root morpheme together as one morpheme process. In addition, the vocabulary list
of Stokhof (1931) contains a thousand of words from different languages but most of the lexical
items are of BI since it is widely used in the archipelago. Ample amount of information is also
given by the author about the linguistic situation of the country under the Dutch colonizers.
6.2.3 Word formation processes in Bahasa Indonesia
As defined in Payne (2006), morphology may be taken as a subdiscipline of linguistics
which is concerned about how words are formed and how meaningful units combine to shape
words and semantically adjust in a systematic way. These ways are called the morphological
processes of which words are formed. In Yule (2006), he enumerated some word formation
processes which are ways to new words or of new meanings. These are prefixation, infixation,
suffixation, circumfixation, clipping, backformation, coinage, blending, clipping, backformation,
conversion, acronyms, derivation, conversion, derivation, and compounding. On the other hand,
Chaer (2008) gave frequently used morphological processes in BI includes afiksasi (affixation),
10
Abreviasi/ Abbreviation like in many other languages, this process involves shortening
of words. It also includes acronyms and symbols. When words are being shorted the combination
of the initial letters of sequence of words are being taken to form a new word that stands for the
same meaning as the multi-word construction.
Examples:
Yogyakarta Yogya
6.3. Tagalog
Hitherto, there are more or less 170 languages spoken in the Philippines (Ethnologue,
2015) and one of these is Tagalog. Of the huge Austronesian language family, it belongs to the
Malayo Polynesian subgroup. Some inconsistencies were seen in the lower order subgrouping
where Tagalog is a member. Ethnologue says that it is under a Philippine subgroup while Blust
(1991) suggests that it is under the West Malayo Polynesian subgroup and followed by the
Philippine subgroups. Latter writer also claims that there is indeed an ambiguity in naming the
subgroup where the Philippine languages are to be placed. The researchers then agreed to follow
Blusts proposal on Philippine languages subgrouping.
There are 15 subgroups under the Philippine subgroup as written in Blust (1991) and
narrowed into 9 in Blust (2005). These are Bashiic, Cordilleran, Central Luzon, Greater Central
11
Philippine (GCP), Kalamian, Inati, Bilic, Sangiric, and Minahasan. Tagalog then, is a wellstudied language that is a member of the GCP subgroup together with 100 other languages.
Speakers of the said language are widely distributed in the Philippines such as in Manila,
Mindoro and most of Luzon. Throughout the world because of the increasing Filipino migrants
all over the world.
In the year 1935, Commonwealth of the Philippines included an article in its constitution
that the nation needs a national language. From the eight regional languages: Ilokano,
Pangasinan, Pampango, Bikol, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray- Samarnon, and Tagalog, there is
still no chosen national language. As a step in putting forward a national language, the
government established Komisyon ng Wikang Pambansa. This led to the creation of the
Executive Order No. 134 s. 1937 which states that Tagalog to be the basis of the national
language of the Philippines (Almario, 1977). A lot of controversies have happened that revision
happened making the national language Filipino which then is formalized under 1987
Constitution Article XIV section 6.
Furthermore, writers such as Garcia (1992), Tolentino (1937), and Cubar E. & Cubar N.
(1944) and a lot more wrote about the grammar of Tagalog in general. In their works, portions
are allotted about the phonology, morphology, basic syntax, and semantics of the aforementioned
language. Some specific fields that are studied in Tagalog are its complex morphology studied by
Blake (1950), De Guzman (1978), and Cena (1979) and structure as studied by Paz (1967),
Sabbagh (2014), and Aldridge (2009).Changes that have happened to Tagalog after the
colonization by the Americans and Spaniards were also recorded in works such as in
Intermediate Tagalog: Developing cultural awareness through language. This specific article
takes up evidences of the Filipino culture that is mirrored through the language Tagalog such as
concept of respect by using the po and opo. And due to language contact, this language also
change in which it tends to concatenate its properties to one western language that is English.
Alegre (1991) wrote about the phenomenon of Taglish, code-switching, and code-mixing that is
now prevalent in the speech of the younger generation.
6.3.1 Studies on Tagalog compounding
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Schachter and Otanes (1972) dedicated a section on Nominal Compounds under the
chapter 3 entitled Nominals and their Expansions. According to Schachter and Otanes, a
compound may be defined, for practical purposes, as a word composed of two potentially distinct
words; a nominal compound, as a compound that functions as a nominal. Both the components
or nominal compounds are capable of occurring independently.
Schachter and Otanes identified five types of compound words in Tagalog based on the
semantic relation of its components. These are (1) Descriptive (2) Object (3) Purpose (4)
Possessive (5) Source.
Paz (2003) described Filipino as an affixing language. Filipino, according to Paz, has the
flexibility to form words from stems which at times are difficult to subject to traditional
grammatical categorization. According to Paz, compound words in Filipino are formed by two
stems or words (affix + stem). The meaning of the resultant form may or may not be an
aggregate meaning of both words. While Schachter and Otanes (1972) and De Guzman (2005)
considered na and -ng as mere linkers between two components, Paz (2003) went further and
posited that compound words are derived from a phrase which consists of two words joined by a
marker (na, -ng, sa).
Paz divided compound words into two sets: (1) the first set consists of two types of
compound words (a) Attributive phrase (b) Possessive phrase. These types are labeled based on
the semantic load of the marker joining the two components. The attributive phrase consists of
two words or stems joined by the marker na/-ng. The possessive phrase consists of two words or
In Aspects of Tagalog Compounding, De Guzman (2005) explored the nature of Tagalog
compounding. The study attempts to determine the syntactic, morphological, semantic, and
pragmatic aspects of Tagalog compounding. De Guzman adapted a lexicalist approach in
locating morphological and semantic rules of compounding in the lexical component of the
grammar. It is mentioned in the paper that Tagalog compound words are similar with French
compound words - both have compound words which use a linker. French uses de whereas
Tagalog uses the possessive particle ng and the relative particle na in some resultant formations.
Furthermore, De Guzman addressed the issue of lexical and syntactic categories in Tagalog. The
study maintains the usage of the three major classes of words: N(oun), V(erb), and A(djective).
Further discussion on the viability of maintaining these three major classes can be found in De
Guzmans Lexical Categories in Tagalog (1996).
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De Guzman (2005) identified four types of compound words in Tagalog: (1) endocentric
(2) exocentric (3) synthetic (4) copulative. Under the endocentric category, De Guzman included
pet names of people as examples of compound words (e.g. Leonciang panot, Pilosopong Tasyo,
Reginang daldal). De Guzman also presented figures displaying the productivity of each lexical
category in a resultant formation.
7. Methodology
In the gathering of data, the researchers performed the archiving method. The
examination of archival materials is thus important because they are ever-present, substantial and
strategically useful. University libraries and online databases are explored to be able to find
possible sources of the data needed to be analyzed. For Tagalog, the researchers will make use of
grammar references in the form of books and dictionaries, specifically of Schacter & Otanes
Tagalog Reference Grammar. On the other hand, grammar resources for Bahasa Indonesia are
the ones used Bahasa Indonesia Malaysia course in the university, mainly Atmosumarto (1996)
and Sneddon (2010). The archiving is done by reading secondary sources and then highlighting
the compound words both in Tagalog and Bahasa Indonesia, and then compiled in an excel file.
Moreover, the process used for analyzing the data gathered are series of qualitative
research methods that is: the descriptive approach and comparative approach. The former is used
to be able to explain the manner on how compound words are made in each language and the
latter will also allow the researchers to generate conclusion regarding the possible similarities
and differences in these said word formation process between the two languages.
8.
Presentation of Data
A comprehensive list of compound words in Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog is found in the
appendix.
1) Root + Root
Noun (linker) + Noun
Henceforth, Noun is abbreviated to N.
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BAHASA INDONESIA
GLOSS
(Word Class)
air mata (N)
teardrop
air + mata
water + eye
tandatangan (N)
signature
tanda + tangan
mark + hand
TAGALOG
anak pawis (N)
GLOSS
laborer
anak + pawis
child + sweatt
inang-bayan (N)
motherland, homeland
BAHASA INDONESIA
mantel mandi (N)
GLOSS
bathrobe
mantel + mandi
robe + bath
kamar tidur (N)
bedroom
kamar + tidur
room + sleep
15
TAGALOG
GLOSS
This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.
N + Adjective
Henceforth, Adjective is abbreviated to Adj
BAHASA INDONESIA
kulit luar (N)
GLOSS
cuticle
kulit + luar
flesh + space
jarum panjang (N)
minute hand
jarum + panjang
needle + long
TAGALOG
dugong bughaw (N)
GLOSS
royal blood
BAHASA INDONESIA
ambil alih (V)
GLOSS
to replace
ambil + alih
take + over
16
jual-beli (N)
jual + beli
sell + buy
TAGALOG
GLOSS
urong + sulong
indecisiveness
retreat + advance
labas pasok, labas masok (N)
labas + pasok
exit + enter
V+N
BAHASA INDONESIA
tusuk gigi (N)
GLOSS
toothpick
tusuk + gigi
pin + tooth
Tanggung jawab (Adj)
responsible
Tanggung + jawab
to bear + answer
TAGALOG
hampas lupa (N)
GLOSS
tramp, bum
hampas + lupa
slap + earth
akyat bahay (N)
burglar
akyat + bahay
17
climb + house
V + Adj
BAHASA INDONESIA
kerjasama (N)
GLOSS
cooperation
kerja + sama
to work + same
omong kosong (Adj)
senseless
omong + kosong
to speak + zero
TAGALOG
GLOSS
This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.
Adj + Adj
BAHASA INDONESIA
indah permai (Adj)
GLOSS
beautiful (view/place)
indah + permai
pencah-belah (Adj)
pencah + belah
TAGALOG
hubot hubad (Adj)
GLOSS
stark naked
BAHASA INDONESIA
mahasiswa (N)
GLOSS
university student
maha + siswa
+ student
berat tangan (Adj)
lazy
berat + tangan
heavy + hand
TAGALOG
kapos palad (N)
GLOSS
less fortunate person
kapos + palad
insufficient + palm
puting tainga (N)
BAHASA INDONESIA
setiausaha (N)
GLOSS
secretary
setia + usaha
loyal + venture
salah paham (N)
misunderstanding
salah + paham
incorrect + belief
TAGALOG
GLOSS
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This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.
2) Stem + Root
BAHASA INDONESIA
golongan atas (N-Adj)
GLOSS
elite
golongan + atas
makanan kecil (N)
snack
makanan + kecil
pencari nafkah (N-Adj)
breadwinner
pencari + nafkah
pemandu sorak (N)
cheerleader
pemandu + sorak
TAGALOG
pantawid gutom (N)
GLOSS
something that appeases hunger
attention-getter
thirst-quencher
3) Root + Stem
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BAHASA INDONESIA
purnakaryawan (N)
GLOSS
retired worker
purna + karyawan
mata pelajaran (N)
subject
mata + lesson
TAGALOG
GLOSS
This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.
9. Discussion
9.1. Bahasa Indonesia compounding
On the syntactic and semantic grouping of Bahasa Indonesia compound words
Generally, compounding is one of the many word formation processes in languages
throughout the world. As described above, according to Lieber (2009), Words that are considered
to be compound may be composed of two or more bases, roots, or stems. And as suggested by
the data presented above, in Bahasa Indonesia (BI) two words commonly forms a compound
word. Furthermore, most of the writers (Alisyahbana 1953; Munaf 1951; Mees 1955; and
Badudu 1978) in BI gave an agreeing description of compound words in the said language. Just
like what Chaer (2008) stated, in BI compound words are composed of two words (free or
bound) as its elements, and thus give rise to a new word and a new understanding. In Munafs
(1951) words, two words that became one sense. It is very evident that the data correspond
with Chaers claim. There are also characteristics of BI compounds. First is that, resultant form is
expected to form a new meaning or understanding. Second, elements of the new formed word
may not be separated. Lastly, the structure of the elements cannot be altered. If grammatical units
are inserted between elements or order or words is inverted, the supposedly compound words
will yield an entirely different meaning or even a total loss of meaning.
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Example:
kambing hitam scapegoat
It is also evident that compound words may also be categorized in different ways. But we
should keep in mind that structurally, most BI compounds are left-headed. This means that head
(word that determines the word class to where the whole compound belongs) appears to be in the
first element position.
Example:
gunung (N) mountain+ api (N) fire = gunungapi (N) volcanoe
meja (N) table + tulis (V) to write = meja tulis (N) desk
sandiwara (N) play+ bisu (Adj) mute= sandiwara bisu (N) pantomime
bolak (V) back + balik (V) return = bolak-balik (V) to and fro
cuci (V) to wash + mukha (N) face = cuci mukha (V)
kenal (V) to know+ pasti (Adj) definite = kenal pasti (V) identify
kelam (Adj) dim + kabut (Adj) foggy = kelam kabut (Adj) murky
tinggi (Adj) high + hati (N) heart = tinggi hati (A) bossy
Also, most of the compounds composed of an noun followed by aan adjective or vice
versa, most of the resultant forms are adjectives. Adjective followed by a verb usually yield
nouns as the data suggests. The most common classification found is based on the structure of
the word which is used in the data presentation. From there, we can infer that a BI compound
may consist of both roots, a stem and a root, and vice versa. These compounds may also be
categorized according to their nature like how Lieber (2009) divided English compounds by
nature.
a. Endocentric Compounds the object referred to by the compound is also referred to by
the head. In other words, the compound represents a subtype of the head.
Example:
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merah (Adj) red + muda (Adj) young = merah muda (Adj) pink = a kind of red that
is young
pengatin (N) a person who participates in a wedding+ wanita (N) lady= pengatin
wanita (N) bride = a person that participates in a wedding that is a lady
minyak (N) oil + wangi (Adj) fragrant = minyak wangi (N) perfume = a kind of oil
that is fragrant
b. Exocentric Compounds the object referred to by the compound is different from that
of the head.
Example:
kaki (N) leg+ tangan (N) hand = kakitangan (N) staff
ringan (Adj) light + tulang (N) bone= ringan tulang (Adj) industrious
kaki (N) leg + botol (N) bottle = kaki botol (Adj) drunkard
Moreover, these compounds may also be divided according to the resultant words
meaning. One is the natural compound which includes compound words whose meaning is
evident or seen in the real world (physical). The other one is the figurative compound which is
comprised of compounds that have metaphorical meaning. Hence, we can infer that endocentric
compounds are natural compounds while exocentric compounds are figurative compounds. Aside
from the above mentioned, Munaf (1951) added four more divisions. First, compounds that are
formed by elements which corroborates with each other. This group is called the kata majemuk
kopulatif or the coordinative compounds such as:
lemah weak + lembut soft = lemah lembut gentle
yatim fatherless + piatu motherless = yatim-piatu orphan .
Second type composed of compounds where its first element describes or says something
about the subsequent element. The first element acts as the modifier in this case. The group is
called kata majemuk determinatif or attributive compounds such as:
salah wrong + paham to understand = salah paham misunderstanding
setia loyal + usaha work = setiausaha secretary
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Third of the grouping is composed of a verb followed by its specific objective. No writer have
given name for this group but it may be related to the usual type of compounds: subordinative
compounds. In English, the one element acts as the object of the other element. It also occurs in
BI such as:
cuci to wash+ mukha face = cuci muka to wash ones face
And the last, is the kata majemuk posesif that usually have a second word which possess the first
word as in:
bua fruit+ bibir mouth = bua bibir topic
9.2. Tagalog compounding
On the syntactic formation of compound words in Tagalog
Lieber (1992) made use of the X-bar system of Tagalog, along with this condition, to
demonstrate principles of word construction in Tagalog.
Licensing Conditions in Tagalog
a. Xn -> ...X{n-1.n}..., where recursion is allowed for n = 0
b. i. Head initial with respect to complements.
ii. Head initial with respect to modifiers.
iii. Head initial with respect to specifiers.
c. Pre- and post-head constituents are either Xmax or X0.
Many word formation processes in Tagalog are head-initial, or left-headed. Much of
Tagalog category-changing derivational word formation is prefixal. Affixes such as nominal
affixes, verbal affixes (excluding aspectual affixes), and adjectival affixes among others are
prefixal. According to Lieber, Tagalog compounding fits the left-headed structure, that is, the
lexical category the first component of the compound word determines the lexical category of the
resultant formation.
Evidence of left-headedness of Tagalog compounding according to Lieber (1992)
a. Noun + Noun = Noun
matang
+
lawin = matang-lawin keen eyes
nguso(ng)
+
baboy = ngusong-baboy protruding upper lip
24
isip
taba(ng)
itulak
kabigin
other(ADJECTIVE)
c. Adjective + Adjective = Adjective
hubo (at)
d.
kara
basa(ng)
bukas
25
As the examples above demonstrates, the compound word, or the resultant formation,
does not always take the lexical category of the head component. The proposed left-headedness
of Tagalog in Lieber (1992) is not all encompassing, especially when we consider the issue of the
grammatical function of a Tagalog word. A Tagalog word can change its function according to its
syntactic and semantic relation with other words in a sentence construction. One of the first task
a researcher shall encounter when analyzing the formation of a Tagalog compound word, is
classifying a Tagalog word according to a word class - which is a rather formidable task.
According to the data the researchers have gathered, the verb never appears as the second
or the rightmost component, except when the head component is also a verb.
9.3. Proposed grouping/classification of compounds in Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog according
to the semantic relation of the components to the compound word/resultant formation
Structurally, the compound words in the two languages appears in root + root formation.
Combination of two elements whether noun, adjective, and verb or of same word class is found
in Bahasa Indonesia. Also, root + stem and stem + root formation also occur in the
aforementioned language. On the other hand, Tagalog does not have compound formations
which employ a verb as the rightmost component of the compound word, except when the
leftmost component is also a verb. Stem + root formations are also present in Tagalog. These
formations are also called deverbal or synthetic compound words.
Semantically, these compounds may be divided into the following groups and subgroups:
1. Natural Compounds - all of the compounds that are considered a part of group are those who
have a meaning which is evident in the physical world. This means that the referent of the
compound word appeals to the senses.
1a. Endocentric Compounds - as presented above, compound words in both languages
have this classification and both are left-headed. This section includes compound words as a
26
whole represents a subtype of the head. It will also include the attributive and possessive type of
compounds which are considered as different from endocentric groups in Bahasa Indonesia as
Munaf (1951) enumerated in his study. The researchers observed that Bahasa Indonesia and
Tagalog have these kinds of compounds. The non-head, or the rightmost component of the
compound word in both Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog, refers to a kind or a quality of the head
component. Endocentric compounds have a high degree of compositionality the meaning of the
components motivates the overall meaning of the compound.
Examples:
Bahasa Indonesia
kamar (N) room
Tagalog
1b. Exocentric Compounds compound words are considered exocentric when there is
no hyponymical relationship between the head component and the compound word/resultant
formation. One might need to activate the imagination in order to have an understanding how the
compound word came about from its components. In some cases, the non-head may refer to a
quality of the head component.
Examples:
Bahasa Indonesia
jarum (N) needle
mata (N) eye
Tagalog
dugong (N) blue
27
1c. Copulative Compounds - This section will include compound words which have
element that are considered to be equal. This means that in the construction of the compounds,
none of the elements are considered as the head. The components have equal semantic
contribution to the overall meaning of the compound word.
Examples:
Bahasa Indonesia
tinggi (Adj) high
Tagalog
butot (N) bone
humigit (Adj) more than + kumulang (Adj) less than = humigit kumulang (Adv) more or
less
This type of compound is prevalent in Verb + Verb compounds in Tagalog.
bantay (V) to protect
labas (V) to exit
28
and its specific object as in Bahasa Indonesia. However, in Tagalog this group is frequently
referred as objective compounds.
Examples:
Bahasa Indonesia
tusuk (V) to prick + gigi (N) tooth = tusuk gigi (N) toothpick
gesok (V) to brush + gigi (N) tooth = gesok gigi (V) to brush ones teeth
cuci (V) to wash + mukha (N) face = cuci mukha (V) to wash ones face
Tagalog
bukang (V) open
of the town
kisap (N) flicker
death
saling (V) to pour
kuskos (V) to scuff
quencher
pantawid (N) instrument for bridging + gutom (N) hunger = pantawid-gutom (N) hunger
appeaser
panawag (N) instrument for calling + pansin (N) attention = panawag-pansin (N)
attention-getting
2. Figurative Compounds - aside from the natural compounds, we also have compounds which
yield metaphorical meanings. This group appeals to the cognitive side of linguistics. Compound
words that belong to this group evoke an abstract concept. Figurative compound words help the
speaker express an either an indirect, or at times, a more intense expression of emotions (love,
29
anger, fear, respect), human traits (indecisiveness, sensitivity), negative concepts (sarcasm,
pretense, cowardice, death) and other usages of compound words which involve usage of
metaphors.
Examples:
Bahasa Indonesia
terang (Adj) bright + hati (N) heart
jam (time)
investment
puting (Adj) white + tiyan (N) belly
10.
Indonesia and Tagalog compound words in terms of structure and semantic relations. Because
30
both Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog compound words are left-headed, determining the relation of
a component to another component is an uncomplicated task.
In the case of Tagalog however, determining the grammatical function, or the lexical
category of a word or a root is a rather formidable task. It is imperative to first identify the
lexical category of a component before determining the semantic relation of a component to
another component, as well as determining the semantic relation of a component to the
compound word itself. For instance, the component bantay in the compound bantay-salakay
(which means opportunist or perpetrator of an inside job) can be both a noun or a verb. The
word bantay can both mean the noun guardian and the verb to guard.
With regards to the compositionality of compound words in Bahasa Indonesia, it is rather
difficult to distinguish compounds from non-compounds. The word rumah makan can be
interpreted as a compound as much as it can be interpreted as a phrase. The word rumah makan
can be translated as restaurant or house where one eats, and both are equally correct. Word
order in Bahasa Indonesia suggests that the word that follows another word is considered a
modifier regardless of its lexical category.
Another issue encountered by the researchers is related to the case of foreign concepts in
Bahasa Indonesia. These concepts are incorporated in the language, and follow the structure of
Bahasa Indonesian words. Through this incorporation, the foreign concepts have entered the
consciousness of native speakers of Bahasa Indonesia, and thus, make it difficult to discern and
isolate these concepts from words which are viewed as native compound words. For instance, the
compound word tusuk gigi (which means toothpick) comes from a concept which is originally
foreign to Bahasa Indonesia. Bahasa Indonesia adapts to this concept by creating a compound
word which exactly describes what a toothpick is. The word tusuk means to prick, to pick,
while the word gigi means tooth.
While natural compounds do not pose much of a challenge to the native speaker when it
comes to predicting the semantic relation of the compound to its components, figurative
compounds, however, can be difficult to predict and interpret even for a native speaker. For
instance,
Tagalog
31
soldier
aliping (N) slave
works without pay
Both compound words employ the word kanin. However, the semantic contribution of
kanin to the compound word may vary. De Guzman (2005) provided an explanation to the first
compound word. According to De Guzman (2005), the compound sundalong-kanin may refer to
a soldier who survives by eating nothing but rice. Rice alone cannot support and maintain strong,
robust soldiers. It may also be that the physical or emotional constitution of that soldier is
compared with rice, which may be viewed as common, soft, or bland. This interpretation, in turn,
implies cowardice. However, in the second compound word aliping-kanin, it would be a shot in
the dark, trying to figure out the meaning of the compound, even for a native speaker. The
compound aliping-kanin may be interpreted as a slave who works for nothing but food,
specifically rice, as compensation. How the component contributes to the meaning of the
compound becomes evident if we know the meaning of the compound itself.
Having adequate knowledge on a peoples cultural background is crucial in determining
the semantic association of a compound to its components. In addition to culture, studies on how
cognitive processes yield compound words in Bahasa Indonesia and Tagalog are also crucial in
determining the regularities in the formation of compound words. Further research should be
made for analyzing compound words using a cognitive linguistic framework.
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35
APPENDIX
Indonesian Compound Words
ROOT + ROOT
a. Noun + Noun
RESULTANT
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
GLOSS
FORM
(Word Class)
air
water
mata
eye
air mata
teardrop
(N)
gunung
mountain
api
fire
gunung api
volcano
(N)
ibu
mother
jari
finger
ibu jari
thumb
(N)
kapal
vessel
laut
sea
kapal laut
ship
(N)
ibu
mother
kota
city
ibu kota
capital (city)
(N-Adj)
36
anak
child
laki-laki
man
anak laki-laki
boy
(N-Adj)
pasta
paste
gigi
tooth
pasta gigi
toothpaste
(N)
rumah
house
tangga
stairs
rumah tangga
household
(N)
warga
inhabitant
negara
country
warganegara
citizen
(N-Adj)
mata
eye
hari
day
matahari
sun
(N)
sapu
broom
tangan
hand
sapu tangan
handkerchief
(N)
kaki
leg
botol
bottle
kaki botol
drunkard
(Adj)
mata
eye
sapi
cow
mata sapi
fried egg
(N)
datuk
ancestor
bandar
croupier
datuk bandar
mayor
(N)
tanda
mark
tangan
hand
tandatangan
signature
(N)
kaki
leg
tangan
hand
kakitangan
staff
(N)
tanah
land
air
water
tanah air
homeland
(N-Adj)
tulang
bone
punggung
back (body)
tulang punggung
spine
(N)
daya
power
juang
struggle
daya juang
power struggle
(N)
37
surat
letter
kabar
new
surat kabar
newspaper
(N)
purba
ancient
laka
ancient
(N-Adj)
bulan
moon
madu
honey
bulan madu
honeymoon
(N)
tanda
mark
mata
eye
tanda mata
souvenir
(N)
anjing
dog
air
water
anjing air
otter
(N)
sandal
slippers
jepit
clip
sandal jepit
flip-flops
(N)
cakra
disc
angka
figure
cakra angka
dial
(N)
pisang
banana
manila
manila
pisang manila
abaca
(N)
gaya
style
busana
clothing
gaya busana
fashion
(N)
riwayat
history
hidup
life
riwayat hidup
biography
(N)
buah
fruit
bibir
lips
buah bibir
topic
(N)
pesta
jam
party
hour
gadis
karet
maiden
rubber
pesta gadis
bachelorette
(N)
party
jam karet
things in life
(N)
which are
supposed to
happen in a very
38
relaxed fashion
jam
hour
tangan
hand
jam tangan
wristwatch
(N)
kumis
beard
kucing
cat
kumis kucing
type of plant
(N)
kaca
glass
mata
eye
kaca mata
eyeglasses
(N)
laki
male
bini
female
laki bini
married couple
(N)
bunga
flower
hari
sun
bunga hari
sunflower
(N)
sikat
brush
gigi
tooth
sikat gigi
toothbrush
(N)
sepeda
bicycle
motor
motor
sepeda motor
motorcycle
(N)
minyak
oil
tanah
land
minyak tanah
crude oil
(N)
kaos
undershirt
kaki
leg
kaos-kaki
socks
(N)
anak
child
perempuan
female
anak perempuan
girl
(N)
b. Noun + Verb
39
RESULTANT
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
FORM
GLOSS
(Word Class)
bak
basin
cuci
to wash
bak cuci
sink
(N)
mantel
cloak
mandi
to bathe
mantel mandi
bathrobe
(N)
rumah
house
makan
to eat
rumah makan
restaurant
(N)
kamar
room
tidur
to sleep
kamar tidur
bedroom
(N)
ruang
space
tunggu
to wait
ruang tunggu
lounge
(N)
meja
table
tulis
to write
meja tulis
desk
(N)
kolam
pool
renang
to swim
kolam renang
swimming pool
(N)
kapal
vessel
terbang
to fly
kapal terbang
airplane
(N)
c. Noun + Adjective
RESULTANT
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
FORM
GLOSS
(Word Class)
uang
money
kecil
small
uang kecil
change (money)
40
(N)
guru
teacher
besar
big
guru besar
head teacher
(N)
duta
representativ
besar
big
e
kota
city
duta besar
ambassador
(N)
praja
territory
kota-praja
municipal
(N-Adj)
juru
expert
selam
to dive
juru selam
diver
(N)
orang
person
tua
old
orang tua
parents
(N)
kulit
skin
luar
outside
kulit luar
cuticle
(N)
jarum
needle
panjang
long
jarum panjang
minute hand
(N)
anak
child
tanggung
half-hearted
anak tanggung
teenager
(N-Adj)
sandiwara
play
bisu
mute
sandiwara bisu
pantomime
(N)
kambing
goat
hitam
black
kambing hitam
scapegoat
(N-Adj)
kamar
room
kecil
small
kamar kecil
toilet
(N)
minyak
oil
wangi
fragrant
minyak wangi
perfume
(N)
rumah
house
sakil
ill
rumah sakit
hospital
(N)
kepala
head
botak
bald
kepala botak
bald head
41
(N-Adj)
d. Verb + Verb
RESULTANT
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
FORM
GLOSS
(Word Class)
bolak
back
balik
return
bolak-balik
to and fro
(V)
jual
sell
beli
buy
jual-beli
(n - v)
terimah
ambil
accept
take
kasih
alih
love
over
terimah kasih
to be thankful to
(V)
someone
ambil alih
to replace
(V)
tolak
refuse
ansur
tolak ansur
(n - v)
simpan
temu
save
come
pinjam
karya
borrow
to work
together
serah
surrender
simpan pinjam
(n - v)
(banking)
temu karya
work meeting
(N)
terima
accept
serah terima
to handover
(V)
putar
swivel
balik
reverse
putar balik
to turn over
(V)
42
e. Verb + Noun
RESULTANT
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
FORM
GLOSS
(Word Class)
masuk
to enter
akal
reason
masuk akal
sensible
(Adj)
gempa
to move
bumi
earth
gempa bumi
earthquake
(N)
cuci
to wash
mukha
face
cuci mukha
to wash (face)
(V)
tusuk
to prick
gigi
tooth
tusuk gigi
toothpick
(N)
gesok
tanggung
to brush
to bear
gigi
jawab
tooth
answer
gesok gigi
to brush ones
(V)
teeth
tanggung jawab
responsible
(Adj)
f. Verb + Adjective
RESULTANT
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
FORM
GLOSS
(Word Class)
kenal
know
pasti
definite
kenal pasti
to identify
(V)
43
temu
come
ramah
friendly
together
kerja
to work
temu ramah
to interview
(V)
sama
same
kerjasama
cooperation
(N)
omong
speak
kosong
empty
omong kosong
senseless
(Adj)
g. Adjective + Adjective
RESULTANT
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
FORM
GLOSS
(Word Class)
merah
red
muda
young
merah muda
pink
(Adj)
merah
red
tua
old
merah tua
maroon
(Adj)
yatim
fatherless
piatu
motherless
yatim-piatu
orphan
(N-Adj)
indah
naik
timbul
beautiful
to go up
appear
permai
turun
tenggelam
scenic
to go down
sink
indah permai
beautiful
(Adj)
(places/view)
naik turun
to go up and
(V)
down
timbul tenggelam
sneaking
(V)
putih
white
bersih
clean
putih bersih
pure
44
(Adj)
kurus
thin
kering
dry
kurus kering
emaciated
(Adj)
lemah
weak
lembut
soft
lemah lembut
gentle
(Adj)
tinggi
high
tegap
sturdy
tinggi tegap
(Adj)
hitam
sunyi
balck
lonely
manis
senyap
sweet
silent
hitam manis
black and
(Adj)
attractive
sunyi senyap
deathly still
(Adj)
kelam
dim
kabut
fog
kelam kabut
murky, hazy
(Adj)
pencah
broken
belah
half
pencah-belah
broken into
(Adj)
pieces
h. Adjective + Noun
RESULTANT
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
FORM
GLOSS
(Word Class)
panjang
ringan
long
light
tangan
tulang
hand
bone
panjang tangan
tendency to
(Adj)
steal
ringan tulang
industrious
(Adj)
terang
bright
hati
heart
terang hati
intelligent
(Adj)
tengah
middle
hari
day
tengah hari
noon
45
(N-Adj)
berat
heavy
tangan
hand
berat tangan
lazy
(Adj)
sakit
ill
hati
heart
sakit hati
heartache
(N)
maha
tinggi
great
high
siswa
hati
student
heart
mahasiswa
university
(N-Adj)
student
tinggi-hati
proud (bossy)
(Adj)
anak
child
angkat
raise
anak angkat
adopted child
(N)
buta
blind
huruf
letter
buta huruf
illiterate
(Adj)
keras
hard
kepala
head
keras kepala
stubborn
(Adj)
i. Adjective + Verb
RESULTANT
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
FORM
GLOSS
(Word Class)
setia
loyal
usaha
work
setiausaha
secretary
(N)
lalu
salah
past
wrong
lintas
paham
to move
lalu lintas
traffic
across
(N)
to
salah paham
misunderstandin
understand
(N)
46
ROOT + STEM
RESULTANT
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
FORM
GLOSS
(Word Class)
purna
complete
karyawan
employee
purnakaryawan
retired worker
(N)
mata
core
pelajaran
lesson
mata pelajaran
subject
(N)
STEM + ROOT
RESULTANT
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
FORM
GLOSS
(Word Class)
makanan
food
kecil
small
makanan kecil
snack
(N)
pesuruh
messenger
jaya
victorious
pesuruhjaya
commissioner
(N)
pengeras
intensifier
suara
voice
pengeras suara
loudspeaker
(N)
pengantin
person who
wanita
woman
participates
pengantin wanita
bride
(N)
at a wedding
pemandu
a person who
sorak
cheer
guides
berdarah
have blood
pemandu sorak
cheerleader
(N)
panas
hot
berdarah panas
warm-blooded
(Adj)
pemberi
giver
suara
voice
pemberi suara
voter
47
(N)
pencari
finder
nafkah
living
pencari nafkah
breadwinner
(N-Adj)
golongan
group
atas
upper
golongan atas
elite
(N-Adj)
Tagalog compounds
ROOT + ROOT
a. Noun (linker) + Noun
WORD 1
GLOSS
(W1)
mata(ng)
WORD 2
GLOSS
(W2)
eye
lawin
RESULTANT
GLOSS
FORM
eagle
matang-lawin
keen eye
48
(N)
nguso(ng)
ngipin(g)
mouth
teeth
baboy
aso
pig
dog
ngusong-baboy
protruding upper
(N)
lip
ngiping-aso
sharp teeth
(N)
isip
mind
lamok
mosquito
isip-lamok
weak mind
(N)
boses
voice
ipis
cockroach
boses-ipis
weak voice
(N, Adj)
lakad
walk
pagong
turtle
lakad-pagong
slow walk
(N, Adj)
bahay
house
kubo
hut
bahay-kubo
hut
(N)
sundalo(ng)
soldier
kanin
cooked ice
tao(ng)
human
lupa
earth
taong-lupa
mortal
(N)
bahay
house
aklatan
library
bahay-aklatan
library
(N)
bahay
bahay
bahay
house
house
house
bakasyunan vacation
kalakal
paaralan
bahay-
vacation place
place
bakasyunan (N)
business
bahay-kalakal
business
(N)
establishment
bahay-paaralan
schoolhouse
school
(N)
bahay
house
sanglaan
pawnshop
bahay-sanglaan
pawnshop
(N)
silid
room
aralan
studying
silid-aralan (N)
49
place
silid
room
kainan
eating place
silid-kainan (N)
dining room
silid
room
tulugan
sleeping
silid-tulugan
bedroom
place
(N)
anak
child
araw
sun
anak-araw (N)
albino
awitin(g)
song
bayan
nation
awiting-
folk song
bayan(N)
bunga(ng)
fruit
araw
sun
bungang-araw
prickly heat
(N)
saligan(g)
support
batas
law
saligang-batas
constitution
(N)
bata(ng)
child
lansangan
streets
batang-
homeless child
lansangan (N)
dahon(g)
leaf
palay
rice
dahong-palay
name of a
(N)
poisonous snake
bahay
house
bata
child
bahay-bata (N)
uterus
balat
skin
sibuyas
onion
balat-sibuyas
onion-skinned/ a
(N)
weak-willed,
sensitive person
balat
skin
kayo
plural form
balatkayo (N)
disguise, pretense
of you
araw
day
gabi
night
araw-gabi (N)
whole day
asal
behavior
bata
child
asal-bata (N)
childish
asal
behavior
hayop
animal
asal-hayop (N)
bestiality
bala(ng)
araw
day
bale
wala
none
balewala (Adj)
of no value or
worth
50
banghay
a scan
aralin
lesson
banghay-aralin
lesson plan
(N)
bato(ng)
stone
bakal
iron
batong-bakal,
iron ore
batumbakal (N)
bunga(ng)
bunga(ng)
fruit
fruit
isip
kahoy
mind
wood
bungang-isip
product of the
(N)
mind
bungangkahoy
fruit of a tree
(N)
daluyan(g)
medium
luha
tears
daluyang-luha
tear duct
(N)
damo(ng)
grass
dagat
sea
damong-dagat
seaweed
(N)
gawa(ng)
creation
kamay
hand
gawang-kamay
handmade
(N)
gawa(ng)
creation
tao
human
gawang-tao (N)
man-made
haba(ng)
duration
buhay
life
habang-buhay,
forever
habambuhay
(N)
hugis
shape
puso
heart
hugis-puso (N)
heart-shaped
hukbo(ng)
fleet
karagatan
ocean
hukbong-
navy
karagatan (N)
hukbo(ng)
fleet
panghimpa
referring to
hukbong-
pawid
the sky
panghimpapawi
air force
d (N)
hukbo(ng)
fleet
sandatahan
armed
hukbong-
armed forces
sandatahan (N)
ina(ng)
mother
bayan
nation
51
ina(ng)
mother
wika
language
inang-wika (N)
mother tongue
ingatan(g)
safeguard
yaman
treasure
ingatang-yaman
treasury
(N)
isip
mind
kabutihan(g) kindness
kakitiran(g)
kalapit
narrow
proximate
bata
child
isip-bata (N)
loob
insides
kabutihang-loob kindness,
isip
bayan
mind
town
immature
(N)
generosity
kakitirang-isip
narrow-
(N)
mindedness
kalapit-bayan
neighboring town
(N)
lakas
strength
loob
insides
lakas-loob (N)
courage
laman(g)
resource
dagat
sea
lamang-dagat
(N)
sea
laman(g)
resource
lupa
earth
pakita(ng)
display
gilas
agility
pakitang-gilas
display of
(N)
excellence to
impress people
pakita(ng)
display
loob
insides
pakitang-loob
display of kindness
(N)
panukala(ng
proposition
batas
law
)
puno(ng)
panukalang-
batas (N)
head
bayan
town
punong-bayan,
town mayor
punung-bayan,
punumbayan
(N)
puno(ng)
head
guro
teacher
punong-guro
principal
(N)
puno(ng)
head
lungsod
city
punong-lungsod
capital city
52
(N)
puno(ng)
sawi(ng)
head
ill-fated
tanggapan
palad
office
palm
person
punong-
head office,
tanggapan (N)
headquarters
sawing-palad,
an ill-fated person,
sawimpalad (N)
a rejected person
sinag
rays
araw
sun
sinag-araw (N)
sunlight, sunrays
sinag
rays
buwan
moon
sinag-buwan
moonlight
(N)
sulat
writing
kamay
hand
akda(ng)
work,
guro
teacher
akdang-guro
manuscript
alila(ng)
slave
alsa
masterpiece
(N)
kanin
cooked rice
balutan
alilang-kanin
(N)
without pay
alsa-balutan (N)
sudden departure
with all of ones
things because of
feeling of being
unwanted
anak
child
pawis
sweat
anak-pawis (N)
laborer
balita(ng)
news
kutsero
driver of a
balitang-kutsero
horse-drawn (N)
vehicle
bugto(ng)
interval
hininga
breathing
bugtong-hininga sigh
(N)
bulaklak
buto (at)
flower
bones
dila
balat
tongue
skin
bulaklak-dila
(N)
seriousness
butot-balat
skeleton thin
(nadj)
53
dapit
hapon
hunos
dili
afternoon
dapit-hapon (N)
sunset, dusk
hunos-dili (N)
careful
consideration
before acting
ibayo(ng)
faraway
dagat
sea
ibayong-dagat
overseas, abroad
(N)
kabayo(ng)
horse
dagat
sea
kabayong-dagat
seahorse
(N)
mata(ng)
mata
eyes
eyes
manok
pobre
chicken
poor
matang-manok
(N)
matapobre (N)
pakita(ng)
display
tao
human
pampalubag
appeaser
loob
insides
pampalubag-
consolation
loob (N)
puso(ng)
heart
mamon
soft cake
pusong-mamon
softhearted/
(N)
effeminate
rosas
rose
hapon
afternoon
rosas-hapon (N)
chrysanthemum
salita(ng)
word
ugat
root
salitang-ugat
rootword
(N)
samaan(g)
mutual
loob
insides
samaang-loob
mutual resentment
(N)
simba(ng)
mass
gabi
night
simbang-gabi
early morning
(N)
54
tainga(ng)
ear
kawali
wok pan
taingang-kawali
(N)
taing
takaw
gluttony
bituin
star
taing-bituin (N)
meteor
mata
eye
takaw-mata (N)
tao(ng)
human
gubat
forest
taong-gubat (N)
tubig
water
tabang
tastelessness tubig-tabang
savage
freshwater
(N)
tubo(ng)
profit
lugaw
porridge
tubong-lugaw
excessive profit
(N)
from a small
investment
tuldok
period
kuwit
comma
tuldok-kuwit
semicolon
(N)
dalaga(ng)
guhit
maiden
line
bukid
palad
farm
palm
dalagang-bukid
a country maiden/
(N)
a type of fish
guhit-palad (N)
fate
b. Noun + Verb
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
RESULTANT
FORM
GLOSS
This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.
55
GLOSS
blood
WORD 2
bughaw
GLOSS
blue
RESULTANT
FORM
dugong-bughaw
GLOSS
royal blood
(N)
taba(ng)
fat
lamig
cold
tabang-lamig (N)
bato(ng)
stone
buhay
alive
batong-buhay (N)
white stone
ulila(ng)
abandoned
lubos
complete
ulilang-lubos (N)
completely
child
abandoned child
with no living
relatives
puno(ng)
head
abala
busy
punong-abala (N)
host, hostess
d. Verb + Verb
WORD 1
bantay
GLOSS
guard
WORD 2
salakay
GLOSS
attack
RESULTANT
FORM
GLOSS
bantay-salakay
opportunist;
(N)
perpetrator of an
inside job
urong
retreat
sulong
charge
urong-sulong
indecisiveness
(V, N)
atras
retreat
abante
charge
atras-abante (V)
indecisiveness
akyat
ascend
baba
descend
akyat-baba (V)
manhik
ascend
manaog
descend
manhik-manaog
(V)
repeatedly
56
labas
exit
pasok
enter
labas-pasok,
entering and
let down
luksa
mourn
itulak
push
kabigin
pull
itulak-kabigin
in is the same in
(V)
abot
reach
agaw
seize
abot
reach
kisap
shimmer
d. Verb + Noun
WORD 1
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
RESULTANT
GLOSS
FORM
basag
break
ulo
head
basag-ulo (N)
fight
bayad
pay
utang
debt
bayad-utang (N)
payment
buka(ng)
open
bibig
mouth
bukang-
favorite
bibig,bukambibig
expression/talk of
(N)
the town
hanap
find
buhay
life
hanap-buhay (N)
livelihood
ingat
protect
yaman
wealth
ingat-yaman (N)
treasurer
lukso(ng)
jump
tinik
thorn
a kind of jumping
game
hampas
slap
lupa
earth
hampas-lupa (N)
tramp, bum
bigay
give
loob
interior,
bigay-loob (N)
gift
insides
57
ningas
give
kaya
ability
bigay-kaya (N)
dowry
burn
kugon
a kind of
ningas-kugon (N)
grass
akyat
climb
bahay
house
akyat-bahay (N)
burglar
abot
reach
kaya
ability
abot-kaya (Adj)
affordable
abot
reach
kamay
hand
abot-kamay (Adj)
within reach
abot
reach
tanaw
sight
abot-tanaw(Adj)
within a distance
visible to the eye
agaw
seize
buhay
life
agaw-buhay (Adj)
hovering between
life and death
agaw
seize
pansin
attention
agaw-pansin (Adj)
attention-getting
bigay
give
alam
knowledge
bigay-alam (N)
notification
bigay
give
daan
road
bigay-daan (N)
bigay
give
galang
respect
bigay-galang (N)
bigay
give
katwiran
logic
bigay
give
todo
full extent
bigay-todo (Adj)
full exertion of
ones ability
hamapasan(
crash
alon
wave
g)
nakaw
hampasang-alon
shoreline
(N)
steal
tingin
glance
nakaw-tingin (N)
stealing glances
58
ligaw
court
tingin
glance
ligaw-tingin (N)
salin(g)
pour
wika
language
salinwika,
translation
salingwika (N)
samain(g)
be
palad
palm
samaing-palad (N)
unfortunat
unlucky,
unsuccessful
e
agaw
seize
dilim
darkness
agaw-dilim (N)
twilight
agaw
seize
liwanag
light
agaw-liwanag (N)
daybreak
agaw
seize
tulog
sleep
agaw-tulog (N)
condition of being
half-asleep
hampas
slap
kalabaw
kapit
cling
tuko
kuskos
scratch
balungos
water
hampas-kalabaw
strong and
buffalo
(N)
merciless beating
gecko
kapit-tuko (N)
cling tightly
kuskos-balungos
unnecessary
(N)
attention given to
small and petty
details
luksa(ng)
mourn
parangal
recognition
luksang-parangal
eulogy
(N)
luto(ng)
cook
makaw
makaw
lutong-makaw (N)
rigged competition
ngiti(ng)
smile
aso
dog
ngiting-aso (N)
sarcastic smile,
sneer
pasa(ng)
carry the
krus
cross
pasang-krus (N)
burden
gata
pulp
pulot-gata, pulut-
honeymoon
burden
pulot
pick up
59
gata (N)
salin
pour
lahi
race
salinlahi (N)
generation
salin(g)
join
pusa
cat
saling-pusa (N)
a substitution/ a
playmate whose
participation in
the game is only to
please him or her
tawa(ng)
laugh
aso
dog
tawang-aso (N)
mocking laugh
kapit
cling
bisig
arm
kapit-bisig (N)
kisap
shimmer
mata
eye
kisapmata (N)
blink of an eye, an
instant
takip
conceal
butas
hole
takip-butas (N)
a substitute
e. Verb + Adjective
WORD 1 GLOSS WORD 2 GLOSS
RESULTANT FORM
GLOSS
This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.
GLOSS
WORD 2
GLOSS
RESULTANT
GLOSS
FORM
hubo (at)
without
hubad
naked
stark naked
undergarme
nts
60
humigit
more
kumulang
less
humigit-kumulang
more or less
(Adv)
bukod
positioned
tangi
unique
bukod-tangi (Adj)
stand-out
g. Adjective + Noun
WORD 1
basa(ng)
GLOSS
wet
WORD 2
sisiw
GLOSS
chick
RESULTANT
FORM
basang-sisiw (N)
GLOSS
helplessly soaked
wet in the rain
bukas
open
loob
interior,
bukas-loob (Adj)
insides
sincere,
wholehearted
buka(ng)
open
isip
mind
bukang-isip (Adj)
open-mindedly
bukas
open
puso
heart
bukas-puso (Adj)
sincere, frank,
wholehearted
doble
double
kara
mask
doble-kara (N)
two-faced,
pretentious
lampas
exceeding
tao
human
lampas-tao (Adj)
patay
dead
gutom
hunger
patay-gutom (N)
tramp afflicted
with hunger
pikit
closed
mata
eyes
pikit-mata (Adj)
bahag
short
buntot
tail
bahag-buntot (Adj)
cowardly
bahag
short
hari
king
bahaghari (N)
rainbow
buka(ng)
open
liwayway
dawn
bukang-liwayway
dawn, daybreak
(N)
61
hati(ng)
half
gabi
night
hatinggabi (N)
midnight
kapos
insufficient
palad
palm
kapos-palad (N)
less fortunate
people
pantay
even
paa
foot
pantay-paa (N)
dead person
puti(ng)
white
tainga
ear
puting-tainga (N)
a selfish or stingy
person
puti(ng)
white
tiyan
belly
puting-tiyan (N)
a selfish or stingy
person
sira(ng)
broken
plaka
vinyl
sirang-plaka (N)
record
referring to a
person who is
saying something
over and over
again
takip
concealed
silim
bukas
open
palad
palm
takipsilim (N)
twilight, nightfall
bukas-palad (Adj)
generous
h. Adjective + Verb
WORD 1 GLOSS WORD 2 GLOSS
RESULTANT FORM
GLOSS
This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.
ROOT + STEM
WORD 1 GLOSS WORD 2 GLOSS
RESULTANT FORM
GLOSS
This formation does not appear in our data for Tagalog compound words.
RESULTANT FORM
GLOSS
62
pamatid
pantawid
panawag
used for
cutting
used for
bridging
used for
calling
uhaw
thirst
pamatid-uhaw
thrist-quencher
gutom
hunger
pantawid-gutom
hunger appeaser
panawag-pansin
attention-getter
pansin
attentio
n
63