MODULE 1: Language Strategies

When you read a passage or hear some form of verbal

communication, there are linguistic features which make an
impression on you. This is so because the words, graphs and
symbols chosen and their arrangements are telling you
something about the writer`s/speaker`s purpose and context.
The use of various linguistic, grammatical, punctuations and
features to convey the overall purpose of the speaker/writer are
referred to as language strategies.
In assessing the language strategy of a speaker/writer or in
devising strategies of your own, you may want to consider the
following:
The Linguistic Features
These refer to the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary that the
writer uses to convey his intended message. Consider what the
use of each of the following might mean:
Type of language used: spoken or written, formal or informal,
personal or impersonal, standard or creole?
The vocabulary used: prosaic or florid, simple or stilted, slang or
formal, repetition of key words and phrases?
The phrasing and sentence structure: simple or complex,
economical or verbose, direct or circumlocutory
Connotative or Denotative use of language: words used
emotively - to convey arouse feelings, to suggest; words used
referentially - to emphasize or state factual content; words
which seem to primarily about conveying facts but which are
really intended to arouse emotions.
Significant use of punctuation marks- eg. pause marks such as
full stops, question signs, exclamation marks and suspension
dots.

Lay-out of the page- use of banner headlines, newspaper

(column) or broad-sheet lay-out, advertising-copy layout, verselay-out, portrait or landscape lay-out.
Typographical features- use of font sizes, bold face, capitals,
spacing, indentation, italic/roman type.
Use of pictures and graphics - help make written concepts plain;
reinforce concepts; help to stimulate for younger readers.
Function and Purpose of the Language
Identifying the type of writing (discourse) will help you
determine its function. Consider if it is narrative, expository,
descriptive, dramatic, argumentative?
Read more here, on some common types of discourse and the
purposes for which writers have used them.
The Context of the Language
Every time language is used to communicate meaning it takes
place within a particular set of circumstances referred to as the
context of use. The context influences the way language is used
and it includes:
the subject matter or content to be communicated
the purpose for the communication
the writer`s/speaker`s awareness of her relationship to the
audience
the way the writer/speaker wishes or expects the audience to
respond
Selecting Your Target Audience
To communicate effectively with your intended target audience,
you must have a `sense` of that audience. You need to know
what they are like and what their expectations are. Here are
some considerations:

 The age of the speaker/narrator and the effect on the

audience/reader/listener receiving the communication
The status or social background of the audience
The knowledge background of the audience - how much or
little do they know of the topic being communicated and the
level of their interest.
The presence or absence of an emotional connection
between speaker/writer and intended audience - is it hostile,
indifferent, cordial, intimate?
The size of the audience being addressed - inter-personal or
group communication?
The degree to which the communication is intended to be
public, private or intimate.

Main Point vs Purpose

MODULE ONE (1): Gathering & Processing Information
The purpose of this post is to clear up a mistake that is often
made on the exam. The main point of this post is that there is a
marked difference between the main point (main idea) of a
piece and the purpose for writing a piece and you will be tested
on whether you can make that distinction. The main point can
never be the same as the purpose and vice-versa. Hence, your
responses should reflect that you recognize this fact.
Main Point/Idea
The main point of a piece is the same as the topic/thesis
statement. It refers to those words/sentences that capture the
essence of the overall piece of writing. The thesis/topic
statement is generally found in the first or last sentences of the
introductory paragraph.However, sometimes it is not stated and
has to be inferred from the passage. A good thesis statement
does two (2) things. First, it tells about an essay's topic. Second,
it presents the writer's attitude, opinion, idea or point about
that topic. Let us look at some examples:
Example One: 'From King Leopold's Ghost, by Adam Hochschild,
1998'
When the Atlantic slave trade began decimating the Kongo, that
nation was under the reign of a ManiKongo named Nzinga
Mbemba Affonso, who had gained the throne in 1506 and ruled
as Affonso I for nearly forty years. Affonso's life spanned a
crucial period. When he was born, no one in the kingdom knew
that Europeans existed. When he died, his entire realm was
threatened by the slave-selling fever they had caused. He was a
man of tragic self awareness, and he left his mark. Some three
hundred years later, a missionary said, "A native of the Kongo
knows the name of three kings: that of the present, that of his
predecessor , and that of Affonso."
Ask yourself:

a. Who/what do you think the paragraph is about? (Topic)

b. What is the writer's attitude, opinion etc about it?
Discussion: Even though this is an excerpt of the piece, already
you should be able to tell that the main point/idea of the piece
is that 'When the Atlantic slave trade began decimating the
Kongo, that nation was under the reign of a ManiKongo named
Nzinga Mbemba Affonso, who had gained the throne in 1506
and ruled as Affonso I for nearly forty years.' Let us try another
one:
Example Two: 'Adapted from Daniel Pendick, Courtesy of
WNET.ORG
(http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageearth/tsunami/index.html)
Though it's true that tsunamis are ocean waves, calling
them by the same name as the ordinary wind-driven variety is a
bit like referring to firecrackers and atomic warheads both as
"explosives." Triggered by volcanic eruptions, landslides,
earthquakes, and even impacts by asteroids or comets, a
tsunami represents a vast volume of seawater in motion -- the
source of its destructive power.
On the open ocean, tsunami waves approach speeds of
500 mph, almost fast enough to keep pace with a jetliner. But
gazing out the window of a 747, you wouldn't be able to pick it
out from the wind-driven swells. In deep water, the waves
spread out and hunch down, with hundreds of miles between
crests that may be just a few feet high. A passenger on a
passing ship would scarcely detect their passing. But in fact the
tsunami crest is just the very tip of a vast mass of water in
motion, as a tsunami can travel great distances with little loss
of energy. The 1960 earthquake off the coast of Chile generated
a tsunami that had enough force to kill 150 people in Japan
after a journey of 22 hours and 10,000 miles.
As the waves in the tsunami reach shore, they slow
down due to the shallowing sea floor, and the loss in speed is
often accompanied by a dramatic increase in wave height.

Tsunamis also flood in suddenly without warning. Tsunami

waves usually don't curve over and break, like Hawaiian surf
waves. Survivors of tsunami attacks describe them as dark
"walls" of water. Impelled by the mass of water behind them,
the waves bulldoze onto the shore and inundate the coast,
snapping trees like twigs, toppling stone walls and lighthouses,
and smashing houses and buildings into kindling.
The contours of the seafloor and coastline have a
profound influence on the height of the waves -- sometimes
with surprising and dangerous results. During the 1993 tsunami
attack on Okushiri, Japan, the wave "runup" on the coast
averaged about 15 to 20 meters (50 - 65 feet). But in one
particular spot, the waves pushed into a V-shaped valley open
to the sea, concentrating the water in a tighter and tighter
space. In the end, the water ran up to 32 meters (90 feet)
above sea level, about the height of an 8-story office building.
Discussion: In this example taken from the May 2011 CAPE
Paper 2, the main point may actually be located in the last
sentence of the introductory paragraph. Therefore, the main
point is that 'a tsunami represents a vast volume of seawater in
motion - the source of its destructive power.'
Purpose
The purpose of a piece of writing is generally evidenced by the
type of discourse used (See post on Evaluating types of
discourse. )The second example, speaking about tsunamis)
evidences mixed discourse types. It utilizes elements of
exposition, description and narrative. Readers receive indepth
information about tsunami wave formation as well as true to life
accounts or anecdotes of tsunami attack. This combination of
discourse types aids the writer's purpose which is to alert or
educate readers about the destructive power of tsunamis.
Further Reading on 'Purpose': Chapter 10, Writing in English
-Hazel Simmonds-McDonald et al
Mistakes to Avoid on Examinations

Avoid stating the main point and the purpose as the same thing.
They may be similar in content but how you state it in your
responses should be clearly different:
The main point is that....
The purpose is to....
NOT the main point and the purpose is to...
You will score 0 marks if you respond in this way. The examiner
will not be able to tell whether or not you recognize the
difference between the two concepts.

Linguistic Features of Jamaican Creole (Patois)

MODULE TWO (2) : LANGUAGE & COMMUNITY
Jamaican Creole is considered a language like any other for two
basic reasons:
1. It possesses the characteristic features of a language AND 2.
It performs the functions of a language.
Below is a brief outline of some of these linguistic features:
PHONOLOGY: the sound system of a language. Patois has a
sound system independent of English.
Jamaican Creole does not use the 'th' sound but substitutes with
two other sounds: the 't' sounds as in 'tik' for the English 'thick'
and the 'd' sounds as in 'dem' for the English 'them'.
Jamaican Creole does not pronounce the 'h' sound at the
beginning of English words. Therefore English 'hour' becomes
'our'. Similarly there is the tendency to hyper-correct and
pronounce the 'h' sound at the beginning of words that do not
require it, therefore English 'egg' becomes 'hegg' and 'exam'
becomes 'hexam' and so on.
LEXICON: the vocabulary of a language. Although the lexical
items of Patois are English based, many are used in non-English
ways.
Some Patois words that appear to be similar to English words do
not carry the same meaning, e.g. 'Ignorant' in Patois means
easily angered, very upset and not lacking knowledge (which is
the English definition). Another example is 'Belly' that in patois
can refer to pregnancy.
Some English words are compounded to create nouns not
present in English for example 'Foot bottom' for the sole of the
feet and 'Eye water' for tears.
Some Creole words are formed by reduplication (base words are
repeated to form new words). For example friedi friedi to mean

fearful or timid, chati chati to mean talks excessively or out of

turn.
Some Creole words are adopted from other non-English
languages, eg, maroon-Spanish, pikni-Portuguese, unu, (you
plural) -Igbo
GRAMMAR: rules governing the correct use of language
Pluralization is signaled by the addition of the 'dem' after the
noun eg. The people dem. Or to emphasize the numerical
marker- 'de two book dem'.
Possession is not signaled, as in English, with the apostrophe 's'
suffix but by the word 'fi' as in 'A fi mi handout'
Zero Copular construction. A Copular links the subject to the
predicate. It is derived from the verb 'to be'. Creole can have a
zero copular structure eg. Jane sick for Mary is sick in Englich or
Jane de home for Jane is at home.
SYNTAX: the proper agreement of words in a sentence
Patois mainly uses syntax to highlight certain elements within a
sentence while English often uses pronunciation by verbally
stressing that which is to be emphasized. For example Creole: Is
Susan eat di chicken? versus English Susan ate the chicken?
Creole: Is di chicken Susan eat ? versus Susan ate the chicken?

Communication is the process of creating and transferring

meaning between intelligences.

Language is a system of communicatication between humans

through written and vocal symbols. It is also a system of
conventional spoken, manual or written symbols by means of
which human beings express themselves.

The Communication Process & The Elements of Communication

Systematic=Step by Step=Process

Communication as a Process
Human communication is interpersonal, it is purposive and it is a process.
Question: What do we mean by process?
Answer: By process we mean that steps have to be taken and in a set/particular
order to achieve a desired result/goal. These are the important elements of the
communication process:
1. SENDER/ENCODER
The sender also known as the encoder decides on the message to be sent, the
best/most effective way that it can be sent. All of this is done bearing the receiver
in mind. In a word, it is his/her job to conceptualize.
The sender may want to ask him/herself questions like: What words will I use? Do
I need signs or pictures?
2. MEDIUM
The medium is the immediate form which a message takes. For example, a
message may be communicated in the form of a letter, in the form of an email or
face to face in the form of a speech.
3. CHANNEL

The channel is that which is responsible for the delivery of the chosen message
form. For example post office, internet, radio.
4. RECEIVER
The receiver or the decoder is responsible for extracting/decoding meaning from
the message. The receiver is also responsible for providing feedback to the
sender. In a word, it is his/her job to INTERPRET.
5. FEEDBACK
This is important as it determines whether or not the decoder grasped the
intended meaning and whether communication was successful.
6. CONTEXT
Communication does not take place in a vacuum. The context of any
communication act is the environment surrounding it. This includes, among other
things, place, time, event, and attitudes of sender and receiver.
7. NOISE (also called interference)
This is any factor that inhibits the conveyance of a message. That is, anything
that gets in the way of the message being accurately received, interpreted and
responded to. Noise may be internal or external. A student worrying about an
incomplete assignment may not be attentive in class (internal noise) or the
sounds of heavy rain on a galvanized roof may inhibit the reading of a storybook
to second graders (external noise).
The communication process is dynamic, continuous, irreversible, and contextual.
It is not possible to participate in any element of the process without
acknowledging the existence and functioning of the other elements.

Forms & Context of Communication

Speaking & Writing (MODULE 3)
There are TWO (2) major forms of communication verbal and non-verbal
communication.
I. Verbal Communication
This form of communication is characterized by the use of oral and written
language. In this form of communication words are used to bring across a certain
message. There are two main ways in which human beings communicate
verbally, that is, through speech and writing. Reading, writing, speaking and
listening are the four ways in which we use this verbal communication. Each of
these is a skill, and effective use of each is necessary for communication to take
place.
Your notes, for instance, are in a written format. However until it is read and
interpreted by an audience/ receiver (you, the student) no communication has
taken place. In addition to this, the entire process is incomplete unless some
feedback, in the form of presentations/periodic tests/assignments, is provided.
For communication to take place, both writing and reading skills must be
employed. Similarly, speech communication does not end with speaking. For
communication to effectively take place, the receiver/audience must employ
listening skills.
It is important, then, for us to be able to not only write and speak effectively, but
also to read and listen effectively.

II. Non-Verbal Communication

This form of communication relies on elements other than speech and writing.
Non-verbal communication is equal in importance to verbal communication.
According to Leathers (1992), non-verbal communication is the use of interacting
sets of visual, vocal, and invisible communications systems to convey and
interpret meaning.
Non-verbal actions often tell a different story from the one we are telling with
words. For example, if you are making an apology to someone for a wrong done
with a smirk on your face, the person may not believe that you are serious and
genuinely apologetic. Some major categories that fall under non-verbal
communication are paralanguage/vocalic, Space/proxemics, objects/artifacts,
posture & movement, time and the senses. These basic elements of non-verbal
communication may be used to enhance communicative behaviours and can
have a significant impact on your total message.
Vocalics/Paralanguage

The use of volume, tone, rate, pitch, and quality of voice to give dimension and
meaning to words. This is also referred to as paralanguage as the voice
surrounds the words. For example you raise your pitch at the end of a sentence
to indicate that you have completed a thought.
Proxemics
This is the use of space to communicate. For example if someone comes to sit
next to you in the library when the whole table is empty it can communicate a
range of things about relations/interests/personality types.
Artifacts
Artifacts are those items, such as jewelry, clothing or a vehicle that may
communicate something about the type of person you are. If a male wears
extremely tight pants or shaves his eyebrows, it may communicate something
about him to others.
Movement
This includes posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye contact. Waving,
smiling, gazing at someone, or slumping at your desk, are all instances of
movement. Movement communicates messages.
Time/Chronemics
The way you use time, or chronemics, can communicate attitude or status. For
instance, one may show/communicate respect by being early for an appointment
or job interview. Conversely, lack of respect may be communicated by turning up
half-an-hour late for a class.
Senses
Finally, messages can be sent through the five senses taste, touch, smell
etcetera.

Functions of non-verbal communication

There are also six (6) functions of non-verbal communication. That is, we use nonverbal communication for six main reasons:
i. Substituting is where we use non-verbal communication to replace verbal
communication. Waving goodbye instead of saying it out loud is one example of
this.
ii. Reinforcement. We also use non-verbal communication to reinforce or
complement our verbal communication. Pounding your hand onto a table when
arguing may reinforce whatever point youre making.
iii. Regulating. The regulating function of non-verbal communication is used
mostly in conversation to control the flow of messages. Raising your hand to

answer or ask a question in class helps to regulate the communication going on

in the room.
iv. Contradiction. Sometimes we use non-verbal communication to contradict our
verbal communication. The most common example of this is using vocalic
sarcasm when you say one thing, but your tone of voice says the opposite.
v. Manage Impressions. We often manage impressions through the use of nonverbal communication. The way we dress, for example, often coincides with the
impression we want others to have of us.
vi. Establish Relationships. Finally, we use non-verbal communication to establish
relationships. The wearing of a wedding band is a non-verbal indication that the
person is married.

The Context of Communication

As stated earlier, the context of communication is its environment. Context is
particularly important in choosing the types of verbal and non-verbal
communication we use every day. A doctor does not wear short pants and
slippers at the clinic; this would be inappropriate. A lawyer may choose to speak
in simple language to a client while using more complex language to a colleague.
A hip-hop star covers himself in bling and speaks a version of English that is not
standard when addressing his fans. All of these are examples of how
communication context influences form of communication.
When deciding on which form of communication to use, always ask yourself these
questions:
* Who am I communicating with?
* What is the attitude of my audience?
* Where is this communication act taking place?
Usually, communication contexts occur along a scale from formal to informal.
Formal contexts require certain types of communication and communicative
behaviours; informal contexts require others. A conversation between employer
and employee, for example, is not the same as one between friends, even if the
subject matter under discussion is the same.
Basically, a formal situation is one where behaviour is dictated by social norms
and patterns, and an informal situation is one where there are no constraints on
behaviour and communication.

Communication Settings
1. Intrapersonal
This means communicating within yourself. When you think, daydream and solve
problems that is seen as intrapersonal communication. Hunger, pain and
pleasure are said to be physical feedback mechanisms.

2. Interpersonal
This form of communication refers to the interactions of two or more people. All
communication involving other people and oneself is seen as interpersonal. It is
characterized by oneself being in direct contact with one other person or a few
other people. Interviews, conversations and intimate communication are all
examples of this type of communication.
3. Small Group ( 2-12 individuals )
This form of communication is characterized by leadership, a somewhat equal
sharing of ideas, peer pressure, roles and norms, and focus on a common goal,
usually in face-to-face interaction. The small group is one of the most important
communication settings. Examples of small groups include the family, interview
teams, roommates, workgroups, legislative subcommittees and military and
business groups.
4. Public Communication
This occurs where one person talks to several others and is the dominant focus of
the communication in a public setting. It is characterized by having a speaker and
an audience. Here, the speaker is the primary sender of messages, while others
function primarily as receivers of those messages. The number of the audience is
not important here.
5. Mass Communication
This occurs where a message needs help to get from point A to point B from its
source/sender to its destination/receiver. Some form of mechanism is needed to
connect the sender to the receivers. These include print (newspapers or
magazines), electrical (radio, television or video), or electronic (computer
modems). There is usually some delay in sending and receiving. There is also
some delay in the feedback, if any, that the sender gets from the receiver.
6. Organizational Communication
This is a very specialized area that focuses on interpersonal, small-group, public
and mass communication as they interact in a complex, multi-group setting. It is
especially important to business, government, and educational institutions. It
accounts for what happens to messages as they travel up, down and around a
large collection of individuals.
7. Intercultural Communication
Otherwise known as cross-cultural communication, it describes what happens
when the sender of a message is from a different cultural background than the
intended receiver. It may be found in any other context of communication
whenever one individual speaks to another individual from another country. It is
important to take into consideration the differences in cultures in order to ensure
successful cross-cultural communication.

Facilitators & Barriers of Communication

Selecting appropriate mediums, channels and technologies
This takes place at the level of conceptualization.
When a sender decides to encode a message, he or she must take two main
things into consideration during this stage the context and the audience
(receiver). These factors influence both choice of medium and choice of channel.
The key word here is appropriateness. Choice of medium and channel are directly
influenced by the purpose of the message and the intended audience. Ask
yourself the following questions when determining levels of appropriateness:
i. Who is my receiver?
ii. How best can my message be conveyed?
iii. Where is the communication act taking place?
iv. What is the situation surrounding the communication act?
v. Is my audience one person or several?
vi. What medium should I use, oral or written?
vii. Should I use technology? If so, which technology would be most appropriate?
Scenario 1
Read the scenario below and answer the questions that follow.
Greg is ill and has to be away from school for two weeks. His mother encodes a
letter to the school principal and sends it out in the mail.
In the above situation,
1. How else could Gregs mother have gotten the message to the Principal?
2. Why do you think she chose to write a letter?
Answer: The telephone or email could have been used. She chose the letter
because a letter is a more formal medium of communication and can serve as a
permanent record.

Facilitators &; Barriers to Communication

Noise is anything that interrupts or blocks the flow of information. Whenever the
understanding of a message is affected, the obstruction is considered a barrier to
communication.

Some common barriers to communication are:

i. A language barrier
ii. A channel that is inaccessible to the receiver
iii. The message is ineffectively encoded or the meaning is ambiguous
iv. The medium is inappropriate to the message

Some common facilitators to communication are:

i. Choosing a familiar language
ii. Using an accessible channel
iii. Ensuring that the medium is appropriate to the message
iv. Using audio/visual aids to enhance the encoding of the message.