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Abstract
A general cavitation algorithm that accommodates for an arbitrary densitypressure relation is presented. It is now possible to model
the compressibility of the lubricant in such a way that the densitypressure relation is realistic throughout the contact. The algorithm
preserves mass continuity for cavitation caused by bearing geometry and surface topography. It is a commonly accepted physical
assumption that the contribution of the pressure driven ow is negligible in the cavitated region. This phenomenon is adopted in the
present algorithm, which is similar to that of Elrod, and is modeled by a switch function that terminates the pressure gradient at the
cavitation regions. Results with this algorithm for different densitypressure relations are presented and discussed. The effects of inlet
conditions, such as surface roughness and starvation, on the load carrying capacity of the contact are analyzed.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Hydrodynamic lubrication; Cavitation
1. Introduction
Cavitation usually occurring in the regions of diverging
lubricated contact gap imply sub-ambient pressures of the
lubricant. These low pressures lead to a transformation of
the liquid into a gasliquid mixture. Different types of
cavitation models have been proposed over the years to
replicate this behavior in theoretical simulations. Some of
the algorithms preserve lubricant mass continuity whereas
others do not. By simulating the behavior of rough surfaces,
several cavitation regions might appear inside the contact.
Hence, preserving mass continuity becomes crucial.
Jakobsson and Floberg [1] developed a mass preserving
cavitation theory. They assumed a constant pressure in the
cavitation region, i.e. the pressure gradient is zero. They
also derived a set of conditions to locate the cavitation
boundaries. Later, Floberg extended their theory of
cavitation and implemented it in numerous bearing types
[25]. Elrod [6] and Elrod and Adams [7] developed a
cavitation algorithm using a single equation throughout
the lubrication region without the need for explicit
equations to locate the cavitation boundaries, and used a
Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 920491242; fax: +46 920491047.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
F. Sahlin et al. / Tribology International 40 (2007) 12941300
(1)
(3)
(4)
(5)
1295
by
p pc b ln y()y eppc =b .
(9)
C 1 C 2 p pc
,
C 1 p pc
(10)
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F. Sahlin et al. / Tribology International 40 (2007) 12941300
D & H, Orig
1.3
D & H, MNL (fitted)
Const. , MNL
Measured mineral oil data (MNL)
1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
1
200
400
600
800
p MPa
Fig. 1. Compressibility models for the measured mineral oil data. The
original Dowson and Higginson expression with C 1 0:59e9 and
C 2 1:34, a Dowson and Higginson expression tted to the measured
data with C 1 2:22e9 and C 2 1:66, an exponential expression with b
3:3 GPa tted at y 1 for the tted D and H expression.
x Lx =22
Lx =22
5.08
2.54
0
e
u
0.0762
xm
10-5
3
p MPa
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
x m
Fig. 3. Pressure solutions with boundary conditions yw 1:0001 and
ye 1; b. 0:069 GPa with S%
p 12%; Z 0:039 Pa s and u 4:57 m=s.
(12)
with the same physical dimensions and operating conditions as in Vijayaraghavan and Keith [8]. The geometry is
seen in Fig. 2.
In Fig. 3, a pressurized inlet is used and the pressure
solutions shown are from the Dowson and Higginson
expression tted to the measured mineral oil data as well as
10-5
hm
1.25
the expression for the constant b 6:9 107 Pa, the same
as applied in [8].
The solution from the constant b expression mimics the
results from [8], but differs from the Dowson and
Higginson expression in load carrying capacity by 12%.
A large difference is expected, since the Dowson and
Higginson expression represents b 3:34 GPa at p pc ,
which is signicantly different from 0:069 GPa used in
Ref. [8]. Fig. 4 shows the twin parabolic geometry used in
[8] and the corresponding pressure solutions are shown in
Fig. 5. The two pressure maxima are similar, but the
pressurized inlet causes the pressure maximum to the left to
be slightly higher (1.6 kPa). The difference in load carrying
capacity between the two compressibility relations is 15%.
Continuing with the same type of geometry as in Fig. 2,
though with H 0 2 mm, A H 0 and Lx 0:1 m, y 1
both at inlet and outlet and is thus ooded. The
corresponding dimensionless density solution where the
tted expression is compared with the original Dowson and
Higginson expression is shown in Fig. 6.
From left to right, a slight liquid compression occurs and
full lm solutions are achieved until the gap expands to a
level where the liquid does not occupy the complete gap
hm
1296
5.08
2.54
0
w
0
e
u
0.0762
xm
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2.5
50
40
1.5
30
p MPa
p MPa
1
0.5
1297
20
10
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.02
0.04
0.08
0.1
Fig. 7. Pressure solutions across the domain for the parabolic geometry
with H 0 2 mm and A H 0 and boundary conditions yw 1 and ye 1;
S%
p 1:7%; Z 0:04 Pa s and u 0:25 m=s.
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.06
xm
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
xm
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
xm
Fig. 6. Density solutions across the domain for the parabolic geometry
with H 0 2 mm and A H 0 and boundary conditions yw 1 and ye 1;
S%
y 0:61%; Z 0:04 Pa s and u 0:25 m=s.
Fig. 8. Density solutions across the domain for the parabolic geometry
with H 0 2 mm and A H 0 and boundary conditions yw 0:55 and
ye 1; S%
y 0:64%; Z 0:04 Pa s and u 0:25 m=s.
term. Hence, no information is signaled from the downstream locations and, consequently, upstream differencing
is applied. The lack of inuence from the downstream
locations in the cavitated zones together with the switch
function give rise to this abrupt and somewhat unexpected
reformation into full lm. The corresponding pressure can
be seen in Fig. 9, where greater differences arise between
the two Dowson and Higginson expressions, i.e. 7:4%.
Here, the expression for b constant, taken for the tted
expression at y 1, is added to the gure to show that the
difference in solutions between this and the tted Dowson
and Higginson expression is negligible (overlapping lines)
for these conditions. Fig. 1 illustrates that the tted
expression and the constant b expression are close at a
pressure range of 0100 MPa, reected in the results where
the simulations are conducted without exceeding the limits
of hydrodynamic pressures. Fig. 10 applies the same
physical conditions as in Fig. 9 and the solutions are
obtained for different values of b.
Substantial differences in pressures are seen between the
solutions, indicating the importance of using a relevant
value of the bulk modulus for the lubricant to be simulated.
In Fig. 11, a linearly converging lm thickness is used
with H 0 1 mm and A 0:25 mm, where the inlet lm
thickness is H 0 A and the outlet lm thickness is H 0 .
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F. Sahlin et al. / Tribology International 40 (2007) 12941300
1298
30
D & H - MNL
D & H - Orig
Const , MNL
25
p MPa
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
xm
Fig. 9. Pressure solutions across the domain for the parabolic geometry
with H 0 2 mm and A H 0 and boundary conditions yw 0:55 and
%
ye 1; .: S%
p 7:4%; b: Sp 0:11%; Z 0:04 Pa s and u 0:25 m=s.
30
Const , MNL
Const
Const
25
p MPa
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
xm
40
Fig. 10. Pressure solutions across the domain for the parabolic geometry
with H 0 2 mm and A H 0 and boundary conditions yw 0:55 and
ye 1; b .3:34=2; b3:34 2 GPa with S%
p 8:4; 4:8%; Z 0:04 Pa s
and u 0:25 m=s.
p MPa
40
D & H - MNL
D & H - Orig
Const , MNL
p MPa
30
Const , MNL
Const
Const
30
20
10
20
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
xm
10
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Fig. 12. Pressure solutions across the domain for the converging gap
geometry with H 0 1 mm and A 0:25 mm and boundary conditions
yw 0:85 and ye 1; b .3:34=2; b3:34 2 GPa with S%
p 25; 19%;
Z 0:04 Pa s and u 0:25 m=s.
xm
Fig. 11. Pressure solutions across the domain for the converging gap
geometry with H 0 1 mm and A 0:25 mm and boundary conditions
%
yw 0:85 and ye 1; .: S%
p 22%; b: Sp 0:54%; Z 0:04 Pa s and
u 0:25 m=s.
hm
10-5
1.5
1
0.5
0
w
0
0.1
xm
Fig. 13. Geometries with parallel gaps, two sinusoidal waves with a
difference in frequency both at xoL=2 with H 0 10 mm and
A 0:5 H 0 .
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F. Sahlin et al. / Tribology International 40 (2007) 12941300
1.5
1299
2.5
1
2
p MPa
1.5
p MPa
0.5
1
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
xm
0.5
Fig. 14. Pressure solutions across the domain for the sinusoidal geometry
at xoL=2 with H 0 10 mm and A 0:5 H 0 and boundary conditions
pw 1e 05 and pe 1e 05 Pa; S%
Z 0:04 Pa s and
p 35%;
u 0:25 m=s.
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
xm
Fig. 17. Pressure solutions across the domain for the cos2 at xoL=2
modied step geometry with H 0 10 mm and A 0:5 H 0 and boundary
conditions pw 2 105 and pe 105 Pa; Z 0:04 Pa s and u 0:25 m=s.
1
2
1.0003
5. Conclusions
1
4
xm
8
10-3
Fig. 15. Density solutions across the domain for the sinusoidal geometry
at xoL=2 with H 0 10 mm and A 0:5 H 0 and boundary conditions
pw 1e 05 and pe 1e 05 Pa; Z 0:04 Pa s and u 0:25 m=s.
1
2
hm
10-5
1.5
1
0.5
0
w
0
0.1
xm
Fig. 16. Geometries with parallel gaps, two squared sinusoidal waves with
a difference in frequency both at xoL=2 with H 0 10 mm and
A 0:5 H 0 .
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