HOLOCENE CYCLES CLIMATE, SEA LEVELS, AND SEDIMENTATION Charles W. Finkl, Jnr., Editor Special Issue No. 17 Prepared for the Journal of Coastal Research An International Forum for the Littoral Sciences Published by ‘The Coastal Education & Research Foundation [CERF] Charlottesville, Virginia, and Fort Lauderdale, FloridaCHAPTER 44 A Combined Lunisolar Tidal-Current Forcing Function, Enhanced Calving of Coastal Icebergs, and the Sinking of the Titanic Fergus J. Wood {3108 Case Bonita Drive, Bonita, CA 91902, US.A, ABSTRACT: Two questions that remained tnanswered following the Titanic disaster on ‘April 14, 1912, were (1) How did the iceberg that struck the Titane get o fr south beyond the normal icoberg limits, and (2) How did the extreme frequency of icebergs witnessed during that ice season orginata? Although the fact that the calving fequeney of icebergs increases noticeably ‘during spring tides compared with neap tides is well known, a source of definitive data on the rare extreme proxigean spring tides did not become available uatil 1986. n January 4, 1912, at 1400h GCT, the moon reached the closest position to the earth it has attained in more than 800 ‘years. At 25008 GMT on January 2 the earth also reached its second closest potion tothe sun jin 94 yeas. In this combined lunisolar alignment at fll moon, lunar proximity toearth at extreme proxigee, and the earth's minimum distance from the sun at perihelion, the gravitational (tial) force exerted upon the earth was maximized. Extreme praxigee-¢yzyay is postlated asa logical causal factor for enhancod calving and accelerated southward drift ofthe ieberg responsible for the Titanie disaster just three months later. Covering 256 years since 1738, a potentially co- existent tidal-current forcing function has been corelaved with notable ieaberg events occurring {noth hemispheres—each associated with this type of lunisolar alignment. Data sources range fram early sightings by whaling vessels to satelite images of recently ealved icebergs, secured by SKYLAB within three weeks ofan extreme proxigee-syzygy alignment. The complex interlocking cycles representing these epochs of maximired gravitational foee a INTRODUCTION ‘The Titanie Disaster On April 11, 1912, the posh new British passenger liner Titanic of the White Star Line, with Captain E. J. Smith commanding, embarked from’ Southampton, England (with stops at Cherbourg, France, and Queenstown [Cobh], Ireland) on its maiden voyage to New York. Built by the Irish shipbuilding firm of Harland and Wolff and launched at Belfast, Ireland, the ship was ready and waiting for its first transatlantic crossing with a crew of 885 and a pas- senger list of 1,316. This lst included many socialites and notables eager to be the first to participate in the maiden voyage. The Titanic departed from Queenstown and set.a course to the southwest on the great-circle portion of her track to New York ‘The ship forged ahead undor a full head of steam toward ‘the turning point fr the terminal leg of her voyage, already ‘marked on the ship's chart as south and east of the New- foundland Banks. Although intermittent reports had sparked over the still infant Marconi wireless on board during the early portion of the voyage concerning icefields and even lines of ice floes witnessed by other ships in the shipping lanes of the western portion of the North Atlantic, these signals were accepted as only precautionary. After all, the ship was proceeding on a course far south of the ournal of Coastal Research Special Isue No. 17: Holocene Cycles: Climate, yee. usual iceberg limits, and a favorable company speed record was certainly desirable for the Titanic on its initial eross- ing. On the evening of Sunday, April 14 on a course of 266° with extra lookouts installed in the erow's nest as a pro- tective measure, the ship steamed at 21.6 knots (her max- imum limit was 22) through a zone in which lines of ice floes earlier had been reported. Several hours previously, 1 message had been received by wireless from the ship ‘Mesaba, then cruising a few hundred miles farther west, reporting barriers of pack ice and icebergs at its latitude. Received amid a host of other messages to and from pas- songors and their friends on shore announcing the ship's imminent arrival, this message had gone undelivered to the bridge. ‘And so the 260-metor (882.5-foot) long, 46,328-ton gross woight, triple-serew and double-hulled Titanic—pride of the White Star Line—reached an area southesst of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Declared ““unsinkable” be- cause of her 16 transverse, re-enforced bulkheads below the waterline and her special features of water-tight in- tegrity—she plowed through smooth seas under a moonless and cloudless sky, with familiar bright clusters of stars sparkling undiminished near the horizon. (Her most prob: able position—as determined by a modern survey from the 5 Levels, and Sedimentation, pp. 327-241wa Wood manned-submersible Alvin of her bull on the sea floor— was 41° 33'N, 50° O1'W.) ‘Then at 23:38, ship’s time, came the lookout’s shrill ery from the crow’s nest, “Iceberg dead shead!" Immediate ‘countering orders came from the bridge, “Hard a-star- board! All stop!—emorgency full astern!” With inertia un- slackened from a previous full head of steam and a min- uscule turning-radius in which to accommodate her one- sixth of a mile length, every inch of the Titanie’s 100-ton rudder strained against the water in vain. ‘With only a mildly heard bump, followed by a loud sera ing shudder, the full starboard bow portion below the we terline impacted against « hidden spur on the submerged ‘7/8ths portion of the iceberg. Recent remote underwater camera studies of the Titanic reveal that the ship did not sink because of seawater entering a long underwater slice ‘cut along her entire forward quarter by this protruding berg spur as originally thought but instead poured through a gap created as the starboard bow plates crum- bled under the impact. ‘Two and a half hours later—amid the cries of victims who had either elected too early or too late to brave the {reeting waters of the North Atlantic because of inadequate shipboard evacuation procedures and the pitiful lack of oats—the Titanic went down, taking 1,490 persons with her. This is still counted as one ofthe greatest marine disasters in history. ‘After several conflicting Courts of Inquiry were held in both Great Britain and the United States and many sub- sidiary investigations were made, an organization known ‘as the International Ice Patrol was founded and thereafter ‘maintained constantly at sea during the months March ‘through July of each year. Two persistent questions re- mained. (1) How did the iceberg that struck the Titanie ‘get 30 far south beyond the normal iceberg limits, and (2) How did the extreme frequency of icebergs observed during this particular year come into being? (An estimated 1,041 were counted, observed [in April] in latitudes as far south fas 41°N,) This was the farthest south Arctic icebergs had been observed in more than 100 years. ‘SUMMARY OF RELEVANT ICEBERG DATA. ‘The probable date of the Titanic iceberg's calving into the open sea was around January 4, 1912, the mean epoch of the moet forcefully acting sun-moon and tidally ampli fying alignment (at extreme proxigee-syzygy) within the past 300 years. Pestinent Geographic Sources of Teeberg Calving A stretch of some 625 miles exists along the west coast ‘of Greenland between 67*N. and 76°N., especially in the rogion of Jakobshavns Isflord and Christianshaab on Disko Bugt, where 28% of all the icebergs eventually appearing in Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, and the Labrador Sea are es- timated by the U.S. Coast Guard to be calved. A relatively small number of the icebergs calved from glaciers along the east and south coasts of Greenland intrude into trans- atlantic shipping lanes, except for a few transported by ‘the Bast Greenland and West Greenland currents and oc- casional current gyres (BOWDITCH, 1984). Meteorological Conditions During the Presumed Period of Calving ‘Synoptic Air Mass and Frontal Weather Data During the period from January 3 through January 5, 1912, a bent-back frontal occlusion was just passing over Greenland, with the tip of the occlusion being over Juli- anchaab on the 3rd (US. Am Warman Suxvice, 1945). “The indicated weather to the rear of this front and over the whole of Greenland was a situation of generally clear skies in which only local snow showers prevailed. The baro ‘metric pressure at the center of a mild low-pressure cell remained relatively steady over Greenland and had risen ‘only slowly from 995 millibars to 1005 millibars throughout the period. Strong surface winds definitely were not pres- ‘ent at this time along the West Greenland coast to accel- erate iceberg drift. (At the weather station at Godhavn on the 4th, the wind force was 3 [8-12 mi/hr or 7-10 knots from the east]; the cloud cover was broken.) Meridional Circulation and Zonal Index Forty-seven years of barometric pressure data, 1899 1045, were compiled by the author* during World War Il for the polar regions of the North American continent in ‘connection with a project on Arctic airmass intrusions into the United States; this data revealed that there was no intense dynamic polar outbreak in the year 1912. Usually, there is an average of one to two extreme outbreaks per ‘year, each surge penetrating deep into the Great Plains oF ‘Texas as a “Norther,” or into Mexico as a *Tehuantepe: cer.” The presence of such a polar outbreak and low-index situation in meridional circulation (projected to the Green- land region) would indicate an additive pressure-induced wind factor in iceberg movement at the time warranting close consideration. ‘Temperature and Icing Factors ‘The surface temperature at Egedesminde, Greenland, for January 4, 1912 at 1830 GMT was 18°F. (~7.80)— confirming the statement in the Sailing Direetions for Greenland (Darense Marrisc AozNcY, 1981) rogarding Egedesmminde and Disko Bay that—"... freeze-up in most ‘eases oceurs early in December and lasts until the first hal of May...” The proviso isadded (see the direct application to iceberg calving and the release to open water given be- low) that... “At Christianshaab, icebergs and glacial ice rarely obstruct navigation as the outer harbor is large and at least one of the entry channels is likely to be clear.” Sea Ice as a Blocking Agent to Navigation vs. ‘Channels of Open Water Permitting leeberg Drifting Its extremely important to note that although usually navigable waters are blocked by sea ice and these waters may be closed to navigation from January to May—this ‘does not mean that the glacial ice which forms icebergs by calving is restrained in movement and cannot, therefore, reach open water. Such potential iceberg material will con- tinue to descend within iords and floating iee tongues until “ipa spa on, “Poi Prop Pr Out Manat alhine Da on-base ppSiokng of she Titanic m9 it reaches and calves into the open sea as an iceberg even during the coastal icebound season (Kotsteven, 1980) One continual source of glacial ice for iceberg calving exists ‘at Jakobshavns Isbrae, a tongue of the large inland Gron- land Icecap (EcHuLMevER, et al, 1991; Ecumunmyen and Hannison, 1980). The availability of open channels to the sea in Disko Bay also has been mentioned in connection with Christianshaab in the preceding paragraph. ‘Tides and Tidal Currents An important point included in this same handbook (Ds- avs MAPPING AGENCY, 1991, p. 60) is the susceptibility of the coastal water level, because of the many narrow channels in this area, to an easy rise of the tides when subject to another familiar and more readily perceptible forcing funetion, the winds. (This connotes a tidal-fun- neling aspect particularly relevant to the issue of calving, by any high-water means.) “The level of daily tides can be increased as much as 1 foot by westerly winds; S or SE winds can lower it as much as 114 feet.” ‘The combined effect of the moon and sun on local tides jis emphasized in the statement: “At Godhavn ... spring tides (moon and sun combining) rise 7.9 feet and neap tides (moon and sun opposing) rise 4.6 feot”—a sizable difference. ‘The mean spring tidal range is averaged for the successive highest and lowest tides occurring at the times of full or new moon throughout a 19-year Metonic Cycle, which contains all normal variations in maxima and ‘minima in this period. It does not indicate the size of the ‘extreme maximum range. An extreme tidal range exists in the case of proxigean spring tides, a principal subject of this paper. Having a direct application to the prosent investigation is a paragraph in the same manual (p. 71) discussing a phenomenon associated with the amplifying tidal influence of syzyay (alignment of the moon with the sun at either new or full moon):"‘A peculiarity of Jakobshavn isan effect called ‘Kanele’ which is produced, particularly at the time of spring tides by the calving of large icebergs or by a discharge of iee from Jakobshavns Isfjord. This causes regular and heavy swell and without any warning, a long flat wave up to 2m (6 ft) in height with a period of about 6 minutes enters the inner harbor; the water in the inner- ‘most part is violently disturbed and covered with white foam.” (Italicization is the present author's.) ICEBERG CALVING: SOURCES AND PROCESSES In the Northern Hemisphere, the most generally rec- ‘ognized sources of icebergs occur along the coasts of Green- land, at points whore gently sloping glaciers or glacial tongues are contiguous to the waters of Baffin Bay (es- pecially north of latitude 67° N.), Davis Strait (south of 61° N.), or Denmark Strait (along the east coast). Ieebergs ‘originally form as large accumulations of ice created through ‘the compacting of snow by pressure, and covering the land ‘surface as a glacier. (An excellent source on the theory of formation and dynamics of glaciers is PATERSON, 1991.) ‘The resultant superincumbent and frequently thick layer Of ice is subject to gravity-flow and rogelation processes and constitutes a weight- and pressure-driven solid, de- ‘scending very slowly toward the sea. Here the iceberg sep- arates from the main ice mass by a process known as calu~ ing, and by one of several procedures enters the sea. There- after, it exists as a large, salt-free mass of ice, unusually buoyant in the salt water of the ocean, until it is finally ‘melted by the warm waters into which itis transported by southerly directed currents. ‘The eastern, southern, and southwestern coasts of Greenland are marked by many deep fiords and by pre cipitous cliff walls separating the sea from the land. Be- cause of the necessarily abrupt descent of icebergs calved hhere into the sea, the situation in these regions is not as favorable for the lasting production of icebergs. Those ere ated by separation from the paront ice mass by the proces of calving at these locations end up in a fall of many feet and a destructive impact with the sea. The situation as ‘exists at these clif-wall shoreline locations is not as fa- vorable either to the formative processes for sizable ice- bergs or their readiness for transportation to sea by tidal ‘or wind-driven currents. It is the influence of cyclically recurring, gravitationally induced force maxima in pro- ducing a strong enhancement of tidal eurronts which will shortly be called upon as the primum mobile for certain of the extreme actions of icebergs. In order to derive the most accurate facts regarding the nature and action of icebergs, one ean best refer to the authoritative source, Bowditeh’s American Practical Nav- igator, a navigational mainstay. This work is still pub- lished—with the original author's name retained (Bownrren, 1984)—by the Defense Mapping Agency, Hy- rographic/Topographic Center, following numerous in- ‘tervening printings by the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office and other agencies in some 170 editions over 192 years. ‘Thus, quoting from pages 857-858 of the 1984 edition (the inserts in square brackets are added for greater clar- ification), “The main sourco of the ieebergs encountered in the North Atlant is the west coast of Greenland be- ‘tween 67°N. and 76°N. where approximately 7,500 icebergs are formed each year. In this area there are about 100 low lying coastal glaciers, 20 of them being the prineipal pro- ducers of icebergs. OF these 20 major glaciers, two located. in Disko Bugt between 69°N. and 70°N. are estimated to contribute 28 percent of all icebergs appearing in Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea. The West Greenland Current carries icebergs from this area northward and then west- ‘ward until they encounter the south flowing Labrador Cur- rent. West Greenland icebergs generally spend their first winter fie, that in the December-February period prior to their more southerly sightings] locked in the Baffin Ba pack ice; however, a large number can also be found within the sea ice extending along the entire Labrador coast by late winter [February-March, with maximum sightings in April, May, and June]. During the spring and summer when they are freed by the break up of the pack ice, they are transported further southward by the Labrador Cur- rent, ... Observations over a 69-year period show that an average of 365 icebergs per year reach latitudes south off8°N, with approximately 10% of this total carried south of the Grand Banks (43°N.) before they melt. eebergs may bbe encountered during any part of the year, but in the Grand Banks area they are most numerous during spring,” Several facts are evident. First, itis clear that the period of time taken for the extreme southward (or, including0 Woe both hemispheres, equatorward) journey of the icoberg al ter its original calving is as variable as the forces which impel it and may include many phases of transportation and many diverse routes and detours, including the pos- bility of a complete stranding. It is also apparent from the following reference that this period of transit may be anywhere from a minimum of three to four months for & direc, expediently driven iceberg toa maximum of several years (or, alternatively, ice seasons) for one that beeames stranded. Finally, itis certain that these most rapid-trane portation cases ean only occur wien the driving forces are Impressed in a strong, directionally unchanging fashion and, if they are multiple, are combined in synergy. To cite the American Practical Navigator (1984, pp. 855-858) on the matter of iceberg det: “Toeberys extend a considerable distance below the sur face and have relatively small ‘sail areas compared to their subsurface mass. ‘Therefore, the near surface current is thought to be primarily responsible for deft... Near surface currents are generated by a varity of factors such ashorizontal presure gradionts owing to density variations in the water, rotation of the earth, gravitational attraction of the moon [ie tidal currents, and slope of the sea sur face... Studies tend to show that, generally, where strong currents prevail, the curren is dominant” [over winds or other factors. (The italiciations and boxed explana tions are the present author's) ‘Adding further a pertinent item of information from an earlier but definitive 1988 edition of this same work: “IP borgs on their calving at once drifted tothe southward and ‘met with no obstructions their journey of about 1,200 to 1,800 miles would (normally) occupy from four to five ‘months, reckoning the drift ofthe Labrador Current at 10 miles a day, which may be making it too little.” can be summarized from the foregoing statements that ‘cobergs are subject to numerous impairing, retarding, de ‘ecting, and even stranding or grounding infuences—at least those icebergs that are moving from the start under senorally weak or directionally uncertain fores. But those impelled at once by strong, unilateral forces make their ‘way rapidly and expediently toward their eventual desi nations. This point becomes a factor of major importance inthe case studies that follow, four main sections ahead. ‘Various dymamic processes may result in the ablation and eventual splitting away of a considerable mass of ice from the parent glacier to create an iceberg (D In the simplest method of formation, large masses of ie may simply break off from the coastal glacier o fom slacial tongues afloat, due to an unbalanced weight at the {rounding line. As the weight ofthe ice mass is countered by oatation, the unbalanced force and resultant torque create a bending moment, internal stress, and resultant hhinge-erack (Lino et ol, 1981). The iceberg mass sep- rates from the glacier and floats into the sea. The calving ‘of ice from floating glaciers, floating ice tongues, and ice shelves is explained in Hotpswortn (1969) and Rex (1968). ‘The fact thatthe ice ofthe forming iceberg is less dense than that frozen fom seawater ie also important. As the pressure-driven ice of the glacier enters the sea differ- ential upward force is generated in moving against the denser sea water. The farther the glacial ice enters the sea, the greater this force becomes, until the and the iceberg is calved off. (2) Enhancing the calving process, the lifting of the we tor level by augmented proxigean spring tides beneath the slacial ice may serve to undercut and erode the superin- cumbent ice layers. Fissures form, and the presence of pressurized air and water vapor forced into such cracks from below by the rising sea surface and its associated ‘wave base may serve to expedite the calving process. ‘Several additional feet of water may accompany an in coming proxigean spring tide. (For example, Renssela Bugt at latitude 78° 37'N., longitude 70° 53°W., along the northwest glacial-shelf portion of Greenland, has a spring idal range {extreme high minus extreme low] of a sizable 10.8 feet, which includes the effect of syzygy only —ignoring the at least 25% additional maximum in water level at extreme proxigee,) It is possible that the alternate inflow and outflow betwoon high and low wators in proxigean spring tides of the anomslistic type and the adjustment of ‘weight in the forming iceberg may also induce tremors and shaking contributory to the calving process. (3) The general groundswell of the ocean, uplifted by ‘enhanced ocean tides to a level above the shoreline where its action becomes intrusive, can split off icebergs from the glacial source. These originally glacial ice masses often contain rock debris, together with melting-water and ice- ‘transported rock materials (drift) and boulders, stones, soil, and other detritus, which can be earried into the ice- bergs. The Arctic icebergs, in consequence, may more fre- ‘quently exhibit soil markings than Antarctic icebergs caly- ing from ice shelves. They may typically be greenish, blu- ish, brown, or even black in eolor due to dissolved or laid- down deposits. (4) In the Southern Hemisphere, particularly in the ws ters just north of the Ross Ice Shelf, generally blocklike or tabular-shaped icebergs are split off from wide expanses of shelf ice (more commonly, but not totally excluding the action of glaciers) as very massive blocks of ice having rolatively unsculptured features, These iceborgs are typi cally nearly pure white in color, are more porous, and con: tain large quantities of dissolved oxygen. (5) Large, tabular-shaped, floating masses of ee in the Arctic Ocean are called “iee-islands.” They are smaller than their Antarctic counterparts and extend to lower el- cevations out of the water. Eneampments have been estab: lished on several ofthese by occupying research teams, and ‘their southward motion as “floating islands” has been traced. (6) The heights of icebergs cam attain hundreds of feet ‘and, in keeping with the laws of hydrodynamics, more than % of the mass of the iceberg lies below the waterline Driven both by prevailing and vagrant atmospherie winds, both tidal and wind-actuated ocean currents and turbu- lence created by storms, the icebergs are transported in basically stylized patterns eventually following ocean-cit- culation patterns equatorward. Icebergs are also subject to ‘the thermodynamie current-controling forces of the sea, and their overall motions can, accordingly, be very erratic ‘Their tracks may be rendered circuitous through repeated ‘groundings in shallow-embayments, collisions of one kind or another in storms, plus spurious mass accretion and distribution caused by freezing rain, and iceberg toppling finally splitsSioking ofthe Tale 31 and overturning by readjustment of mass, or strong winds ‘(Painipce, 1966; IcHive, 1966; JOHNSON, 1966; ScHELL, 1966; U.S. Navy, 1945). (]) The journey fom a release-point in eastem Batfin Bay, through such hindering factors as above listed (com: ‘mon in Davis Strait and southward along the Labrador Coast) may, under ordinary circumstances and driving forces, consume months; on some occasions icebergs may be stalled and retained in frozen form at high latitudes for ‘the next year or more. The duration of transit from their locations of original calving to the latitudes of the high sixties usually occupies the early winter months. Depend. ing upon the strength of adverse winds, the frequency of storms, and the intensity of defleeting ocean currents, the {journey to more southerly latitudes and open waters in the ‘region of the fifties and high forties generally requires an ‘extra month or two. Accordingly, a relatively short interval of time between (1) a statistical mean date fairly confi- dently estimated to represent that of the original calving, and (2) the icoberg’s appearance in a low latitude, would appear to be more the exception than the rule. Combining these frequently overlapping circumstances: (1) The unusually short periods of time taken for certain icebergs to reach an extreme equatorward position; (2) Often happening contiguously, the noticeably increased frequency and multiple occurrence of icebergs at much lower latitudes than usual; and (8) On other, perhaps less noteworthy occasions, their very appearance beyond a nor- ‘mal and accepted iceberg limit are, indeed, all exceptional ‘eases. Such surprisingly sudden and anomalous behavior patterns suggest. a powerful, even if dynamically unpre- tentious impelling force at work. The impetus provided clearly represents a more subtle influence than that of a Jong and continuously acting wind force, for example, which would accomplish the same effects. It is relevant that all of the examples noted in @ subsequent listing involve one or more of the numbered items above. ‘The fact that each of these unusual iceberg events was preceded by the gravitational-reinforcing situation of @ proxigee-syzygy or extreme proxigee-syzygy alignment, ca- pable of facilitating both iceberg calving and at least the initial phases of a controlled propelling action, is a mean- ingful circumstance. Even more meaningful over the ex- tended period in which these events occur is the notable cyelicity between successive epochs of lunicolar alignments, which focus the gravitational forces facilitating these calv ings. The complex of actions involved also occurs within a ‘ime frame which is consistent with that required for the consummation of the previously described iceberg events. ‘The astronomical basis for this far more than random oc- ‘currence of a proxigee-syzygy or extreme proxigee align- ment prior to each iceberg event will now be discussed. ‘The Relationship Between Amplified Tidal Forces and leeberg Calving Itis a thesis here presented within a framework of sup- porting facts that a greater calving of icebergs is certain to occur with the considerable heightening of the water level at the times of proxigean spring tides. This fact has ‘been confirmed by observations of calving frequency at the amplified tides associated with new and full moon (spring tides) compared with tides occurring at first- or third- quarter moon (neap tides) (Denese Marine AGENCY, 1991; Hawuay ef al, 1941). Since the produetion of ergs is increased subject to the augmented tide evel pres ent at the time of these fortnightly amplified spring tides, itis logical that such calving should be enhanced even more through the production of increasingly strengthened grav- itational forces by the alignments of proxigee-syzyEy oF extreme proxigee-sy2y. Ina paper on“The Connection Between Hydrographical and Meteorological Phenomena” in the Quorterly Journal ofthe Royal Meteorological Society, the pioneering Swed- ish meteorologist, Otto Pettersson, frst asserted a rela tionship between various such interdisciplinary events. ‘Through extensive experimental studies in the field, he postulated the existence of gravitetional “moon waves” Within Gullmar ford in the Kattegat Strait between Den- mark and Sweden at such times of unusually heightened gravitational forces in association with the ties. He fur- ther related an undercurrent in the Skagerrak and Kat- tepat to the dectination of the moon and its changing, dis- tance from the earth (thus indicating an association with deep-water tidal movement of both the tropical and par- allactic (anomalistic] tidal types) (Psrrensson, 1912). Oscillatory movements occurring inthe deep waters, he ‘maintained (Perrensson, 1930), produce large, long-pe- riod submarine waves of differing densities and possessing 4 distinct correlation with the phase and posi ‘moon. The peaking of these waves near the times of kunar syzygy is clearly shown in his accompanying data. But a possible associative relationship betweon (1) the strength ened gravitational forees known to oceur in tides and tidal currents at these times and (2) a logical extension to the contributory calving of glacial icebergs by the eorrsional and hinge-fracturing aspects of these heightened tides was, not considered ‘THE CYCLE OF LUNAR TIDAL-FORCE ENHANCEMENT, Peripheral Eclipse Aspects It should be emphasized that, strictly speaking, it is incorrect (PerrenssoN, 1980, p. 295) to link the eclipse eyele known as the saros with the epochs of gravitational force enhancement derived from related lunar eycles. The saros eycle actually involves only a commensurable rela- tionship botwoen multiples of three periods: the eclipse year and month, and the synodie month. Kelipse years (of ‘346.62 days) are measured by the apparent annual motion of the sun (caused by the real motion of the earth in its ‘orbit around the sun) reckoned with respect to the moon's node. At this position, the moon crosses the ecliptic plane from south to north. Eclipse or draconic ‘months pertain to successive passages of the moon through ‘this same node in its monthly orbit around the earth. Syn- ‘odie months are measured by the orbital motion of the ‘moon from new moon to new moon. ‘Mathematically commensurate relationships exist be- tween: (a) a period of 19 eclipse years (19 x 346.620073 days = 6,585.781987 days = 18 tropical or ordinary years + 11,42196736 days if only four leap years occur during this interval, or 18 years + 10.42+ days if five leap years intervene); (b) 242 eclipse months (242 « 27.212221 daysWood = 6,585.357482 days) and (c) 228 synodic months (223 > 2.530589 days ~ 6,585.321347 days. The maximum time difference between all thro of those eyels is only 0.46 day. tthe close ofthe 18.090-year interval following one eclipse, ‘asecond very similar event must take place, 10% or 11% days later and 120° farther west in longitude. Fundamental Gravitational Aspects ‘These three eyeles affect the positioning of sun, moon, and earth very nearly in the same plane, producing an cclipse—and in this alignment of the moon, earth, and sun, they likewise increase the gravitational (tidal) force acting upon the earth. However, none of these eyeles include the proximity of the moon tothe earth, an extremely important factor in tide production on the earth, since the tidal foree varies inversely as the cube ofthis distance. Although the cycle of maximized gravitational force now to be discussed involves a time period quite similar in length to the pre- vious it derives from a different origin and relates to a functionally different lunisolar event. ‘The tropical or ordinary year is a measure of the sun's apparent annual motion asa result of the earth's revolution ‘around it, being referred to the vernal equinox as origin. Each tropical year contains 365.242190 mean solar days. ‘The value of 18.030 mean tropical years, which will beseen below to have a completely different and very meaningful relationship in terms of cortain extreme gravitational fore present in connection with the tides, is equal to 18.030 x 865.242190 = 6,585.316686 days. As in (c), above, 223, synodic months of 29.580589 days equal 6,585.321487 days. ‘The lapse of 239 mean anomalistic months of 27.554550 days (between succeeding passages of the moon through perigee) equals 6,585.53745 days. ‘These three nearly identical intervals bring into juxta position the gravitational forco-amplifying factors of (1) ‘the moon's proximity to the earth at perigeo (proxigeo), (2) the sun and moon at syzygy, and (3) the alignment of ‘the sun with the line of apsides of the moon's orbit (i.., the axis connecting perigee with apogee, or proxigee with ‘exogee). The latter condition, through the phenomenon of lunar evection (Woon, 1986, p. 155) temporarily increases the eccentricity of the lunar orbit, creating the moon’ closest approach to the earth in a position known as ex- treme proxigee—and considerably enhances the gravita tional (tidal) forces acting on the earth in the combined lunisolar positions of extreme proxigee-syzygy. The close position of the moon to the earth also accounts for the noticeable increase in lunar parallax at these times of ex- ‘treme proxigee-syzygy alignment occurring 18,030 years apart ‘THE GRAVITATIONAL (TIDAL) FORCING. FUNCTION TO BE EVALUATED Proxigean spring tides and extreme proxigean spring tides have been separately distinguished, as required for ‘modern tidal analysis, es an astronomically improved gra- dation of a much earlier concept of perigean spring tides. ‘The latter concept was established to denote the simul- taneous alignment of the moon at perigee (the position of closest, monthly approach of the moon to the earth in its elliptical obit around the earth) and at ayzyey (the moon being at ether new or full phase). But, as will become ‘apparent from the values of various extremely close ap- proaches of the moon to the earth indiated later in this article, there are all degres of perigee. Hence, the more smodern designation of prosigee, denoting one of the closest ‘possible approaches of the moon to the earth Lunar distances are evaluated in terms ofthe lunar par- allax. This very small angular value varies—in a bypo- thetical representation of the equatorial semidiameter of ‘the earth as seen from the moon—over a small but signif. jeant range of values. For very close distances ofthe moon, the variation is from 61 26.5", the lower limit of proxigee, toa US. Naval Observatory-established theoretical upper limit of 6 82.0" 0.1". (Although parallax is expressed as ‘the apparent angular semidiamete of the earth (the lager ‘ofthe two hodies) as seen from any lunar distance orbit, ‘he parallax of the moon is geometrically conjugate, and ‘the so-called lunar parallax [which correctly represents the ‘moon's distance from earth], varies inversely with the dis tance of this body.) The fluctuation ofthe tidal force on ‘the earth's surface inversely asthe eube—rather than the square of this distance, as in center-o-center orbital cal: ulations —has already been mentioned. We now return tothe application of the previously men- tioned 18080-year eyelet the iceberg-calving and iceberg: ‘transportation phenomena under investigation, Several factors are noteworthy in this roger: firstly, in analyzing ‘the length of time between an icsberg’s calving and ita subsequent remote-from-the-soures discovery, appropri ate allowances must be made for one or more cases of icebergs whose motions obviously have been retarded. The cause is any ofa variety of circumstances noted in par ‘raph 7 of the section on Iceberg Calving. When this factor hhas been included, every one of the 16 outstanding his {orcal examples of iceberg sightings listed in the next see- tion has the following distinctive properties: (1) ithas been observed at a much lower latitude (and/or in groups of far sealer numbers) thanis ordinary; (2)ithas been witnessed ‘within a maximum of about ten months and (again, allow- ing for the extraneous delays noted) never more than calendar year following a pronigee-syzygy or extreme prox: ‘gee-syzyey aligoment; (8) in accordance with this later stipulation, all these icabores have een created in atleast probable association with the preceding conditions of spe cial gravitational foee alignment, The ireegularity of thir ocurtence in terms of the numberof years between these secessive special iceberg events is offset by the regularity of a matching occurrence between these events and max- imized tidal frees. As a result, long intervening gaps may ceeur between exemples of lunar parallaxes greater that 61’ 28.0" the defined lower limit for an extreme proxigee- syzvey alignment. In the accompanying text and Table 1, without excep- tion, examples of icebergs which have intruded to low la itudes follow the times of especially large lunar parallaxes. ‘Thisis obvious where the gravitational enhancement pres cent is further reinforeed by an alignment ofthe sun with the moon’s line of apsides (:e, the longitude of proxigee— see Table 2). ‘This situation has been shown to produce ‘the gravitational force-amplified condition of extreme proxigee-syzygy. To round out a complete dynamic aba ysis with regard to the Titanic disaster, since the fullSinking ofthe Tale sa ‘Table. Outstanding historia examples shang direct correltizn between: (2) an uraaual requeney and low latitude penetration of cher and (2) the 18.090 yer, 31008 ear, and mulipe eles ofproxigean and extreme proxigcon spring ides "The 15 05D-Year Pevgse/Prorgse Srey Cyle— Sevea Be Lunar Parallax (at Sy) 61+ The mininom 1661” FATT” 1909 RGF aL aT WON Fae iS mF (m8) proneee Srey (18021 F 8S 81D ATF oaRT tg UT F283 eB Fata ete (Geteen a0 as F Law miefFshoe tome FS mB ras sn simile Dhue of 18052) RD IDM «25D Aaa m8 IMO AFB Sarien BY ya: woe 429 F (259) 19 4 Fm me dD F267 19H WF 52) yet mo, 17-206 wo 16 F (MMs) IOI GB -F GST) 1s 8B FEM) IOS ID Fass) (che mean Lisayesr 87 11/24 N11 1915 1216 N (259) 1985 AAT_N As) AWS 12 N (220) Io ee: tionaleyele) 1690 KN TS 1917 EBN 85 1905 BON (249) 1059 BAN 226) 1053 G23 F196 Sar ANS 1600 tN 232 1918 2 N 219M RDN 5H) IM 4B ON 238) Seren 1954 110 F297. Serie A+ Tramfer eye 1001 IAB FA) 1919 TFS 18H BAT F288 1B 13RD F de Seren Be (atwaen oppo. Se phases of 1002 14/16 PRO) 1930 125 Fs) 1999 SF GOT) 1857 Ae F173 Seren sro oot 1/93 Fille om aM P81 05 BAP aOe Seren wor Fo mk mene GAT) IMD FLT) 1958 WSF ABI (+ Boe Botta ‘om Tmo,7= a 1905 aim F (BHO) 1993 AF LT) 19H AMP (009) 1950 an FT. Lye 8imo, 29-284 1906 12 NRA 192k 1B ON BRA IKON 887 OLB Nota 1908 22 N52" 1908 ake N (azye 19K RAN 287 19 ON me Fonte Gin Sacneding Cylon movie Cre: 1798 1g] Ne 280% tem 9 F Serie B: 1087 aM Fe mas WIS a SaieB Gye: 19 Limi Foe last nF Sele A lg a0 F oahie ipo aoe Tar Sea A “igr2 1m F aie imo 122° F soo Sein: 10% 18 Fade m2 1 F280 Series: 075 27% F900" 1009 Fa00" [Note” eventos dene « perigee parallax valu Oos than tho minimum valve fr proxi) Denote instances of rcurded tidal oding tronomical details at the time are provided in Table 4, other less notable gravitational force-amplifying factors in addition to the preceding include the moon in a position of high declination, or near its maximum celestial lati ‘tucie—more specifically, close to the critical latitude value of +£6.15 (Woop, 1986). ‘THE EVIDENCE OF CYCLICITY ‘The sequence of repetition of the astronomical proxigee- syzygy eyele comprises the period from one instance of a proxigee- or an extreme proxigee-syzygy alignment (yield- ‘ng maximized lunar parallax and an extremely close lunar distance) to the next. ‘Tuble2, ‘The analytic resolution of a single exreme proxigesyeyy suber (1857-1966 in Sven B. Date of ‘Tre Lang ProvgeeSyomy —UT.of Lunar ‘Sun'‘Tros—Gamisa— True Longitude “Extreme ——_Difleence ‘Alignment’ Proigne Phase Analy” Panton of San Provige fn Longitude ime a 100 ar ¥ wisoe anole ——=aT06" sas (oer 7 12 x00 he F smase 1709048 sr tae ast 122 1600 or F soaor rama. maar Let 103 122, om he F swasr 17 aie woe gre asia 1900 hr F nar 712 aaa masa Ta aur isola 2a00 be F wee meas seem aw 19818 100 ae 5 nur mises mg TBO aus 1908 25 2mphe F sage Tmo) meget” T8 08 ar 198627 om00 he F snr nme ae TBO RI) ‘Note: Parentheses ndieate lunar parlor value les thn tet of an extreme prongeesyeyay alignment (Le eal to ha of elo proximate prozigee sey alien)ou Woot ‘Tele The interoking extreme presigeesyay ele of 18080 yar, 135-1978, sbsyle 31-12, eranged shroolgicaly Par Pa Ne Yer Dae rt Ma. Due art No Yer Date rr a a hoe eam aa te itso ans 1s sa) = imag Si ans wma Ma im |g mo. ey ms am 2) ims rans wos imo Mata 2 mo ine iis 8 ww aK im |g a ate mo ago ano) me me im das) Mb ee ie tea am 238 em s ie am oo mneTy de eA mo ‘yma ane aa es ims a6 oe aaka Meta two aie ioe Ga twos ‘ye 30 Sams iL wor amma te om 0 wean) CD We soe Pater Arangement forthe 18030-You Cee Par No You Dae rt esr ahaa oie ian Sisk 5 WTA SLB Maximum paren ee 1 = ime SC Woes 280mg paral Correlation of the 1.030-Year Proxigee-Syyay Cycle with Ieeberg Formation and Drift (1) As a frst and notable example of feeberg formation associated with an instance of extreme proxigee-sy2yKy alignment, there may be cited the iceberg which, supported by a wealth of astronomical facts (see ‘Table 4, is predi- cated to have calved from Greenland’s fiords on a very logical date, January 4, 1912. On this date, the moon was the closest to the earth it had been in over 300 years, and the earth itself was at the second closest approach to the sun it has attained—even up to the present time—in 94 years. This provisory date of iceberg formation was just ‘three months prior to the April 14, 1912 date on which, carried by wind and tidal currents, the berg reached a collision course with the Titani. It is noteworthy that, if this expedited process of iceberg formation and transpor- tation is accepted as meaningful, the extreme proxigee- ssyaygy alignment called upon as a forerunner to the Ti- tanic's disaster on April 14, 1912 is seen to represent but ‘one in aseries of similar iceberg events which can be traced, in cyclical fathion, for 296 years into the past. (See Table 1, and Wooo, 1986). Reaffirming a major instance ofa eyclicallunisolar as- sociation, this unusual southward penetration of an Arctic- originating iceberg was preceded, just three and one-half month earlier, by an extreme proxigee-syzygy alignment ‘on January 4, 1912. This circumstance would have bet accompanied by the production of noticeably stronger ticles ‘and currents for at leat three and one-half days on either side of the mean epoch date. ‘The comparatively short pe- riod of less than four months from the time of iceberg calving until that of collision with the Titanie—with eon- sideration to the strong gravitational conditions atthe time of berg formation and the impetus provided to tidal eur- rents then and thereafter—may be regarded as quite rea- sonable from an oceanographic standpoint. ‘Asa significant solution to an 82-year-old question, the exceptional frequency and strong southward penetration ‘of icebergs noted in 1912 and in other years to be discussed ‘ean be matched by the exceptional strength of the gravi ‘ational forces also acting during these same periods. It is these forces which initiate, modify, accelerate, and control all of the movements of the tides and tidal eurronts. The pertinent astronomical data are presented in Table 4. ‘Summarizing data which are contained in vastly more detail inthis table, the extreme proxigee-syzygy alignment postulated as contributing actively to the formation of the Jceberg causing the Titanic disaster had the following sta- tistis: (1) a lunar parallax of 61’ 81.6” at extreme proxigee (only 0.4" from the theoretically largest possible value of 61’ 32.0" + 0.1"); (2) a full moon ata declination of 27.6% nearly its largest possible value; (8) a proxigee-syzygy sep- ‘interval of only 6 minutes (an important clima- telogical signifinnce also. has heen considered [Farm 1987); (4) anearly coplanar angular separation in declination between moon and sun of only 45% and (5) a ‘gamima-funetion of 17.112/4 (over 17.000" has a critical significance). (2) Inaceordance with the principles responsible for the triple alignment of the sun with the lunar line of apsides (proxigee), the moon, and syaygy at intervals of 18030 ‘years (sce Table 2), an extreme proxigee-syaygy alignment similar to that in paragraph (1) occurred. This alignment created a large parsllax of 61' 3.4" and an aecompanying ‘amplified gravitational force both on—and to a somewhat lesser degree within 3.5 days on either side of—the meanSiokiog of "Table 4. The tide-enhancing xtronomical circumstances on January 1812 (The pope citations in aguarebrachet are Co the reference: Wore 186.) 1. The moon war a fl chat phase of yy contnbuory wan erated tzavtatinal fre compared with hast new moon [pp 202,201 6), Bo120, 214216. 2 The mon was atte position of price, of more preily, extreme provigee apelin of wugentad lose monthly approach af he moon {6 ecard is lip! eit ard Uh earth [pp 20, 314,105) ‘The sum nas simultane in «pation 160 ny fom the 008, longa stright linen clot lengte, with the crth onthe sae linen between. Note:The algnmentcortred nan attest isto only if te ween and sun ad been aligned simultaneously (ith Alerence in celestial atitude, «Lunar edie would have ocurred. ‘The alignment betwen the mon and oun in onglade combined tele _pavtatlona ores upon the er’ tide [pp 175, 30, 60. 4. Specialy the separation interval, or difeeace se betwen he ‘zactaligamentf he two bois in clo ingite wax minutes, auivalent to an anglar separation of 15 fom a stele ine (9p. BOL 201500, 31 |. The cetnation ertcalanulr distance noth or south ofthe eat equator cupid by the mon at the fstant of pris was 27.7— ‘rlativaly high dination in te monthly excursions of the mom forth and south ofthe equator, ad a pution which bohe (a) oclerated the moon's orbit moton in ight ascension, rm west ‘o-oast and tthe ame tne, (b) prolonged the perio of tne which ‘the moan spent in motion In rift ascension along te igh, Hated ‘ton of fe ciation curve, Thee to factors geben inert ‘he length of the tal day and made te duration ofthe enhanced ‘high tide peri ver ange period of te pp 196 21,213, 20, 20-22) {6 This position tho moon in hgh esinaton alc placod it within 43" ofthe detnation plan othe oun (228° tts tne near the wit Soltic) The moon and sun wee, heeft, als fly lowe oa eo: lar ligament is Ur gration ferce vectors ia the nerth seth feordinte of derlinatien ase fom the ert pp 201.1, 20.7, 218 1: Thehigh dedination othe raconteur pleco te oraron ‘Sloe tthe maim amar declination proc ot the the eaten peak ofthe lnar nodal eyle fm May 27, 1913)—thus increasing the Aierences between enbancod tides produced at high lattadee and reduced tides prado” at om lates nest te equator (heeft af So-called “lara inequality”) pp 182, 8-£04), 1 Ae thereat of the ser proximity ofthe moon to the earth proce by these vaio facta, the prallar of the moon (whose wl fn eases wit nar proximity) raced avery Inge 6.0" “The verge vale fr ell imei 570270", and the calculated theo etcly pa airs vale 61°20 ony 0 lars han the observed vale The corespndingcentr-to-enerdtanceot the ‘moon from earth a this tine wes 38674 (221441 wi) compared Wich th choral least pase distance of $56,854 le (221438 ‘ai The moon was then 25007 km (17407 soar earth thas at itamean distance of 54381 km (238548). The very enon factor is that beats the earth's sufoce ater than it center, i involved in the eaulaton ofthe tides, the tal fore varies nverely a the ube of the centr-io-centar distance ofthe arcing ody (un ot ‘moon fom the earth—rather than according to the favere square of the distance In the ease of the fore exerted etween the bee enseles accord to Newn's Law [pp 4217621920, 31, 8) 8, The eur influence min ao be ceeded in alesating the fda {orc a thi epoch of ime." distance ofthe nan frm earth it fnetion ofthe ears potion in itll ort around the sun— and itscoresponding proximity othe point peiilo, Unechnst| ‘nual appre of Ue wath oe oun But eve the distance of this Derhlla approac ares over the year Thus on January , 1912, {ho earth was he socond cnet spproch to the un in the ant 96 ‘ar (the clout ditane up tate prsnt tne having brea on Ja ‘ry 2 1801) [p. 201.18, 10, Imadaiion, on this deta, nd tte ime of prosige, the aun wat ony (005° trom an absolute alignment wih the hnar ine of spades. Th ‘ecsinal factor of positioning increases the eoenrcty ofthe nat ‘ri, the tuna parallax at proxies and corerpodingly reduces tho ‘moons distance from earth and enhances the na tering ee Too. 155,176, Tinie m6 “Table 4 Continued. 1. The ganma-cofcien is term which represents the cntibution to tial force ued by the moon's proximity to perielion (at the ie ‘of proxi, the mon’ distance from the sun equalled 09866478 a its ehongation was 1798847W,). At prosigee (192.008) the gan function had valu of 17.112 per dy. The coresponding ana par sla (6131.67 ls the greatest value hatha boon ataied a hows by able 16 in Won 1996-in the 294 yeas rm 100 tothe present. (This statement i of special significance in rlaton to the fat wate in the fmt secon that icebergs wore oberved during this ame sear 1912 a thei farts ther ntti a 10 yrs) The quantity amme-faneton proves avery seal indicator of the sun's grave tonal fet at the time under eamsideraton [pp 201-52), 201.28 (Table 6), 20.89 228, 20) 12, Themoon cole litude atthe tie entree proxies w+ ‘done ta extreme matimam of 515% Ths reached stv MP oF 27 value oft mean argument of latitude, F (he angle, nlongte, node ths pstion, solar perturbations eugment ‘he ane parala [pp 2011, 2018-201, 20121, 25) 18 AC the tne of extreme proige the moon was also ject o the ‘eects of tree astronomical eles, a fons a) The lunar epsides ‘yee of 8548 yor; which acto bring the cali Longitude of unar Darigee/proxgee ino alyament with the longitu af the sus el, thas sing the graitational pl af the un tha of the moon (at broxigeesy2yy1 AL this ume epoch January 450, the mea long: td of prone being 1020680 and tha pertlion being 381A the dfrence between thee reapective ares wa only 153165 ) The urea pk inthe lunar nodal eyele of 186134 year (which would bring the moon it it ylical maximum in decinaton) ecured on May, 13,0164 months fellonng the January 4, 1912 date This ‘nftoncetonard a maximisation ofthe nar declination = 28 bing the ecgnie enk vali serdencd inthe January 4 vale of 27.7, ts previously ote: () The fit actin of the lunar erection cycle ‘of mean lng 1182 years and the ezine presigceayey eel of "AOGO years wat more fly dered in the relainatip ofthe r- Sting Cael wo fenerg actly, in an eae ection. 1M. Reaforcing the sigicance of such » gravitational rnforcing phe ‘nomenon in its pose relationship to «major eer forming process een the roomy een cya inkage of thi 919 ope with e matching event, ponsesing most identi! ial fore charac ‘erste in 199. Furthoconfimatory have ben arousal cases an esr’ low Latode penetration, both preceding a following ‘air 12 date Sch dyna relatirnpe ave been town to ei, soa inthe principal 18 ¢90-year yee but lo through te 3.008. Year, 62018 yor, and 8.00 your multiple cls A taal of 16 exep- tna ceberg events ocaring apparent et random ovr 236 year of history, but which are chrenoloicalydtety correlate with prox ‘gees and extreme proxiee yyy aliments, are own in Ts: Be epoch-date December 28, 1893. This date was exactly 18,030 ‘years prior to the previously noted date January 4, 1912. Significantly, 4% months following this Iunisolar align ‘ment, just as 34% months after the presumed calving date of the Titanic iceberg, similar unusually low-latitude berg encounter was made, this time in the Southern Hemi sphere On April 30, 1894, an equatorward- parison is not really a well-founded one, statistically. This is because the statistics for ieeberg frequency cover the cntire calendar year, or ice season, while the gravitational influences ofa proxigee-syzygy alignment usually are man: ifest in decreasing proportion for a matter of days, still presenting noticeable effects. However, they certainly do not extend over an entire year (17) These iceberg examples, if incompletely analyzed, ‘would indicate only an apparently irregular pattern linking their ealving with proxigee-syzygy alignments were these ‘events to be judged solely by successive occurrences within periods measured by calendar months. The approximate 4.46-year average occurrence of a. proxigee-syzyey align ment over a period of 400 years (Woon, 1988, p. 317) is not a regular cycle, and the intervals between successive occurrences vary markedly over such short periods. No regular cyele of meaningful regularity in proxigee-syzygy alignments exists at periods less than 18.080 years. ‘The very exceptional cases of iceberg equatorward move: ment indicated among the examples above are invariably associated with a near-maximum value of the lunar par- allax. Moreover, as now isolated in separate tables, a basis for a particular regularity is revealed between (1) the oe: ccurrences of these proxigee-syzygy and extreme proxigee syzygy alignments and (2) the iceberg phenomena previ- ously noted, ‘A paper by Sct. (1962) emphasizes, correctly and in statistical and meteorological detail, the importance of wind, ‘temperature, and other related factors in contributing to any inerease in feeberg frequencies above long-period av: erage counts. In overview, the point must fairly be made ‘that the reasoning of the present paper pertains to those cases of exceptional icebergs in which (1) the large mass belonging to the iceberg cited, (2) the sizable distance of juatorward movement, and/or (8) the speed of its ‘equatorward motion are dealt with in greater detail. The ‘cases considered are all extremes in these specific areas (Ge, they represent exceptional cases of icebergs rather than a far greater majority of icebergs occurring within the current relationship exists, the influence of gravitational (tidal) force enhancement vould be more readily apparent in these cases, as above shown. One practical justification results in this paper for the assumption of an “assist” from the relatively rare but quite normal lunisolar commensurable relationships af- fecting the tides: ‘The origin of the exireme iceberg. con- ditions encountered around April 14, 1912 has never been ‘adequately explained on the bass of more ordinary phys ‘cal processes. ‘A consolidated data summary which shows the relation- ship between (1) the existence of amplified gravitational forces accompanying proxigee and extreme proxigee sySinking of the Titanic 0 _yey alignments and (2) corresponding instances of greater Trequency in iceberg calving (plus the subsequent equa- torward transportation of these icoborgs by strengthened tidal currents produced at these times—already described in the text) is presented in Table 1, linked chronologically to the foregoing numbered descriptions by the 16 bullet- markers. In order to provide a uniform besis of comparison in ‘Table 1, all parallaxes correspond to the time of syzygy which is calculated from the instant of a single angle of position (the celestial longitude of the moon at new or full, phase) rather than the timo-difference between two angles ‘of position as in the case of proxigee. The parallax angle at proxigee or extreme proxigee will (with afew exceptions) boa litle larger than the value al syzygy and may actually shift the designation to a higher category. Thus, a border- line (parenthetical) value inthe table (indicating a parallax below 61'26.5") may actually be upgraded to a value in the Droxigee-syzyzy range. ‘The results of the varying alignment of the sun with the celestial longitude of lunar proxigee is shown in Table 2. ‘The respective true longitudes of the sun and of the po- sitions of extreme proxigee are given in Columns 7 and 8, and the angular difference between the two positions as seen from the earth is given in Column 9. On January 4, 1912, this difference was 179.995", only 0.006" from 180.000" (or, alternatively, from 0,000"), which yields a near-perfect ligament. For each of these dates 18.090 years apart listed in Table 2, the difference in alignment increases slightly with the separation of each successive date in either direction from the epoch of maximum parallax. This divergence continues until the corresponding lunar parallax falls below the least angular value (61' 29.0") for an extreme proxigee-syzygy alignment and eventually below the value (61° 26.5") de- fining a proxigee-syzygy alignment. Thereafter, the angle passes through an indefinite minimum value and then re tums to a maximum in a new subseries. ‘The lunar phase (constant for any one series), the an: ‘gular distance of the sun in true longitude from perihelion {ic its trwe anomaly), and the corresponding value of the ‘gamma-function (decreasing with the angular separation of proxigee from the sun) are indicated in Columns 4, 5, and 6.'The use ofthe defining term “true” should be noted, since the accurate values shown will not be apparent if a ‘mean, circular orbit i used rather than the actual elliptical orbit, ‘The precise astronomical circumstances existing on. ‘uary 4, 1912 which, because of their extreme concentration bf pineiatabaally mugauiiig Gc, Yoceany a, very Da vorable time for the calving of the ieeberg which struck the Titanic are listed in Table 4. ‘THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE, GRAVITATIONAL FORCING FUNCTION lar aspeets of the gravitational forcing func- tion which distinguish its action at the time of a proxigee- syzygy alignment or extreme proxigee-syzygy alignment are: (I) an additional contribution of thesun’s gravitational {force to that of the moon considerably beyond that oceur- ring in the more ordinary spring tide produced by a simple «alignment of moon and sun atthe position of syaygy or (2) the combination of the sun’s syzygy alignment with the ‘moon, plus the moon's close (not. closest) approach to the earth at the situation of perigee-cyzygy. The alignment of extreme proxigee-syzygy occurs in a select stage of various interlocking cycles in the same way that a very close align ‘ment among many close passages of the moon and sun causes a solar eclipse, In this same rogard, a position of the moon at extreme proxigee-syzygy during a solar eclipae is responsible for an unusually long eclipse. fore occasioned at the times of extreme proxigee-syzygy results from periodic alignments between the position of the sun, measured in celestial longitude, and the lunar ine of apsides. (The latter is an axis drawn from proxigee [one of several of the closest possible orbital positions of the ‘moon to the earth) to exogee (the most distant point of the moon from earth].) If a coincident alignment occurs between proxigee and syzygy (at either new moon or full moon), the moon and sun are brought into a mutual three- way alignment with proxigee. ‘Tides are dependent upon the gravitational force exerted ‘on the surface of the earth rather than tite center. Thus, the tidal force varies inversely as the cube rather than the ‘square ofthe distance between the centers of the attracting Dodies, as more familiar in orbital astronomy. In this re- mship, we have a firm basis for a pronounced enbanee- ‘ment in the gravitational forces which, expressed by tidal ‘currents (and wind velocity and direction), control the principal movements of icebergs. It is increasingly obvious from a study of iceberg tracks and behavior that both an average and an exceptional ice- ‘berg movement can be distinguished. From the previous examples, it has become evident that a statistically pre- ponderant, rather than a purely random association with a gravitationally attributable motivating force exists. The evidence shows a meaningfully strong tendency fora single large iceberg (or a group of smaller icebergs subject to the same gravitational influence) to react to the tidal influence of the proxigee-syzygy alignment. In consequence of ac- celerated icoberg movement caused by an increased tidal current flow, the results are: (1) the iceberg’s faster ap- ppearanco at lower latitudes following its ealving: (2) where the enhanced tidal-current propelling elements of an ex- trome proxigee-syzygy alignment are involved, a penetra- tion of the iceberg into low latitudes can occur (barring ‘enroute delays) during some three to four months; and (3) the accelerated motion makes it possible for the iceberg to proceed much farther equatorward without melting. ‘The forcing function under discussion is noteworthy in involving the additional gravitational force provided by simultaneous alignment of the sun with the position of lunar proxigee (more correetly, the moon’s line of apsides) and that of new or full moon (the lunar line of syaygies) ‘The attainment of this threofold alignment is shown in appropriate tables (see Table 16, referenced in Paragraph 16, above) not only by the value of the lunar parallax in Columns 4 and 10 being in excess of 61’ 290", but the .gamma-function listed in Columns 5 and 11 being in excess of 17.046%/4—more commonly, above 17.100%/d Funetionally, the result of the forcing function accom-panying & proxigoo-syzygy or extreme proxigee-syzyRy alignment might take one of several forms: (1) In the Greenland area, the creation of an ancillary eddy in th face waters of Bain Strat, effectively “short cit- ” the normally occurring movement of the West Greenland Curront northward along the island’s west coast and the subsequent southward return flow ofthe Labrador ‘Current along the east coast of Baffin Island, This would areatly shorten that portion ofthe ieeberg’s eventual move- ‘ment into lower latitudes. Such eddy offshoots from the main course of the Gulf Stream are very common farther south and, in fat, they are used by navigators in achieving greater spoeds in sailboat racing across these waters; (2) A ‘considerable acceleration of the current in such an eddy ‘would oocur, lasting for several days on either side of the ‘mean epoch of proxigee-syzyxy alignment; (3) The aceel- eration of the current and an associated conflict of forces could cause a breakup of existing sea ice, resulting in a situation of comparatively ice-free waters for the release of iesberys. The action would be similar to that in which 1 close proxigee-syzygy alignment contributed to the his torically remarkable breakup of deep-frozen ice in Boston Harbor during six days exactly bracketing the mean epoch of this alignment on January 10, 1766 (Woop, 1988); (4) (Of related interest, there is a matter of close relevance to ‘the testimony brought out by the Titanic’s surviving Sec- ond Orficer during the inquiry hearings, that “the iceberg ‘must have beon dark-colored above the waterline, since it was not readily perceived on a cloudless night and clear soa, without fog.” Such a dark appearance could readily bbeaccounted for by an overturning ofthe ieeberg by strong: ly induced cuzrents associated with proxigean spring tides dluring the intial phases of its journey, bringing the dark ‘mass of a glacial debris-enerusted surface to the top; (5) Of ancillary interest, in the Southern Hemisphere (and particularly at high polar latitudes, where its effect is the strongest) the dellecting acceleration ofthe Corilis Force caused by the rotating earth will tend to divert an easterly drifting iceberg to the left of its motion and, accordingly, ‘toward lower latitudes. Through the phenomenon of lunar augmentation, tidal force may also be enhanced at high lunar declinations, and when the moon is seen from a high latitude. EXPLANATION OF TABLES 1-3 ‘The 18.030-year tidal cycle has seen extensive use in coordinating the ocean-related aspects of severe tidal flooding along the coastlines of various of the continents, covering a period of more then nine centuries, in all sea- sons, latitudes, and accompanying conditions of weather, 0 that its application to polar oceanography is not unt miliat. Previously, this cycle has frequently been used in ‘combination with the lunar evectional cyele of 1.182 years. ‘The resulting proxigee-syzyqy-nodal cycle of 31.008 years, and higher multiples of 18.030 years, have been used in verifying the repetition of extreme coastal flooding (in the simultaneous presence of strong, persistent, onshore winds) ‘occurring t the endpoints of intervals as long as 862 years apart. These astronomical cycles, in short, have areal basis, in the regular orbital motions of the moon and sun, plus aan interesting statistical commensurability, and are easily verified mathematically. ‘This 18.030-vear eycle (es previously noted, in no way to be confused with the saros) might safely be called the extreme proxigee-syzysy cyele, since once the discrete as: tonomical alignment producing it occurs, a closely match- ing alignment always will be known to exist, within an increment of 0.002 day of this exact interval, on either side of it Ifthe lunar parallax accompanying the central ease 61 29.0", the parallax produced in either the preceding or following cate wll be slightly les than the first, but still above the parallax lower limit for an extrome proxiges- syaygy alignment, which is the criteria for entry in Table 8. The parallax value, once it reaches maxi ‘always lessens on either side thereof as the al ‘tween extreme proxigee and syzygy falls out ofits closest ‘approach for this subseres. ‘The exact pattern may be followed in ‘Table 9, which shows the successive variations in parallax with extreme proxigee-syzyay alignments over the 237 years from 1738 to 1975 covered by the ieoberg entries in Table 1. Although ‘Table 3 is arranged chronologically for convenience, the pattern of suovessive extreme proxigee-syzygy alignments ‘may be easily selected using the alphabetized order of tance from the elosest (central) alignment (also possessing the largest parallax value for its numbered subseries) "There are 12 subseries represented in Table 3, Some of these have smaller parallax maxima at the peak of their series than others and may disappear more rapidly from the alphabetical array, either by decreasing beyond the lower parallax limit for the table, or by becoming a part of the increasing-parallax members of a chronologically contiguous subseries, All dates noted have lunar parallaxes >61' 200, the lowest value corresponding to an extreme proxigee-syzygy alignment. Others may show a complete array designated, for example, from 8a, the first value ‘chronologically preceding the maximum in the 18030-year series, to8 (a pure number) corresponding to the maximum parallax, to A, the first such value following the maximum. In each 18.030-year interval, the earlier members ofa sub- series will our 10-13 days later in the ease ofa following date, and the same period earlier in the ease ofa preceding date. (The exact value will depend upon the variance of ‘months in that portion of the year, and the chance of a leap year.) Considerable exemplary data supporting @ relationship, between (1) the existence of amplified gravitational forces ‘accompanying proxigean and extreme proxigean spring tides, and (2) a greater frequency in icoberg calving are rated in Table 1 which follows. (The second category subsequent equatorward transportation of these rengthened tidal currents produced at these ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, "The author wishes to express appreciation to Dr. K.0. Emery, Professor Emeritus of Marine Geology, Woods Hole ‘Oceanographic Institution, and Dr. John Elson, Professor Emeritus of Geology (specializing in geomorphology and tlaciology) at McGill University, for crtially reviewing this article. As a scientist in the filds of astronomy and geophysics normally removed from glaciologial-oceano- raphie research, the writer assumes personal answerabil- ity for any professional inadequacies remaining and—basedSinking othe Tanie mu mainly on a precedent of open inquiry backed by thor ‘oughly documented exploratory research so adequately es- poused by Rhodes Fairhridge over a career of scientific endeavour—for thus boldly proposing a thought-provok: ing vanguard theory tothe solution of an 82-year old mys: tery. 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