Physics

4.6 describe how energy transfer may take place by

conduction, convection and radiation
Conduction is when energy is passed from one particle to another via
contact. For example heat is passed from your skin to a window when they
touch.
Convection is when particles with energy rise, the space they leave is filled
by other particles. If the source of energy continues these new particles will
also gain energy, they will then rise and the process will be repeated.
Radiation is when heat is transferred as infrared waves. These waves can
travel through space and be conducted or reflected.
These energy transfers are all for heat energy.

4.7 explain the role of convection in everyday

phenomena
Convection is helpful as it distributes heat energy. This is useful in many
situations, for example, a radiator in one place will be able to heat a whole
room, as hot air will rise away from it creating a current of cool air to be
heated.

4.8 explain how insulation is used to reduce energy

transfers from buildings and the human body.
An insulator is something that is bad at conducting. If something with heat
energy is surrounded by an insulator, it wont lose heat by conduction. This is
true in buildings where insulating materials are put in walls and on floors to
stop heat being lost from inside. This is the same in humans where we wear
clothes to stop heat being lost from conduction. Air is a poor conductor, so
materials with many air gaps in are also poor conductors; air trapped
between double glazing prevents heat loss through windows.

4.2 describe energy transfers involving the following

forms of energy: thermal (heat), light, electrical,
sound, kinetic, chemical, nuclear and potential (elastic
and gravitational)

Energy can change from one form to another, and frequently does. Some
examples include:
Chemical energy in food turns into kinetic energy for movement;
Electrical energy in a circuit turns into heat energy in a resistor;
Kinetic energy in your muscles turns into sound energy from you voice.
Elastic potential energy in a taught rubber band turns into kinetic energy
when it sails through the air.

4.3 understand that energy is conserved

Energy can never be lost, only transferred. Energy will always carry on, just
in a different form.
For example, when you switch on a light, you are not loosing energy from a
battery (chemical), you are just converting it to light energy!

4.4 know and use the relationship between useful

energy output, total energy input and efficiency
useful energy output / total energy input= efficiency

4.5 describe a variety of everyday and scientific

devices and situations, explaining the fate of the input
energy in terms of the above relationship, including
their representation by Sankey diagrams
With all devices that aim to use energy for a reason, some of the energy put
in to run it comes out as a non useful form of energy. The more energy that
comes out as useful, the more efficient the object is. For instance, a light
bulb wants to create light energy, but it creates heat at the same time. This
is the same for many processes: a fire (for warmth) creates light; a pepper
grinder creates sound (even though you just want it to move).
Sankey diagrams use an arrow to represent the energy going in and out of a
process:

Here 100j of energy is going in. All 100j must come out. 90j come out as
heat, 10j come out as light.

4.16 describe the energy transfers involved in

generating electricity using several different methods

wind- the kinetic energy from the wind, turns a turbine which turns a
generator which produces electrical energy

water- Kinetic energy from water, turns a turbine which turns a

generator which produces electrical energy

geothermal resources- Thermal energy heats water, water turns into

steam, the thermal energy of the steam turns a turbine which then has
kinetic energy, the turbine turns a generator which produces electrical
energy

solar heating systems- Light energy from the sun into thermal energy
in water

solar cells-convert light energy from the sun into electrical energy

fossil fuels- Chemical energy is burnt to form heat energy, this turns
into heat energy in water, this turns into kinetic energy in a turbine,
this turns into electrical energy in a generator.

nuclear power- kinetic energy in uranium, heat energy in water, kinetic

energy in turbine, electrical energy in generator.

4.17 describe the advantages and disadvantages of methods

of largescale electricity production from various renewable
and nonrenewable resources.

Fossil fuels: non renewable; release CO2.

Burning wood: renewable; release CO2; destroy habitats.

Wind power: visual pollution; produces small amounts of electricity for

space and effort in comparison to other methods.

HEP: expensive to set up; limited places to put it; can kill fish.

Solar cells: rely on the weather.

Nuclear power: dangerous; many waste products.

There are many more types of power and fors/againsts but these are a
few important ones.

4.9 know and use the relationship between work, force

and distance moved in the direction of the force
work done = force distance moved
W=Fd

4.10 understand that work done is equal to energy

transferred
Work done and energy transferred are always the same.

4.11 know and use the relationship: gravitational

potential energy = mass g height
gravitational potential energy = mass g height
GPE = m g h

It may be useful to think that mass, gravity and height are all things that
increase GPE.

4.12 know and use the relationship between kinetic

energy, mass and speed
Kinetic energy = 1/2 x mass x velocity
KE= 1/2 m v

4.13 understand how conservation of energy produces

a link between gravitational potential energy, kinetic
energy and work
The best way to explain this idea is with a swinging pendulum:
At the top of the swing, it will have its highest gravitational potential energy
(as its further from the earth); but it will have its lowest kinetic energy (it
slows to a stop at the top point).
At the bottom of the swing, it will have its lowest gravitational energy (as it is
closer to the earth); but it will have its highest kinetic energy (it goes very
quickly past the bottom point).
Between the points work (force x distance) is constantly being done: the
pendulum is moving through space.
Remembering that work done is equal to energy transferred, we can see that
as work is done that moves the pendulum upwards, kinetic energy is
transferred in to gravitational potential energy. When work is done to bring
the pendulum downwards, energy is transferred from GPE to KE.
The pendulum demonstrates that energy is conserved, as then energy is
constantly changing between different forms. The only reason that energy is
lost from the pendulum, and it slows down, is that some energy is transferred
into heat or sound.

4.14 describe power as the rate of transfer of energy

or the rate of doing work
Power is the rate of work,
Power is also the rate of energy transfer.
So power is how quickly these processes are done.

4.15 use the relationship between power, work done

(energy transferred) and time taken
Power= work/ time
P=W/t

3.2 understand the difference between longitudinal

and transverse waves and describe experiments to
show longitudinal and transverse waves in, for
example, ropes, springs and water
Transverse
Vibrations (osculations) go up and down along the line of travel,
Light and electromagnetic waves travel in this way,
If you drop something in water the waves move up and down as they travel
outwards,
If you lie a piece of string on a table and move one end up and down, the
movement will pass through the object to the other end.

Longitudinal
The vibrations are in the same direction as the line of travel,

Sound waves travel in this way,

Compressions are where vibrations are close together, rarefactions are
where they are more spread out,
If you push one end of a stretched spring the compression will move down
the spring.
Watch these animations to see how the examples work: clcik

3.3 define amplitude, frequency, wavelength and

period of a wave
Period of a wave
Time taken for the source to produce one complete wave.
Amplitude
As a wave vibrates to either side of the direction of travel, the amplitude is
the distance between the line of the direction of travel and the furthest point
the it vibrates away from the line:

Frequency
The number of waves per second, it is measured in Hertz (Hz). You can think
of it as how quickly the waves are travelling.
Wavelength
The distance between one point on a wave and the same point on the next
wave; usually the point from the top/bottom of one wave (peak/trough) to
the top/bottom of the next.

3.4 understand that waves transfer energy and

information without transferring matter
A wave is a transfers energy through a space or object, but it does not move
the particles in it.
If you stand on one side of a door and say 'Hi' a person on the other side will
be able to hear you saying 'Hi'. This is because the vibrations that you made
have travelled through the door to the other side, the energy moving from
one particle of the door to another: but the door its self has not move, none
of its particles have changed position.

3.5 know and use the relationship between the speed,

frequency and wavelength of a wave
wave speed = frequency wavelength
v=f

3.6 use the relationship between frequency and time

period
Frequency= 1/ time period
f=1/T

3.7 use the above relationships in different contexts

including sound waves and electromagnetic waves

Wave speed= frequency x wave length

Frequency= 1/time period
You should be able to manipulate these equations to answer questions that
may ask in a different order; use the triangle method.

3.10 understand that light is part of a continuous

electromagnetic spectrum which includes radio,
microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray and
gamma ray radiations and that all these waves travel
at the same speed in free space
The electromagnetic spectrum is a range of different frequency waves, one
section of the spectrum is visible light (light we can see.) All of the waves in
the electromagnetic spectrum travel at the same speed when they are in
a vacuum.

3.11 identify the order of the electromagnetic

spectrum in terms of decreasing wavelength and
increasing frequency, including the colours of the
visible spectrum
As you go up the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength decreases
and frequency increases.
The same is true for visible light; with red being the longest wavelength and
lowest frequency and violet being the shortest wavelength and highest
frequency of all visible light.

3.12 explain some of the uses of electromagnetic

radiations

radio waves: broadcasting and communications

o Vibrations carry sound

microwaves: cooking and satellite transmissions

o Vibrations create heat.

infra-red: heaters and night vision equipment

o Vibrations create heat, cameras can detect where it is high and
low to see by heat.

visible light: optical fibres and photography

o Light reflected down tube to send signals, or onto film to take
photos.

ultraviolet: fluorescent lamps

o A coating inside the bulb will absorb UV light and re-emit it as
visable light.

x-rays: observing the internal structure of objects and materials

and medical applications
o They pass through skin and soft tissue but reflect hard structures
like bone.

gamma rays: sterilising food and medical equipment

3.13 understand the detrimental effects of excessive

exposure of the human body to electromagnetic waves
and describe simple protective measures against the
risks.

microwaves: internal heating of body tissue

o this can damage cells if they overheat

infra-red: skin burns

o skin cells are damaged by overexposiure

ultraviolet: damage to surface cells and blindness

o can damage receptor cells in the retna

gamma rays: cancer, mutation

o can cause cells to change their arrangement causing cancer

3.23 understand the difference between analogue

and digital signals
Analogue
The amplitude and/or frequency constantly vary.

Digital
Consists of pulses with two states: on; off

3.24 describe the advantages of using digital signals

rather than analogue signals

The term noise means the random signals picked up by waves. Radios may
crackle or internet may looses connection. This effects analogue signals
badly as each time it is amplified the noise also gets amplified, this alters the
signal making it hard or impossible to identify as the original signal.
In digital signals any noise picked up is likely to be of a
smaller amplitude than that if the on state, this means something receiving it
will ignore the noise as it is neither on nor off, this makes them less likely to
be distorted.

3.25 describe how digital signals can carry more

information
Quantisation
Quantisation is the process of rounding multiple values in a signal to a
smaller set. This means more information can be packed into a smaller
space.
With digital signals very little information is lost but with analogue a lot of
information is lost.

The red line is the original signals and the black line is after it's been
quantisised. As you can see a lot of information is lost when this occurs.
With digital signals more information can be packed in and less information is
lost.

Multiplexing
Many digital signals can be sent down 1 wire with little interference. On the
other hand analogue signals receive large amounts of interference so cannot
be sent down the same wire.

1.9 describe the effects of forces between bodies such

as changes in speed, shape or direction
Changes in speed
When an object is stationary it has an equal force pushing down and up. The
downward force being gravity and the upward force being the surface the
object is on. The object is not floating but it is not going into the ground.
When an object is accelerating it has the upwards and downwards forces but
it also has forwards and backwards forces (drag and friction). The forward
force is larger than the backward force when an object is accelerating.
When an object is going at a constant speed it has downward and upward
forces as well as forward and backward forces. The forward and backward
forces are equal, so the speed doesn't change even though the object is
moving.
When an object is decelerating it has the equal upward and downward forces
as well as forward and backward forces, but the backward force is larger than
the forward one, slowing the object down.
Changes in shape
changes in shape affect momentum. Force= change in momentum/ time
taken. An example of this is crumple zones in car decrease the force on the
passengers.
Changes in direction
Which ever direction the force is greatest in will be the direction the
object travels in.

1.10 identify different types of force such as

gravitational or electrostatic
Different forces include:
Gravity; acting downwards
Up thrust; acting upwards
Drag; acting against the movement

Learn the direction that forces act in and you will be able to forfill this criteria

1.16 know and use the relationship between weight,

mass and g
weight = mass g
W=mg

1.29 describe experiments to investigate how

extension varies with applied force for helical springs,
metal wires and rubber bands
The most common experiment for this goes like so:

Attach a spring to a newton meter and measure its length

Add a 50g weight and measure again

continue to add another weight and take another measurement

Do this up to 400g

by plotting a graph from the results from this you can see the extension
increases with force; as each time a weight is added the spring gets longer.

1.30 understand that the initial linear region of a

force-extension graph is associated with Hookes law
A force extension graph shows how much a material stretches for the force
applied. The initial linear region is the straight diagonal line showing a linear
correlation between force and extension meaning that they increase at the
same rate. This is Hooke's law.
But at some point the graph will begin to curve, this is when an object

reaches its elastic potential.

1.31 describe elastic behaviour as the ability of a

material to recover its original shape after the forces
causing deformation have been removed.
Elastic behaviour is the way that when you stretch an object with this
behaviour it will return to its origional shape after the forces stretching it
stop stretching it. Eg when you stretch an elastic band and then let go it
pings back to regains its original shape and size.
Note that if you stretch an elastic band to far it won't go back? this is
because it as reached its elastic limit which, beyond this point, means it
looses its elastic behaviour.

5.2 know and use the relationship between density,

mass and volume
Density= mass/ volume
p= m/V

5.3 describe experiments to determine density using

direct measurements of mass and volume
Using a set mass of one object (eg 100g of water) change the space its in (eg
200ml cylinder taking ten off the ml each time.) Use
the formula mass/volume to find the density, it will go up as the volume
decreases.

5.4 know and use the relationship between pressure,

force and area
Pressure= force/ area
p = F/A

5.5 understand that the pressure at a point in a gas or

liquid which is at rest acts equally in all directions
If you have a gas or liquid, it will be exerting an equal pressure in all
directions.

5.6 know and use the relationship for pressure

difference
pressure difference = height density gravitational pull
p = h g

1.2 plot and interpret distance-time graphs

A distance time graph is a graph showing the relationship between
distance travelled and time taken.
Drawing a distance time graph
The Y axis should be the distance travelled from the start, meaning the
bottom is time.
To plot simply mark the distance travelled at every chosen point of time: e.g
every second.
Interpreting distance time graphs
A horizontal line is a stationary object: because time is still going forward but
the object is not moving up or down the distance axis.
A line upwards is a object moving away from the start; a downward line is a
object moving towards the start.
The steeper the line the faster the object: its doing more distance for timemore up for across.
To get a speed see how much up it goes for across. (the graph on the link
below goes two up for one across that's two meters per second (2m/s))
The video on this page
is insanely helpful: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_oc
r_pre_2011/explaining_motion/describingmotionrev2.shtml

1.3 know and use the relationship between average

speed, distance moved and time
Average speed= Distance moved / time taken

1.4 describe experiments to investigate the motion of

everyday objects such as toy cars or tennis balls
You could plot the time it takes for a toy car to travel and then plot a distance
time graph. Then repeat at different speeds and compare the different
graphs.
Alternatively, you could use a ticker tape; this makes a mark every second
on the tape. If you attach the car to the end of the tape, its speed will be
recorded: distance/dots = speed. For example, if you has 50 dots on a meter
tape then it traveled at an average speed of (1/50) 0.02 meters per second.

1.5 know and use the relationship between

acceleration, velocity and time
Acceleration= change in velocity / time taken
a= (v-u)/t

1.6 plot and interpret velocity-time graphs

Plotting
On the Y axis of a distance time graph is velocity- speed travelled in a give
direction. On the X axis is time taken from start. Note that negative velocities
mean something is travelling in the opposite direction to that of the positive
velocity.
Interpreting
A line going diagonally upwards shows an acceleration, if it is straight it is a
constant acceleration. This is because acceleration is change in velocity over
time.
A line going diagonally down wards shows a deceleration. A straight
downwards line shows constant deceleration. Again deceleration is change
velocity over time but the velocity is decreasing.

The steeper the line the more rapid the acceleration because the velocity us
changing over less time.
A straight line is a constant velocity: you are travelling at one speed in one
direction.

1.7 determine acceleration from the gradient of a

velocity-time graph
Acceleration is measured in meters per second per second: m/s/s or m/s.
This means we need to find out how many m/s are travelled every s.
Which is the same as change in velocity over time.
We can work this out by looking at a time period in the graph and seeing how
much the velocity changes. For example on this graph between second 3 and
second 4 the velocity changes from 0 to 4: meaning that it changes 4 m/s
every 1s
4/1= 4m/s
So effectively you do up divided by across to give acceleration.

1.8 determine the distance travelled from the area

between a velocity-time graph and the time axis

Distance can be calculated by finding the area between the velocity time
graph (line) and the time axis. If you look there is a shape formed between
the two lines, find the area of this using the measure given on the sides
e.gThe width of the triangle is 4 seconds and the height is 8 metres per
second. to find the area of a triangle is 1/2 x base x height so 1/2 x 8 x 4=
16
The width of the rectangle is 6 seconds and the height is 8 metres per
second. So the area is 8 6 = 48 m. Making the overall area 16 + 48 = 64
m.

2.19 identify common materials which are electrical

conductors or insulators, including metals and plastics
Electrical conductors are materials that allow a current to pass through them.
To do this they need to have 'free' electrons, because current is a flow of
electrons. Metals have free electrons because of the way they are bonded
(atoms and electrons within a lattice) this means they are good electrical
conductors.
Plastics are polymers which are bonded in a way that means electrons aren't
free and so can't move. No flow of electrons means no electric current so
they are insulators.

2.20 describe experiments to investigate how

insulating materials can be charged by friction
Get a polyethene rod and rip up some small pieces of paper; the rod will
have no effect on the paper.
Rub the polyethene rod with a cloth, now the rod will attract the pieces of
paper, this is because it now has a charge they are attracted to.

2.21 explain that positive and negative electrostatic

charges are produced on materials by the loss and
gain of electrons
If two materials are rubbed along each other one will gain electrons from the
other.

The one that has gained electrons has a negative charge. The one that has
lost electrons will have a positive charge. The charges
are electrostatic because they are not flowing.

2.22 understand that there are forces of attraction

between unlike charges and forces of repulsion
between like charges
Opposite forces attract.
Similar forces repel.

2.23 explain electrostatic phenomena in terms of the

movement of electrons
Electrostatic phenomena is an event where static electricity has a specific
effect: for example a static shock. Electrons move from one material to
another, the material with a negative charge will then look for some way to
earth its charge: like clouds through lightening or a car through your hand
and body.

2.24 explain the potential dangers of electrostatic

charges, eg when fuelling aircraft and tankers
When a large electrostatic charge builds up it can create a spark.
When refuelling vehicles the fuel rubbing along the pipe can cause an
electrostatic charge, if this sparks if could ignite the fuel causing a fire or
explosion. (This can be avoided if the charge is brought to earth by a wire
attached to the plain or tanker)

2.25 explain some uses of electrostatic charges, eg in

photocopiers and inkjet printers.
There are some events in which having two objects of opposite charge is
very useful. An example of this is in photocopiers and inkjet printers where
the ink is given a charge, and the parts of the paper where its wanted is
given the opposite charge, so that the ink is automatically attracted to the
right parts of the paper.

1.11 distinguish between vector and scalar quantities

Vector
Has magnitude and a direction. For example velocity is a speed in a given
direction.
Scalar
Has a magnitude. For example speed.

1.12 understand that force is a vector quantity

Force has magnitude, it is measured in newtons but it acts in a direction.
For example 3N drag
is an amount of force acting backwards.

1.13 find the resultant force of forces that act along a

line
Resultant force is the overall force acting in a direction on an object. It is best
explained by digrams which show that the resulatnt force is the overall force
given individual forces acting along a line.

1.14 understand that friction is a force that opposes

motion
Friction is a force that acts in the opposite direction to motion.

1.15 know and use the relationship between

unbalanced force, mass and acceleration
force = mass acceleration
F=ma

1.17 describe the forces acting on falling objects and

explain why falling objects reach a terminal velocity
When first an object is falling it is accelerating- the force acting downward
(gravity) is larger than the force acting upwards (air resistance.) But when air
resistance and gravity become equal the object will have reached its
maximum speed; its terminal velocity.

1.18 describe experiments to investigate the forces

acting on falling objects, such as sycamore seeds or
parachutes
Dropping parachutes from a given height; this shows us that gravity is acting
on them. By increasing the size of the parachute and recording the results
we can see that air resistance also has an effect on falling objects; plotting a
graph should reveal that bigger surface area takes more time, from which we
can infer that air resistance acts on the falling objects.

1.19 describe the factors affecting vehicle stopping

distance including speed, mass, road condition and
reaction time
Stopping distance is thinking distance and braking distance added together,
things that effect this are:

The condition of the driver; drugs/ tiredness (thinking distance)

How worn the brakes/ tyres are

If the weather conditions are poor

How heavy the car is

The speed the car is travelling at

2.8 explain why a series or parallel circuit is more

appropriate for particular applications, including
domestic lighting

In a series circuit everything is connected on one line. This means that the
voltage is shared out between every component: this makes it useful
for supplying low power things like fairy lights.
In a parallel circuit different components are connected separately to the
supply. This means that of one component breaks the others can continue
being powered as the whole circuit is still functioning, this makes it practical

to use. It is also good for charging higher power things as the potential
difference is equal all over a parallel circuit so each component receives the
full voltage.

2.9 understand that the current in a series circuit

depends on the applied voltage and the number and
nature of other components
The current in a series circuit is the same through out all parts of the circuit.
It is worked out using the equation I= V/R. So its the total of the
voltages received by the components divided by the total of all the
components resistances.

2.10 describe how current varies with voltage in wires,

resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes, and how
this can be investigated experimentally
If you increase the resistance the current will decrease. resistors,
metal filament lamps and diodes all create resistance in a circuit and so will
decrease the current.
This can be investigated using an ammeter and measuring the current with
and without these components, or with different voltage levels (measured by
voltmeter.)

2.11 describe the qualitative effect of changing

resistance on the current in a circuit
Increasing the resistance will decrease the current. This can be achieved by
adding more components or ones with higher resistance.
Decreasing the resistance will increase the current. This can happen if
components are removed or replaced by those with lower resistance.

2.12 describe the qualitative variation of resistance of

LDRs with illumination and of thermistors with
temperature
An LDR is a light dependent resistor. Its resistance changes with the intensity
of light: the brighter it is the less resistance; the less light the more
resistance.

Thermistors are temperature dependent resistors. In hot conditions there will

be less resistance where as in the cold the resistance is high.

2.13 know that lamps and LEDs can be used to

indicate the presence of a current in a circuit
For an LED to light up there must be a current in a circuit. If a LED is in a
circuit but not emitting light then there must be no current. If an LED is
illuminated then it will have a current flowing through it. By this we know
that if the LED in our circuit is shining then there is a current, if it isn't then
we don't.

2.14 know and use the relationship between voltage,

current and resistance
voltage = current resistance
V=IR

2.15 understand that current is the rate of flow of

charge
Current is the rate at which charge is flowing through a circuit.
'It is like the flow of water through a set of pipes'

2.16 know and use the relationship between charge,

current and time
charge = current time
Q=It

2.17 know that electric current in solid metallic

conductors is a flow of negatively charged electrons
Electric current is a flow of electrons, so when there is an electric current in a
metal, the electrons in the metal are flowing.

2.18 understand that: voltage is the energy

transferred per unit charge passed the volt is a joule
per coulomb.
Often people think of voltage as if it were something pushing current through
a circuit, which is helpful, but more accurately its the energy transferred per
unit of charge passed.
The unit volt is a joule per coulomb. These are things that simply need to be
learnt.

1.20 know and use the relationship between

momentum, mass and velocity
momentum = mass velocity
p=mv

1.21 use the idea of momentum to explain safety

features
force felt= change in momentum/time
If the time taken for momentum to change is increased, the overall force felt
is decreased.
Crumple zones in cars increase the time it takes for the cars momentum to
reach zero, meaning passengers feel less of the force. Air bags do the same
thing; increasing the time till momentum of a body reaches zero reduces the
force felt.
To understand if you jump with you knees locked you can feel more of the
force. If when you hit the ground you bend your knees the landing is softer
as you feel less force. This happens because when you finish by bending
your knees you take more time to reach zero momentum therefore reducing
the force felt.

1.22 use the conservation of momentum to calculate

the mass, velocity or momentum of objects
Momentum= mass x velocity
Velocity= momentum / mass

Mass= momentum / velocity

If a bullet with a mass of 0.2g is shot from a gun at 100 m/s/s to work out its
momentum we do 0.2g x 100 m/s = 20 g m/s.

1.23 use the relationship between force, change in

momentum and time taken
This is more fully explained in 1.21 but:
force= change in momentum / time taken

1.24 demonstrate an understanding of Newtons third

law
Most commonly put a 'each force has an equal and opposite force' the
principle of this law is that two bodies interacting are both exerting a force
on each other.
The most simple example of this is that when you sit on a chair you are
exerting a downward force on the chair, but the chair is also pushing back up
at you (or you would be sinking into the ground.) Another example is that
when you swim you push the water backwards which pushes you forward.

1.25 know and use the relationship between the

moment of a force and its distance from the pivot:
moment = force perpendicular distance from the
pivot
An object turned around a pivot when force is applied is a moment.
The equation of a moments is: moment= force x distance from pivot
For example if a 3N weight is placed 4M away from a pivot there will be a
moment of 12NM
The equation can be rearranged to solve questions:

1.26 recall that the weight of a body acts through its

centre of gravity
An objects centre of gravity is where all of its weight acts through.

1.27 know and use the principle of moments for a

simple system of parallel forces acting in one plane
This criterion means you need to be able to manipulate the moments
equation to do questions about forces that are acting on a straight line. It is
important to remember that if the straight line is balanced then the
clockwise and anti-clockwise moments will be exactly the same. Moment=
force x distance.
For example:

C is the pivot of this straight line

The anti-clockwise moment is force x distance= 7n x 5m= 35
As the line is balanced we know that the anti-clockwise moment is also 35
Now we can rearrange the equation to give us the distance in the clockwise
moment: distance= moment/force
35/4= 8.75m

So Dm= 8.75m

(nb 5N and DN on diagram are 5m and dm)

1.28 understand that the upward forces on a light

beam, supported at its ends, vary with the position of
a heavy object placed on the beam
This means you need to understand that if you have say a plank of wood
being held in balance by springs pushing up at the ends and you put a
weight on the beam, the springs would have to exert more force as they
need to equal the downward force.
In this diagram the up wards and downwards forces are the same. If a 10N
weight were to be placed to the beam the trestles would have to increase
their upwards force by 10N

1.32 understand gravitational field strength, g, and

recall that it is different on other planets and the
moon from that on the Earth
Gravitational field strength is how strongly something pulls an object towards
it.
Earth has a higher gravitational field strength than the moon: on earth we
are pulled down so much that we can jump only for a few seconds; on the
moon the time you can jump for is longer as it is pulling you back in with a
weaker gravitational field.
The reason for this difference is mass, the earth has more mass than the
moon and so has a bigger gravitational field strength. Bigger planets than
earth will have a higher gravitational field strength.

1.33 explain that gravitational force: causes moons

to orbit planets causes the planets to orbit the sun

causes artificial satellites to orbit the Earth causes

comets to orbit the sun
If an object is within the field of another objects gravitational force then it will
travel around it in a path known as an orbit. In this way:
moons to orbit planets
the planets to orbit the sun
artificial satellites to orbit the Earth
comets to orbit the sun

1.34 describe the differences in the orbits of comets,

moons and planets
They all have elliptical orbits.
Comets and planets go round a star; moons go round planets.
Comets have more elongated orbits.

1.35 use the relationship between orbital speed,

orbital radius and time period
The first half of the equation works out the circumference of the circle, this is
the distance, which is then divided by the time.
Orbital speed = 2 orbital radius/ time period
v = 2 r/ T

1.36 understand that: the universe is a large

collection of billions of galaxies a galaxy is a large
collection of billions of stars our solar system is in
the Milky Way galaxy.
The universe contains many galaxies. Galaxies contain many stars, each star
has a solar system. Our solar system is an a galaxy called the milky way.

2.2 understand and identify the hazards of electricity

including frayed cables, long cables, damaged plugs,
water around sockets, and pushing metal objects into
sockets

In frayed cabling the insulation has worn down exposing live wires, electricity
can be conducted from these.
Longer cables are at a higher risk of being damaged and there is more
resistance with longer wires making them more at risk of over heating.
Damaged plugs create a risk that some of the safety features may be
broken.
Water conducts electricity and can cause energy from the circuit to flow
trough it creating a fire and electrocution risk. Metal objects in sockets have
the same dangers.

2.3 understand the uses of insulation, double

insulation, earthing, fuses and circuit breakers in a
range of domestic appliances
Insulation is covering a live wire with a material that won't conduct the
electricity.
Double insulation is a precaution that makes sure the live wire cannot touch
the casing (so no shock can be conducted) usually by putting extra insulation
round that wire. Double insulation can also mean that the casing of an object
is plastic so even if the wire touches it, it wont conduct.
An earth wire is touching the case so that if a current is in the case, it will be
directed through the earth wire, this will then take the current to the earth.
Additionally the surge of electricity in the wire may break the fuse.
Fuses are sections of wire in the circuit that melt if too high a current goes
through them. They come with different maximum currents.
Circuit breakers have an electromagnet that is activated if the current goes
above a certain limit. the electromagnet pulls an iron switch towards it, this
opens the switch and breaks the circuit.

2.4 understand that a current in a resistor results in

the electrical transfer of energy and an increase in
temperature, and how this can be used in a variety of
domestic contexts
As a resistor slows down the movement of electrons, the kinetic energy that
was moving them is converted into heat energy. This can be used, for
example, in hair dryers or heaters.

2.5 know and use the relationship: power = current

voltage

power = current voltage

P=IV

2.6 use the relationship between energy transferred,

current, voltage and time
energy transferred = current voltage time
E=IVt

n.b this is the same thing as saying power x time

2.7 understand the difference between mains

electricity being alternating current (a.c.) and direct
current (d.c.) being supplied by a cell or battery
Direct current flows in one direction only. It is supplied by cells and batteries.
It comes out as a straight line on an oscilloscope.
Alternating current changes from one direction to another rapidly. Mains
electricity is alternating (interestingly this is because the electricity has to go
through transformers on the national grid which only work on ac current,
although that's not relevant here!)

5.7 understand the changes that occur when a solid

melts to form a liquid, and when a liquid evaporates or
boils to form a gas
Particles in a solid don't move; but if they are heated they gain energy and
move, if they move enough they will become a liquid because the particles
will bounce off each other moving them further apart.

Similarly, a liquids particles have some energy, but if they gain more they
will bounce off each other more frequently moving them further apart;
eventually they are far enough apart that it is a gas.

5.8 describe the arrangement and motion of particles

in solids, liquids and gases
Solid: low energy; little movement, vibrating on the spot

Liquid: some energy; some movement; particles collide, bouncing apart and
creating space between particles

Gas: lots of energy; lots of movement; particles collide a lot, bouncing apart
more creating lots of space between particles

5.9 understand the significance of Brownian motion,

as supporting evidence for particle theory
Brownian motion is the principle that particles move randomly about a
space.
Particle theory says that as particles move about (randomly) they collide,
when they collide with a surface the exert a pressure on the surface (like air
keeping a balloon inflated.)

5.10 understand that molecules in a gas have a

random motion and that they exert a force and hence
a pressure on the walls of the container
Molecules of gas move randomly about space. When the collide with a
surface, they exert pressure on it. For example air particles collide with the
surface of a balloon, the pressure the exert keeps the balloon inflated.

5.11 understand why there is an absolute zero of

temperature which is 273C
Heat is energy, the more energy the more heat. If something were to have
no energy it would be 'absolute zero'.
Zero in Celsius is the freezing point of water, 'absolute zero' is -273C

5.12 describe the Kelvin scale of temperature and be

able to convert between the Kelvin and Celsius scales
The kelvin temperature scale uses absolute zero as a starting point.
Absolute zero is 0 Kelvin.
Absolute zero is -273C
0 kelvin = -273C
273 Kelvin = 0C
1 Kelvin = -272C
274 Kelvin = 1C
Above are examples of how to convert between the two, as you can see I
have just just a solving equations method to work out different values (eg
what you do to one side you must add to the other.)

5.13 understand that an increase in temperature

results in an increase in the average speed of gas
molecules
If you increase the temperature of something, you increase the energy levels
in it. The molecules of it will then have more kinetic energy- this means they
will be travelling faster.

5.14 understand that the Kelvin temperature of the

gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its
molecules
The Kelvin temperature scale is in direct proportion to the energy of
particles.
Because it puts 0 where particles have no energy, as the Kelvin go up so
does the energy.

5.15 describe the qualitative relationship between

pressure and Kelvin temperature for a gas in a sealed
container

As Kelvin increase, energy increases. As the energy of something increases,

its particles will move faster and with more force. This will mean more force
is exerted over a fixed area- increasing pressure.
So if a gas has its kelvin increased, it will exert more force on the container
its in, meaning the pressure will go up.

5.16 use the relationship between the pressure and

Kelvin temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant
volume
The higher the Kelvin the higher the pressure.
If volume and mass are kept the same, then increasing one will increase the
other in direct proportion.

p1/t1=p2/t2

5.17 use the relationship between the pressure and

volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature
p1V1 = p2V2