Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nigeria Poultry
Science Journal
(OFFICIAL JOURNAL OFTHE WORLDS POULTRY SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION-NIGERIA BRANCH)
2009 Volume 6
&
2010 Volume 7
EDITORS
S.I. Ola,A.V. Jegede & A.O. Fafiolu
Npsj
Nigeria Poultry Science Journal
Nigeria Poultry
Science Journal
(OFFICIAL JOURNAL OFTHE WORLDS POULTRY SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION-NIGERIA BRANCH)
2009 Volume 6
&
2010 Volume 7
Full paper also available online at
www.wpsa-nb.org.ng/npsj
EDITORS
S.I. Ola, A. V. Jegede & A.O. Fafiolu
EDITORIAL BOARD
Dr S.I.Ola - Editor-in-Chief
Department of Animal Science, Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
DrA.V Jegede - Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta, Nigeria
Associate Editors
DrA.O. Makinde
(Poultry product and value addition sub-editor)
Department of Animal Science, Obafemi Awolowo
University Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Dr J.O.Agbede
(Poultry Nutrition and Feed sub-editor)
Department of Animal Production Technology, Federal
University of Technology,Akure, Nigeria.
Dr R. Kassali
(Poultry Economics and French abstract sub-editor)
Department of Agricultural Economics, Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Dr OAdejoro
(Industry and Commentary sub-editor)
Zartech Farms limited, Ibadan, Nigeria
DrA. Ladokun
(Reproduction and Physiology sub-editor)
Department of Animal Physiology, University of
Agriculture,Abeokuta, Nigeria
Prof. M. O. Ozoje (Animal Breeding and Genetics subeditor)
Department of Animal Breeding, University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta, Nigeria Prof. M.A. Dipeolu (Animal Health subeditor)
Oluwatunmininu A. Adebambo
Johnson O. Agbede
F.A.S Dairo
G.O. Adeyemo
A.O. Owosibo
O.A. Abu
O.O. Oni
A.A. Odunsi
O.J. Akpodiete
Ofelia G. Omitogun
C.O.Betiku
E. O. Ewuola
About NPSJ
Introduction
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal (NPSJ) is an international journal published by the World Poultry Science
Association-Nigeria Branch (WPSA-NB). It reports original work, review and commentaries on a broad range of
poultry topics including nutrition, breeding and genetics, health, welfare, physiology, reproduction, processing,
economics, education, farming and any other relevant topic. The journal is published in English with a French
translation of the abstract, in both online and hard copy media.
Medium and Frequency of publication
Four issues per year in March, June, September and December. Issues from 2008 will be available online at
www.wpsa-nb.org.ng/npsj and as print version. Online edition will appear prior to the print edition.
Scope of journal
The journal accepts and publishes articles in all field of poultry production as original, short/rapid communication,
commentary and review articles.
Disclaimer
a. All statements, conclusions and opinions expressed in individual articles in NPSJ are those of the authors and
do not in any way represent the position and endorsement of the publisher and thus the journal accept no
responsibility or liability on them
b. The journal will use its best endeavours to ensure that work published is that of the named authors and that the
published results and conclusions are consistent with the primary data. However it takes no responsibility for
fraud or inaccuracy on the part of the authors. c. Papers reporting work with animals must include a
reference to the code of practice adopted for the experimentation. It is expected that reported experiments
have been performed according to appropriate ethical and legal standards. The journal reserve the right not to
publish such experiments that violate ethical and welfare issues and take no responsibility for the breach of
such rights by any reported experiment.
Page charges and subscription NPSJ charges authors for publication of their article. The publication charge and
subscription rate are subject to review at anytime depending on the prevailing cost of publication. The current charge is
given below:
Processing fee
Article
Coloured image
Subscription rate,
including VAT and
postage
Nigerian Naira
N1,000
N5,000 for the first 12 pages and
N500 for each additional page
N1, 000 per page
N1, 000 per issue
US dollar
Free
$100 for the first 12 pages and
$5 for each additional page
$10 per page
$ 25 per issue
Editorial office
C/o Dr S.I.Ola
Department of Animal Science,
Obafemi Awolowo University
220005 Ile-Ife, Osun State,
NIGERIA.
sola@oauife.edu.ng, safiriyuola@hotmail.com
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
III
11
Replacement value of millet for maize in practical diet fed to Japanese quail chicks
IJAIYA, A.T., AREMU, A., ALABI,J.O., JIYA, E.Z., MALIK, A.A., CHAKWEN, S.J. and
ONYEMEREKWE, C.D.A.
17
Utilization of Fermented Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) meal in diets for broiler chicken.
A.V. JEGEDE,A.O. OSO,A.M. BAMGBOSE andA.O.ABIOYE
24
Performance and Early Lay Characteristics of Growing Pullets Fed Graded Levels of Rumen Filtrate
fermented Corn cobs
O.A.ADEYEMI, J.A.AGUNBIADEANDA.O. OYEFESO
32
Asurvey of helminth parasites in migratory water birds at sabon gida wetland Jos South, Nigeria
IKPA.L.T, NNABUIFE.H.E, TANKO.J.T, GBISE.D.S, KAMANI J.
36
44
Quality characteristics of Patties Prepared from Chicken Broiler, Duck and Turkey Meats
FANIMO O.AMOS, EKUN O. SAKIRAT, SOGUNLE O. MARKAND JOLAADEADEGBITE
51
Alternative feed ingredients to meet the present environmental challenges: lessons from other parts
of the world
P.A. IJI
57
Local fowl and their egg quality in six local governments of Imo State, Nigeria.
C.T. EZEOKEKE, I.C. OKOLI, C.S. DURUNNA, M.C. UCHEGBU, H.O. OBIKAONU and V.M.
OKORO.
VOLUME 7 (2010)
66
Plasma and liver cholesterol status of laying hens fed unpeeled cassava root meal based diets
IDOWU O.M.O., DAISY ERUVBETINE , OSOA. O., JEGEDEA. V. and FAFIOLU,A. O.
75
Use of Information Communication Technology to Boost Poultry Production in South Western Zone
of Nigeria
OLADEJI. O., BOLARINWA, K.K., LADOKUN, B.
84
89
IV
94
Growth Performance and Cost Benefits of Chicks and Growing Pullets Fed Fermented and
Unfermented Groundnut Husk Meal Based Diets
BELLO, K. O., FANIMO, O.A., ERUVBETINE, D. andAINA, B. J.
104
Relationship between hatching egg quality or incubation conditions and day-old chick quality
K. TONA, O. ONAGBESAN, V. BRUGGEMAN, F. M. GBEASSOR,AND E. DECUYPERE
113
116
VI
Editorial
Education! One of the tripod stands of the Worlds Poultry Science Association was the primary reason for starting the
publication of Nigeria Poultry Science Journal in 2000 by the WPSA-Nigeria Branch. Unfortunately the journal has
not been excused from the usual attendant problems of journal publication in Africa, causing the erratic appearance of
the journal. Only four volumes/issues in eight years!.
In putting together this latest volume, the new editorial board took advantage of the enormous potentials and
opportunities opened to the journal to expand its scope, coverage and visibility. To assist the editor-in-chief and his
deputy, seven associate editors and ten international advisory board members were appointed by the editor. The short
profiles of the enlarged editorial board members are provided later in this book.Another major change to the outlook of
the journal was the decision to include French abstract of every paper so as to entice audience from the francophone
countries, especially from within Africa. Perhaps the most important thing to happen to the journal was the decision to
make its full paper contents appear online. Thus full papers of this Volume 5 can now be accessed and downloaded
from www.wpsa-nb.org.ng/npsj. From now on the online version of the accepted papers will appear as early as
possible before the hard copy version.
To cater for the large number of manuscripts envisioned to follow the sweeping changes in the outlook of the journal,
we decided to publish 4 issues in a year at 3-month interval. This current volume contains seven original papers each in
issue numbers 1-4. Geographical analysis of the sources of the papers in this volume revealed that about 77 % were
from Nigeria and the remaining 23 % from Europe,America,Australia and neighboring W/Acountries.
NPSJ hopes to accept articles free of charge from authors in the near future but, not until the major challenges currently
faced by the journal are over. These challenges include low patronage and subscription, unnecessarily long processing
time of manuscripts, inadequate reviewers and sponsorships.
Volume 6 and 7 of NPSJ is no doubt a very significant improvement over the past editions of the journal, both in terms
of packaging and content. The credit goes to all members of the editorial board, the reviewers and also the very
supportive assistance of the executives of WPSA-Nigeria branch. I implore all readers to see every page of this book
for the important information contained in them. I also solicit for your support and advice to assist the journal to reach
its targeted goals.
I hope you will find the contents of this book very rewarding as you go through.
VII
VIII
2009 VOLUME 6
Abstract
The wholesale distribution of a commodity from the point of production to retailing and consumption is an
important function of marketing. This study analyses the structure conduct performance and problems of
poultry egg wholesaling in two Local Governments Areas of Osun State. Ninety (90) egg wholesalers were
randomly selected and a structured questionnaire administered to collect the data. The analytical tools used
include descriptive statistics, structure conduct- performance paradigm, concentration ratio, Gini
coefficient, profit, Operational efficiency and mark up analysis. Results indicated that poultry egg wholesale
firms were small in size, adopted mostly sole proprietorship and stored eggs at room temperature. The
wholesale industry was relatively competitive, and the price determined by the profit goal of the wholesaler
and prevailing market conditions. Egg wholesaling was relatively profitable and operationally efficient but
with a low mark up. Egg wholesaling problems include lack of finance, egg spoilage during transportation
and difficulties of production to meeting market demand.
Keywords: poultry egg, wholesaling, model S-C-P, Operational efficiency, Mar upAnalysis
Introduction
Egg is one of the products of the poultry industry in
addition to chickens and turkeys (Kohls and Uhl,
1980). It is an important source of highly digestible
animal protein which contributes to human nutrition
and improves the palatability of many dishes;
weight to weight an egg contains about the same
amount of animal protein as pork, about of beef
and 2/3 of whole milk cheese (FAO, 2003). In terms of
composition egg is one of the most complete and
versatile foods available consisting approximately
of 10 percent shell, 58 percent white and 32 percent
yolk. It is an essential vitamin supplier to the human
body and a good source of minerals (Coutts and
Wilson, 2006). According to Mountney and
Parkhurst (1995), egg can serve as leavening agent
in baked foods, binding agent to hold ingredients
together, thickening agent (in custards, puddings),
etc. Eggs are an important and fundamental
foodstuff for developing countries due to
accessibility, low cost, ease of preparation and low
caloric value (FAO, 2003). However, it is not
enough to produce eggs at a reasonable cost;
arrangements must be made to ensure that the eggs
reach the consumers. With increasing urbanization,
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
Methods of analysis
The data collected were analyzed using the market
structure-conduct and performance paradigm.
Market structure analysis used concentration ratio,
Gini Coefficient and Herfindahl Index measures.
Market performance was captured using
Operational efficiency, profit and Mark up
analyses. Frequency distribution, percentage,
mean-variance and tables and figure were also used
to describe egg wholesale market.
Concentration Ratio
The concentration ratio is a measure of the relative
share of the size of n largest firms only in an
industry to determine its structure and competitive
nature. It is expressed as the share of the n largest
firms' shares in the egg industry as follows.
Sales of firm(i ) 2
)
Total Sales
s(i) = market share of firm i
HHI varies between 0 and 1. It takes the value 1/n
when all the firms are of equal size. When HHI
tends toward 1, this translates greater inequality in
market shares and increase in monopoly tendencies
with reduced competition. The value of 1 means
there is only one single firm controlling the industry
(perfect monopoly).
HHI below 0.01 indicates highly competitive
market, an index below 0.1, un-concentrated
market, between 0.1 and 0.18 implies moderate
concentration like monopolistic competition and
HHI above 0.18 means high concentration and
monopolistic tendencies (Wikipedia, 2010).
Measure of profit to wholesaler
= TR - TC
= profit (N)
TR = Total revenue (N)
TC = total cost (N)
TC = FC + VC
TR = Selling price * total sales
FC = fixed cost = rent + depreciation (on crates,
tables)
VC = egg purchasing cost (N) + marketing cost (N)
Purchasing cost = Purchase Price * Number of egg
crates bought
Marketing cost = transportation cost + labour cost +
market tax.
Crn =
Producer-Assemblers/Packers
Large Wholesaler(>500)
Retailer
Consumer
Mean
10
360
09
18
63
10
20
70
59
31
65
35
505
42
48
46
54
600
42
45
03
46
50
04
95
85
05
94
06
19
54
36
60
40
88
t-value
5.42***
2.42**
2.74**
1.34NS
Percentage
83
72
References
ADEGEYEA. J & DITTOH J.S, 1985. Essentials of
Agricultural Economics. Impact Publishers.
Nigeria Ltd. Ibadan. Nigeria
ADEKANYE, T. O. 1988. Income and price
elasticities of demand for food: a case study for eggs
in Nigeria. pp. 175-181. In: T.O. Adekanye (ed.).
Readings in agricultural marketing. Longman
Nigeria Limited, Lagos, Nigeria.
ADEYOKUNNU T.O, 1973. Marketing Margin
for Rice in Egba Division Western State of Nigeria,
Bulleting of Rural Economics and Sociology, Vol.,
2: 243-253.
AKINOKUN O, 1974. The problems of the
improvement of poultry production in Nigeria. The
NigerianAgricultural Journal 11. 61-71.
AKINWUMI S.A, 1979. Economic analysis of
Nigeria poultry industry, unpublished
study, Department of Federal Livestock, Lagos
State. Nigeria, 87pp.
BAKER M .J, 1985. Marketing. ELBS, Macmillan
Education Limited. Great Britain.
BABATUNDE R & OYATOYE E, 2005. Food
Security and Marketing Problems in Nigeria: the
case of maize marketing in Kwara State. Paper
presented at Tropentag 2005, International
Conference on Research on Food Security, Natural
Resource Management and Rural Development,
October 11-13, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart,
Germany. www.tropentag.de
CAVES ER, 1992. American Industry; Structure,
Conduct and Performance. Harvard
University, Prentice Hall. USA.
10
Replacement value of millet for maize in practical diet fed to Japanese quail
chicks
*
IJAIYA, A.T., AREMU, A., ALABI,J.O., JIYA, E.Z., MALIK, A.A., CHAKWEN, S.J. and
ONYEMEREKWE, C.D.A.
Department of Animal Production, Federal University of Technology,
P.M.B. 65, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author: +234 8033733709; atijaiya@yahoo.com
Abstract
The effects of inclusion of 0, 25, 50. 75 and 100% millet in replacement of maize in the diets of quail chicks
on growth and nutrient utilization were studied in a five-week feeding trial. One hundred and eighty (180)
one week old (unsexed) Japanese quail chicks having a mean initial weight of 27.61g 0.14 were used in a
completely randomized design. Daily feed intake, daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio and digestibility
of nutrients were statistically similar across the treatment groups (P>0.05). Dietary inclusion of millet
reduced the cost of producing 1kg of feed. Therefore, millet can be used to replace maize at 100% inclusion
level in the diets of quail chicks without any deleterious effect.
Key words: millet/ maize/ performance/ utilization and Japanese quails.
Introduction
Quail farming has become an important poultry
business in Nigeria. Unlike in the past when all
emphasis has been on domestic fowl production.
Japanese quails have been reared for both egg and
meat production in Nigeria, mainly by small and
medium scale breeders. Quail has both nutritive and
economic benefits since it is fast growing and
resistant to many diseases (Oluyemi and Roberts,
2000; Abatcha et al., 2009). The quail is a low
volume and weight farm animal with unique
advantages over other species of poultry which
include fast growth, attaining market weight of 150
180g between 5 6 weeks of age, early attainment
of sexual maturity, ability to come to lay as early as
5- 6 weeks of age and having a short generation
interval, making it possible to have many
generations in a year (Robbins, 1981; Anon, 1991)
and a high rate of egg production between 180 250
per year (Shwartz and Allen,1981; Garwood and
Diehl , 1987). In addition, quails require less floor,
space about 8- 10 adult quails being reared in a space
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
Maize
Millet
Dry matter
Crude protein
Crude fibre
Ether extract
Ash
Nitrogen free extract
89.01
9.20
2.70
4.60
2.15
70.36
91.04
11.03
8.65
4.63
3.20
63.53
12
Maize
Millet
Groundnut cake
Wheat offal
Rice bran
Fish meal
Bone meal
Limestone
*Premix
Methionine
Lysine
Salt
Total
Calculated analysis:
Crude protein (%)
ME (Kcal/kg)
Ether extract (%)
Crude fibre (%)
Calcium (%)
Phosphorus (%)
Determined analysis:
Dry matter (%)
Crude protein (%)
Crude fibre (%)
Ether extract (%)
Ash (%)
Nitrogen free extract (%)
A (00)
E (100)
51.31
0.00
28.99
10.00
3.00
2.00
2.50
1.50
0.25
0.10
0.10
0.25
100.00
39.02
13.01
28.27
10.00
3.00
2.00
2.50
1.50
0.25
0.10
0.10
0.25
100.00
26.39
26.29
27.52
10.00
3.00
2.00
2.50
1.50
0.25
0.10
0.10
0.25
100.00
13.38
40.15
26.77
10.00
3.00
2.00
2.50
1.50
0.25
0.10
0.10
0.25
100.00
0.00
54.23
25.98
10.00
3.00
2.00
2.50
1.50
0.25
0.10
0.10
0.25
100.00
21.04
2856.64
4.61
3.73
1.64
0.58
21.03
2749.34
4.60
4.48
1.64
0.58
21.04
2638.60
4.59
5.27
1.64
0.58
21.04
2624.04
4.58
6.04
1.64
0.59
89.80
22.05
7.67
16.50
1.50
55.28
90.30
23.45
5.33
15.00
2.50
53.72
87.80
24.50
4.67
16.00
2.50
52.33
90.20
22.75
5.33
15.00
2.00
54.92
21.02
2606.46
4.55
6.90
1.64
0.59
85.80
21.70
3.33
14.00
3.50
57.47
*Premix to provide the following per kg of feed: Vit. A, 12,000 i.u ; Vit.B 1 1,200 i.u ; Vit. K, 1.8mg;
Vit.B 2, 3.6mg; Biotin, 0.36mg; Vit.B 12, 0.01mg; Choline choride, 120mg; Chloteracycline, 48mg;
Iron, 48mg; Zinc, 96mg: Copper, 60mg; Iodine, 1.8mg; cobalt, 0.4mg.
13
millet
Ingredients (%)
(00)
(25)
(50)
(75)
(100)
SEM
27.78 27.78
27.77
27.59
27.23
0.14
NS
141.0 147.22
150.00
142.22
140.00
1.91
NS
3.23
3.41
3.49
3.26
3.23
0.24
NS
3.69
3.48
3.26
3.34
3.42
0.29
NS
1.34
1.26
1.22
1.67
1.37
0.14
NS
(FCR)
NS = Non significant (P>0.05)
Table 4. Nutrient utilization of quail chicks fed diets containing maize and millets
Nutrient digestibility
(00)
(25)
(50)
(75)
(100)
99.54
99.45
98.02
99.54
98.61
99.81
99.41
99.10
97.62
99.31
96.86
99.65
99.54
99.67
97.86
99.48
97.93
99.67
0.04
0.08
0.19
0.05
0.29
0.03
SEM
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
Table 5: Economics of feed conversion of quail chicks fed diet containing maize and millet.
Ingredients (%)
A
(00)
B
(25)
SEM
99.68
0.997
98.93
0.989
98.15
0.982
97.33
0.973
96.49
0.965
3.69
3.48
3.26
3.34
3.42
0.29
NS
3.68
2.23
3.44
3.41
3.20
3.49
3.25
3.26
3.30
3.23
0.24
NS
1.14
1.01
0.92
1.00
1.02
16
Utilization of Fermented Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) meal in diets for broiler
chicken.
*A.V. JEGEDE, A.O. OSO, A.M. BAMGBOSE AND A.O. ABIOYE
Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Agriculture, PMB 2240, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
*correspondence: vinbjegede@yahoo.com
Abstract
One hundred and twenty (120) unsexed broilers of Anak strain were used to evaluate the effect of partial
replacement of soyabean meal with fermented pigeon pea meal (FPPM).The birds were randomly allotted to
four treatment groups of 30 birds and three replicate of 10 birds each. FPPM was used to replace soyabean
meal at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% for diets 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. The birds were fed ad libitum for a period
of 8weeks while performance characteristics, nutrient utilization, carcass characteristics, serum
biochemistry and economics of production were measured. The result showed that the final live weight,
average weight gain average feed intake of the birds fed diets 1, 2 and 3 were similar (P>0.05) , while those
on diet 4 recorded the least value. The crude protein and fibre retention were significantly (P<0.05)
influenced by the dietary treatment. Birds on diet 1 had highest protein retention (68.24%), while those on
diet 4 recorded the least value. Ether extract digestibility, ash digestibility, and energy retention were not
significantly (P>0.05) influenced by the dietary treatment. The serum total protein and serum globulin levels
were significantly (P<0.05) affected by dietary inclusion of varying levels of FPPM. The total protein and
globulin increased with increased inclusion level of FPPM from 33.0g/l and 10.67g/l in control diet to
40.67g/l and 17.17g/l in diet 4 respectively. The carcass and organ weights were significantly (P<0.05)
influenced. Broilers placed on control diet and 10% FPPM based diet recorded similar dressed weight. Birds
on diet 1, 2 and 3 had a higher carcass and organ weights. The cost per kg weight gain was lowest at 20% and
30% FPPM inclusion. The study revealed that FPPM can replace up to 20% of soyabean in the diets of
broilers without any deleterious effect.
Keywords: Pigeon pea, broilers, fermentation
Introduction
Poultry keeping provide a method by which rapid
transformation in animal protein consumption can
be achieved in the humid tropics (Oluyemi and
Roberts, 2000). Hence, serious attention should be
paid to the sector for continuous supply of poultry
products at reasonable prices to the rapidly
increasing human population.
Feed is one of the major inputs of any viable poultry
enterprise as feeds alone account for about 75% of
the total cost of production (Kekeocha, 1984). The
ability to judiciously manipulate feed ingredients to
maximize productivity is therefore central to the
maintenance of a stable poultry production
enterprise. The high cost of feed ingredients has
contributed to the low level of production by
livestock farmers. Therefore, there is a need to look
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
Table 1: Gross composition of experimental diets (gkg -1) and proximate composition of fermented
pigeon pea meal.
Inclusion level of pigeon pea
Ingredients (gkg-1)
0%
10%
20%
30%
FPPM
Maize
450.00 450.00 450.00 450.00 Soybean meal
300.00 270.00 240.00 210.00 Groundnut cake
5.00
20.00
40.00
80.00
FPPM
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
Fish meal
30.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
Wheat offal
176.00 161.00 121.00 101.00 Bone meal
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
Oyster shell
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
DL-methionine
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
L-Lysine
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
Broiler premix
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
Salt
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
Total
1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 Determined Analysis
Metabolizable energy (kcal/kg) 2801.00 2784.72 2718.71 2698.70 Crude protein
226.00 225.90 223.10 219.70 211.00
Crude fibre
39.50
37.50
37.30
37.00
87.10
Ether extract
36.50
35.90
35.50
35.20
38.00
Dry matter
845.00
Ash content
42.00
Nitrogen free extract
622.00
Ca
1.14
P
2.20
Gross Energy (Kcal/kg)
2260.00
FPPM- Fermented pigeon pea meal
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
18
Table 2: Performance and economic benefits of broiler fed fermented pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)
based diets
Inclusion level of pigeon pea
Parameters
0%
10%
20%
30%
SEM
Initial weight (g)
42.00
42.50
42.57
42.86
Final weight (g)
2300.00a 2270.00a 2250.57a 2010.00b 45.76
Weight gain (g)
2258.00a 2227.50a 2208.47a 1967.14b 29.96
Total feed intake/bird(g) 5012.56a 5029.92a 4966.00ab 4854.64b 39.96
Feed: gain
2.22b
2.25b
2.25b
2.46a
0.53
Protein intake/bird
1132.83 a 1136.25 a 1107.92 a 1066.56b 8.16
1.96a
1.99a
1.84b
0.16
Protein efficiency ratio
1.99a
Mortality
0.00b
0.00b
0.00b
3.16a
0.31
Cost/kg feed N
38.87a
36.48b
33.71c
30.36d
0.27
a
b
c
d
183.46
167.42
147.39
4.23
Cost/total feed intake N 195.36
Cost/kg weight gain N
82.08a
75.85b
74.64b
3.27
86.51a
d
c
b
a
2.11
*Comparative gain
0.00
4.43
10.66
11.87
abcd
Means on the same row with different superscript are significantly(P<0.05) different .
*Computed as the difference between cost/kg weight gain of birds fed control diet and experimental diets
Nutrient utilization
At the end of the study, a bird per replicate was
selected and arranged in clean, separate and
disinfected metabolic cages. Three days of
acclimatization period prior to the commencement
of the trail was allowed.Aknown weight of feed was
given to each treatment groups daily while the
excreta collection was done daily for a period of five
days according to the procedure outlined by
Onifade et al. (1999). The daily excreta samples
voided for each replicate were dried and samples per
replicate used to determine the proximate
compositions according to the method of
Association of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC,
2000).
Statistical analysis
All data were subjected to one way Analysis of
Variance as outlined by Daniel (1995) in a
completely randomized design. Duncan's Multiple
Range Test was used to separate significant
differences among means at 5% level of
significance (Duncan,1955).
Results and Discussion
Proximate composition of the fermented pigeon
pea meal (FPPM)
The proximate composition of the fermented pigeon
pea meal is shown in Table 1. The result shows that
it contained 211.00 gkg-1 crude protein, 87.10 gkg-1
crude fibre, 38 gkg-1 ether extract, 42.00 gkg-1 Ash,
622.0 gkg-1 NFE and 845 gkg-1 dry matter. The gross
energy value was 2260 kcal/ kg. The level of the
protein content (211.00 gkg-1) confirmed that the
feedstuff is a good source of dietary protein in
poultry ration. The protein content obtained in this
study agreed with the findings of Etuk et al. (2003)
and Nwachukwu et al. (1996) who reported a crude
protein value of 211.3 gkg-1 and 210 gkg-1 for cooked
and toasted pigeon pea, respectively. However, the
crude protein obtained is slightly lower than the
value of 225.0 gkg-1 reported for raw pigeon pea
(Salankhe et al., 1985). This is due to the fact that
processing either by cooking or fermentation may
have reduced the protein content as a result of
Poultry Science
Journal
solubilization of someNigerian
nitrogenous
compound
in
Data collection
Feed intake and body weight of birds were
measured weekly. Records of mortality were kept as
it occurred. At the 56th day of the experiment, blood
samples (2.5ml) were collected from a bird in each
of the replicate.
The blood samples were analysed for serum total
protein, albumin, globulin, uric acid, serum
glutamate oxaloactate transanimase (SGOT) and
serum glutamate pyruvate transanimase (SGPT)
levels. The serum biochemical indices were carried
out using the routine standard clinical chemistry
procedures (Olorede et al., 1996). A bird per
19
Table 3: Nutrient digestibility and serum metabolites of broilers fed fermented pigeon pea
(Cajanus cajan) based diets
Inclusion level of pigeon pea
Parameters
0%
10%
20%
30%
SEM
Crude protein retention(%)
68.24a 65.34b 65.14b 63.32c 3.31
Crude fibre digestibility(%)
53.14b 54.32b 54.77b 58.22a 2.84
Ether extract digestibility(%) 88.37 88.00 87.90 87.81 1.71
Ash retention(%)
43.92 43.70 44.01 43.83 1.3
Total protein(g/dl)
33.00c 35.00b 35.70b 40.67a 1.44
Albumin(g/dl)
22.33 23.00 22.50 23.50 0.71
Globulin(g/dl)
10.67d 12.00c 13.20b 17.17a 4.24
Uric acid(mg/dl)
6.00
6.15
6.26
6.00
0.71
SGOT(mg/dl)
19.01 19.21 19.24 18.97 1.81
SGPT (mg/dl)
10.11 10.21 9.97
10.02 1.21
abcd
Means on the same row with different superscript are significantly(P<0.05) different .
Means on the same row with different superscript are significantly(P<0.05) different .
References
ADUKU,1993. Tropical Feedstuff Analysis Table.
Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, Nigeria..
22
23
Abstract
A study was designed to evaluate the inclusion of rumen filtrate fermented corn-cobs (RFFCC) at the
expense of maize in growing pullet diet. Corn-cob was fermented for twenty days using fresh bovine rumen
filtrate as the inoculum. The dried fermented product was substituted for maize in practical diets on a weight
for weight basis at 0, 12.5, 25, 37.5 and 50%. The resulting five diets were fed in mash and pellet form. One
hundred and twenty (8 weeks old) pullet of a commercial strain were selected from a larger flock and
distributed into 10 groups of 12 birds each after balancing for liveweight. The 10 groups were randomly
allocated to the five dietary treatments (mash and pellet form) for a feeding duration of 112 days using a 2 x 5
factorial design. Increasing the level of RFFCC at the expense of maize significantly (P<0.05) reduced feed
intake, body weight at first egg and at 10% production while age at first egg and at 10% production was
significant prolonged. Increasing concentration of RFFCC resulted in a reduction (P<0.05) in crude protein
and crude fibre retention. Level of RFFCC had no effect on egg shape index, yolk index, shell thickness and
shell weight (P>0.05) but significantly (P<0.05) deepens the yolk colour. Pelleting of diet resulted in a
st
st
significant increase in the body weight at 1 egg and 10% production, Weight of 1 egg on pelleted diet and
weight of egg at 10% production were 23.51 and 11.86% heavier than eggs produced by birds on the mash
feed (P<0.05).
Keywords: Performance, Pullets, Corn-cob, Rumen filtrate, Fermentation, Nutrient retention.
Introduction
Post harvest processing of corn (maize) results in the
generation of its cob which accounts for about 30 40% of the weight of the dehusked maize. Alokan
(1988) surmised that corn cob is perhaps the most
prominent cereal crop by- product in Nigeria.
Several million tons of corn cob that had no
immediate use for human's accumulate on the farm
and processing units contributing to land and air
pollution as sizeable percentage are burnt to provide
space for other useful purposes and ashes used as
fertilizer in crop farming (Oladeinde 2000).
Although corn cob has been employed in ruminant
feeding as source of fibre (Umunna et al 1980;
Alokan 1988), its usefulness as component of
commercial non-ruminant animal feed is not popular
because of its high fibre, lignin and lignocellulose
contents which impair digestion and utilization.
Monogastric animals do not have the enzyme
complex for the digestion of fibre (McDonald et al
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
6
40.00
6.00
10.00
28.00
6.00
3.00
6.50
0.25
0.25
7
35.00
5.00
6.00
10.00
28.00
6.00
3.00
6.50
0.25
0.25
8
30.00
10.00
6.00
10.00
28.00
6.00
3.00
6.50
0.25
0.25
9
25.00
15.00
6.00
10.00
28.00
6.00
3.00
6.50
0.25
0.25
10
20.00
20.00
6.00
10.00
28.00
6.00
3.00
6.50
0.25
0.25
100.0
16.94
100.0
16.91
100.0
16.87
100.0
16.83
100.0
16.81
3.46
0.64
3.46
0.63
3.46
0.62
3.46
0.62
3.45
0.62
28
10.91
147.88a
1410.56ab
44.70
150.75a
1424.11 d
48.61
12.40
137.13b
1425.12b
44.56
142.63c
1436.31a
48.72
47.25
1405.44b
43.95
145.13b
1390.20b
139.38
11.21
77.81ab
77.10b
80.11 a
48.16
1332.68c
44.28
147.38ab
134051c
147.25a
11.32
78.05ab
37.5
48.30
1330.05c
44.49
150.5a
1315.65d
144.00a
11.73
76.70b
50.0
1300.11 b
45.51b
2.09NS
39.72b
147.47
2.58NS
0.89*
20.54*
1276.41b
25.21*
143.75
10.185b
0.56 NS
1.25*
85.58a
50.91a
1479.33a
49.06a
147.10
1476.41a
142.5
12.85a
70.33b
FORM OF FEED
Mash
Pellet
1.06*
SEM
1.05*
24.15*
1.19*
1.47NS
28.80*
1.51
0.28*
0.51*
SEM
SIG
SIG
NS
NS
SIG
NS
SIG
LxF
interaction
SIG
Form of
SEM
Feed
87.37a 68.25c
83.99ab 72.11 c 82.77c 70.63c 1.84
Feed intake 87.86a 72.35c 88.89ab 68.32c
(g/bird/day)
Weight gain 11.58 bc 13.23ab 9.33d
12.49abc 10.25cd 12.17abc 10.58cd 12.05bc 9.16d 14.31a 0.62
(g/bird/day)
ab
means in the same row for each parameter with different superscripts are significantly different (p <0.05)
Interaction effects of RFFCC levels and form of feed presentation in pullet performance
Level of RFFCC (%)
0
12.5
25.0
37.5
50.0
Mash
Pellet
Mash
Pellet
Mash
Pellet
Mash
Pellet
Mash Pellet
means in the same row for each parameter with different superscripts are significantly different (p <0.05
Table 4
ab
Feed intake
(g/bird/day)
Wt Gain
(g/bird/day)
Age at 1 st Egg
(days)
Body Wt. at
1st Egg (g)
Egg wt (g)
Age at 10%
production
(day)
Wt at 10%
Production (g)
Egg wt (g)
25.0
Table 3. Main effects of RFF CC level and form of feed presentation on performance and early lay
characteristics indices of pullets
Table 5 Main effects of RFFCC level and form of feed presentation on nutrient retention of pullets
LEVEL OF RFFCC (%)
0
12.5
25.0
37.5
50.0
FORM OF FEED
SEM Mash Pellet SEM
Lx
F
NS
Dry Matter
72.24 72.20
71.89 71.85
71.72 0.35 70.05 73.91 2.78
Digestibility
Crude Protein
69.11 a 63.90ab 60.75b 57.49c 51.96d 1.40 53.93b 67.35a 1.84* NS
Retention
65.60a 65.45a 63.12b 61.20bc 58.14c 1.56 59.44b 66.00a 1.67* NS
Ether Extract
Retention
Crude Fibre
49.15a 48.55a 42.60b 41.50c 38.19c 1.27 37.88b 50.11 a 2.02* NS
Retention
ab
means in the same row for each parameter with different superscripts are significantly different (P <0.05)
Table 6. Main effects of RFFCC level and form of feed presentation on egg quality measurement of pullets
LEVEL OF RFFCC (%)
0
12.5
25.0
0.768 0.781 0.750
0.279 0.283 0.276
4.50d 5.25c 5.75b
0.46
0.48
0.51
37.5
0.784
0.286
6.13b
0.46
50.0
0.765
0.283
6.38a
0.50
SEM
0.0025
0.0007
1.25
0.0015
FORM OF FEED
Mash Pellet SEM
0.778 0.761 0.035
0.283 0.281 0.03
5.6
5.6
0.11
0.47
0.50
0.044
LxF
NS
NS
NS
NS
LONGE
O.G AND G.O.
TONA, 1988.
Metabolisable energy value of some tropical
feedstuffs for poultry. Tropical Agriculture
(Trinidad), 65(4):358-360.
31
test tube and placed on a test tube rack. The test tube
was then gently top up with the floatation fluid
leaving a convex meniscus. A cover slip was then
carefully placed and the suspension was allowed to
stand for 20 minutes. The supernatant was gently
poured off and the sediments were placed on clean
cover slips for microscopy. Processed specimens
were examined using Nikon microscope at X10 and
X40 (where necessary) objective lens. Identification
of parasites to genus or species level where possible
was done according to the parasite identification
keys (Anne, 2008; Senger, 1954; Soulsby, 1982)
Results
The results of faecal sample examination are
presented in Table 1and 2. A total of 150 faecal
samples of different migratory birds were examined,
out of which 53% were found positive for parasitic
infection. Eggs of Echinostoma and Capillaria
species were both observed in faecal samples to be
16% each, while that of Strongyle and Ascaridia
species were 9% and 12% respectively.
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
Discussion
Helminth infection in wild birds is common, but
losses due to this parasitism are very rare.
Considerable studies on helminths infestation in
wild birds has been conducted by Patel et al, (2000)
in different parts of the world.
In this study, Echinostoma and Capillaria recorded
a higher prevalence, while Ascaridia species and
strongyle had lower occurrences. The sizes of eggs
of these helminth parasites seen in the present study
ranges from 65-80 x 35-48 m for Echinostoma
revolutum, 44-60 x 22-24 m for Capillaria spp,
64-78 x 32-24 m for Ascaridia and 64-70 x 30-40
m for strongyle. Such findings were also recorded
by several other workers (Khan, 1979; Tripathi,
1971; Soulsby, 1982).
Specie of birds
33
35
A.O. LALA, A.O. OSO, A.M. BAMGBOSE, D. ERUVBETINE AND MARTHA BEMJI
1
Animal Nutrition Department,University of Agriculture, PMB 2240, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
2
Animal Breeding and Genetics Department, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Abstract
One hundred and forty four (144) day old cockerels of White Yaffa strain were used to determine the
utilization of instant noddle waste (INW) in a cockerel ration. Four dietary treatments with INW replacing
maize at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% inclusion levels were formulated for the starter phase (0-8 weeks) and
finisher phase (8-16weeks) of the cockerels. A total of thirty six (36) birds were assigned to each dietary
group with three replicates of 12 birds each. Data were collected on growth response, nutrient digestibility,
carcass quality and sensory quality of the meat. The feed intake, body weight gain and feed conversion ratio
(FCR) were not significantly affected (P > 0.05) by dietary treatment in all phases of the study. At the starter
phase, chicks fed control diet and diet containing 15% INW showed similar ether extract digestibility but
differed significantly (P<0.05) from other treatments. Haematological and serum parameters were not (P >
0.05) significantly affected by the dietary treatments at the starter phase but showed significant effect at the
finisher phase. Packed cell volume of the finishing cockerels increased (P< 0.05) significantly with increase
in the level of INW in the diet. There were no (P > 0.05) significant effect of dietary treatments on all the cut
parts and organ weights. Juiciness and overall acceptability though significantly affected (P<0.05) by the
dietary treatment, did not followed a particular trend. Inclusion of up to 45% INW in starter and finisher
cockerels supported optimum growth without a negative effect on nutrient digestibility, haematological and
serum chemistry, carcass yield and taste of the meat
Introduction
Poultry industry occupies a unique position in the
livestock sector due to the fact that it has a quicker
reproductive ability than other livestock species.
They are highly prolific and good converters of feed
(Obioha, 1992). Babatunde (1980) opined that the
best solution to meat scarcity is to increase poultry
production.
Maize which is the major conventional source of
energy accounted for about 50 55% in a balanced
poultry ration. Maize is keenly competed for in
terms of consumption by humans, livestock and
brewery industries hence this has pushed its market
price to an alarming height that has directly affected
the cost of poultry production. Poultry nutritionists
have tried to harness and improve the utilization of
Agro industrial by products and wastes that are not
directly used by man and are usually less expensive
for the feeding of livestock.
36
38
Parameters
*INW
Maize
Dry matter (%)
88.0
91.80
Crude fibre (%)
4.10
2.70
Crude protein (%)
7.20
8.90
Ether extract (%)
23.32
4.00
Ash (%)
0.9
1.30
NFE (%)
52.48
74.90
Aduku, (1993)
77.50
20.01
4.60
15.00
9.50
74.50
19.84
4.76
15.00
10.00
78.00
19.39
4.95
17.50
11.00
1.69
0.92
11.54
1.69
0.92
11.59
1.70
0.93
11.63
1.70
0.93
11.65
39
93.00
17.61
4.65
17.00
7.00
1.67
0.96
11.26
91.50
17.52
4.91
18.00
7.00
1.68
0.97
11.28
93.00
17.26
5.03
25.50
5.00
1.68
0.97
11.29
*calculated
Table 4: Performance characteristics of cockerels fed INW based diet
INW inclusion levels
Parameters
0%
15%
30%
45%
0-8weeks
Average initial live weight (g/bird) 33.89
34.72
34.36
33.33
Average final weight (g/bird)
638.89
666.67
661.11 633.33
Average body weight gain (g/bird)
605.00
631.95
626.75 600.00
Average total feed intake (g/bird)
2362.47 2267.22
2372.53 2361.90
Daily protein intake (g/bird)
7.96
7.49
7.77
7.61
Feed conversion ratio
3.91
3.58
3.78
3.86
Protein efficiency ratio
1.35c
1.51a
1.44b
1.43b
8-16weeks
Average initial live weight (g/bird) 638.89
666.67
661.11 633.33
Average final weight (g/bird)
1684.44 1736.11
1636.11 1616.67
Average body weight gain (g/bird)
1055.55 1069.44
975.00 983.33
Average total feed intake (g/bird)
5690.84 5656.67
5591.81 5517.28
Daily protein intake (g/bird)
18.32
17.94
17.46
16.96
Feed conversion ratio
5.42
5.36
5.77
5.62
Protein efficiency ratio
1.03
1.06
0.99
1.04
abc
40
SEM
0.27
6.20
6.09
21.50
0.08
0.05
0.02
6.20
30.70
29.90
57.20
0.23
0.13
0.02
Means on the same row having different superscript are significantly (P < 0.05) different
SEM
4.56
3.22
1.31
1.44
1.65
1.57
1.65
12.1
9.87
1.58
2.29
1.48
1.49
1.96
Means on the same row having different superscript are significantly (P < 0.05) different
Table 6: Serum and haematological parameters of cockerels fed INW based diet
Instant noodle wastes inclusion levels
Parameters
0%
15%
30%
45%
SEM
Starter phase (0-8weeks)
Packed cell volume (%)
24.00
22.67
25.33
25.67
0.43
Red blood cell (cell/mm)
2.80
2.77
2.83
2.97
0.04
White blood cell (cell/mm)
4223.33 4273.33
5833.33 5633.33
5.88
Haemoglobin (g/dl)
8.60
7.97
8.47
9.00
0.14
Total serum protein (mg/dl)
38.67
86.33
39.33
40.67
0.31
Serum uric ac id (mg/dl)
1.27
1.20
1.27
1.30
0.02
Finisher phase (8-16week)
Packed cell volume (%)
27.33b
25.67c
28.00b
32.00a
0.76
c
bc
b
a
3.00
3.10
3.57
0.08
Red blood cell (cell/mm.)
2.97
White blood cell (cell/mm)
6366.67b 6566.67a
6100.00c 5900.00d 82.00
8.87d
9.30b
10.83a
0.24
Haemoglobin (g/dl)
9.07c
b
bc
a
c
Total serum protein (mg/dl)
43.00
42.33
45.67
51.00
1.09
Serum uric acid (mg/dl)
3.13
3.10
3.33
3.80
0.09
Serum creatinine (mg/dl)
1.20
1.10
1.33
1.37
0.04
abc
Means on the same row having different superscript are significantly (P < 0.05) different
41
1.29
1.64
2.59
4.99
5.33
4.24
8.36
5.88
1.03
1.85
0.56
0.69
0.25
Means on the same row having different superscript are significantly (P < 0.05) different
SEM
0.04
3.77
8.77
SEM
0.25
0.23
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.24
0.27
Means on the same row having different superscript are significantl y (P < 0.05) different
43
Abstract
The aim of the study was to compare the quality of patties prepared from chicken broiler, duck and turkey
meats. The meat emulsions and patties were analyzed for proximate composition, thiobarbiturate acid
(TBA) value and microbial profile. In addition, the cooked patties were analyzed for sensory qualities such
as appearance, flavor, tenderness, juiciness, palatability and overall acceptability in a Completely
Randomized Design. Moisture was highest (P<0.05) in broiler emulsion and patties while turkey emulsion
and patties had highest (P<0.05) protein. Fat was highest (P<0.05) in duck emulsion and patties. TBA
generally increased from 0 to 7th day and subsequently decreased to the 21st day of storage. The total plate
count (TPC) increased with increased storage period. There were significant (P<0.05) differences in the
sensory qualities of the three patties. The results reveal no negative quality in duck and turkey patties
compared to broiler patties. Therefore, duck and turkey meat can be used for production of nutritionally
good and acceptable patties.
Key words: broiler, duck, patties, quality, turkey
Introduction
The prime agricultural purpose of poultry
production is to provide human food and this
extends to the quality of poultry meat and efficiency
of production. Recent reports (BIS, 1992a, b)
recorded a rise in demand for high quality poultry
meat products due to the increasing world
population and the increasing premium of qualities.
Poultry meat capture an increasing share of the
world's total consumption of meat today and likely
to increase even more in the future.
Broiler production has come to be efficient
enterprise in terms of quantity of feed needed to
produce a number of birds. Broilers and turkeys are
more dependent on for meat in the poultry industry
rather than others poultry stock. BIS (1969)
reported that the meat from other poultry birds is
regarded as being less valued because of their
tenderness, juiciness, taste, texture e.t.c.
Ducks are mainly reared for laying purposes (FAO,
2002) and its meat is less juicy, tougher and less
palatable due to the long laying periods before
consumption, Thus duck meat is less acceptable to
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
45
46
Broiler
Duck
Turkey
SE
Emulsions
Moisture
58.28a
53.84b
53.86b
0.083
Crude Protein
22.38c
25.18b
27.39a
0.146
Fat
13.17b
14.65a
12.75c
0.075
Ash
6.17
6.33
6.00
0.197
Patties
Moisture
57.37a
54.20b
54.87b
0.067
c
b
a
Crude Protein
22.46
24.35
25.63
0.043
Fat
14.17b
15.62a
13.50c
0.094
Ash
6.00
5.83
6.00
0.179
Mean bearing different superscripts differ significantly (P< 0.05) among the three types of
patties emulsion
Values are means of three replicates.
Table 2: Microbiological Analysis of Emulsion and cooked patties (Total Plate Count) of
Broiler, Duck and Turkey at different storage periods
Parameter
Meat Source
Emulsion
0 day
3rd day
7th day
14th day
21st day
SE
TPC
(log cfu./g)
Turkey
5.00b
3.00c
3.01c
3.30c
4.00b
4.27a
2.19
Duck
5.40b
3.00e
3.00e
3.48d
4.19c
4.78a
2.76
2.42
Broiler
5.32
3.00
3.01
3.01
4.15
4.45
Mean bearing different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05) among the three types of
patties.
Values are means of three replicates.
Table 3: Thiobarbituric Acid Value (TBA) of Cooked Patties of Broiler, Duck and Turk ey
at different storage periods
Parameter
Meat Source
O day
3rd day
7th day
14th day
21st day
SE
TBA
Turkey
0.22d
0.34b
0.37a
0.23c
0.20e
0.02
(mg/kg)
Duck
0.42b
0.49a
0.35c
0.26d
0.13e
0.03
Broiler
0.30c
0.34b
0.35a
0.21d
0.20e
0.02
Mean bearing different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05) among the three types of
patties.
Values are means of three replicates.
47
Table 4: Sensory Qualities of Patties prepared from Broiler, Duck and Turk ey at different
storage periods
Meat Source O day
3rd day
7th day 14th day 21st day SE
b
Turkey
5.57
5.00
4.71c
4.57d
3.29e
0.20
Duck
5.73a
5.58b
5.00c
4.98c
4.57d
0.11
a
b
c
d
e
Broiler
5.56
5.13
4.57
4.13
4.43
0.20
5.43b
5.29c
5.13d
3.72e
0.28
Flavour
Turkey
6.28a
a
b
c
d
e
5.29
5.15
3.86
3.43
0.18
Duck
5.70
a
b
c
d
e
Broiler
6.13
5.87
5.28
5.26
4.86
0.12
5.27b
4.57c
4.54d
4.29e
0.11
Tenderness
Turkey
5.30a
a
b
c
d
e
Duck
6.00
5.87
5.29
4.86
4.00
0.19
5.86b
5.71c
4.86d
4.71e
0.22
Broiler
7.01a
a
b
c
d
e
Appearance Turkey
6.70
6.29
6.00
5.98
4.71
0.18
a
b
c
d
e
5.72
5.69
5.56
5.29
0.05
Duck
5.87
Broiler
6.28a
6.27a
6.26b
6.14c
6.00d
0.29
a
b
c
d
e
6.00
5.86
5.71
5.43
0.10
Palatability
Turkey
6.57
5.57b
5.56c
5.43d
4.44e
0.12
Duck
5.71a
a
b
c
d
e
Broiler
6.43
6.13
5.85
5.43
5.29
0.11
6.26b
5.56c
5.43d
4.86e
0.15
Overall
Turkey
6.29a
a
b
c
d
e
5.99
5.44
5.42
5.00
0.10
Acceptability Duck
6.01
a
b
c
d
e
Broiler
5.86
5.71
5.57
5.43
5.29
0.53
Off-flavour
Turkey
4.86a
5.00b
4.57c
4.29d
4.00e
0.17
a
b
c
d
e
4.15
4.13
3.71
3.14
0.09
Duck
5.00
Broiler
4.14a
4.00b
3.84c
3.57d
2.29e
0.24
Mean bearing different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05) among the three types of
patties.
Values are means of three replicates.
Parameter
Juiciness
Biometrics 11:1-42.
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION.
The state of Food andAgriculture. 2002.
GREENE B.A AND CUMUZE T.H. 1982.
Relationship between TBA numbers and in
experienced panelist's assessment of oxidized
flavour in cooked beef. Journal of Food Science 47:
52-58. 1982.
HERMANN J, BUHR H, SCHNEIDER H.U AND
GAUL E. 1974. Method and device for the heat
treatment of food products. German Federal
Republic Patent Application 2410283 (c.f.FSTA 6:
7G 387).
th
50
Summary
This review presents the state of feed ingredient supply to the poultry industry in Africa and the rest of the world in the
face of changing environmental conditions. Alternatives to conventional ingredients cannot be widely exploited due
to limited volumes of production and presence of antinutritive factors. Practices in Africa and other parts of the world
that can improve the utilization of alternative ingredients are considered. It is recommended that the continent should
focus efforts on the production of ingredients in which it has environmental advantage.
Introduction
Feed represents between 60 and 70 % of the variable
costs of production in a typical poultry enterprise.
Nutritionists therefore strive to reduce this cost in order
to maximise profit. Feed costs can be reduced by
changes to feed composition, use of cheaper ingredients
or manipulation of the rearing environment or a
combination of these practices.
Although poultry feeds are far more complex than feeds
for ruminant animals and pigs, it is possible to raise
poultry on diets formulated from very few ingredients.
In nutritional studies, such diets, generally referred to as
semi-purified, are regularly formulated to test the value
of specific ingredients or a small number of feed
ingredients. Even with practical diets, it is easy to
speculate on the key ingredients that can be used in a diet,
and this only varies from one location to the other.
Ingredients could therefore be classified broadly, on the
basis of their role in the diet, into sources of energy,
protein, lipids; vitamins, or minerals. On the basis of this
classification, cereal grains are generally regarded as
energy sources; oilseeds and legume seeds are regarded
as protein sources and materials such as limestone and
oyster shells are mineral sources.
Maize is the most widely used cereal grain in poultry
feeding around the world and is regarded as possessing
better nutritional attributes than other cereal grains.
Another tropical cereal, sorghum, is also an excellent
energy source but its protein is not well digested. In the
temperate areas of the world, wheat is the leading cereal
grain and ranks number two worldwide. The second
most important temperate cereal grain is barley. Oilseed
cakes are the leading protein sources, and worldwide,
soybean is number one. Several animal and plant
sources are used to supply oil mainly to complement
energy, reduce dustiness and increase palatability. A few
examples of these are tallow, marine oil and vegetable
oils. These sources vary widely, particularly in the ratio
51
Table 1: Output of key crops in Africa (million tonnes) vis-a-vis the world, 2009.
Cassava
Chick peas
Cowpeas
Groundnuts
Maize
Millet
Sesame seed
Sorghum
Soybean
Sweet potatoes
Cocoyam
Wheat
Yams
Source: FAO (2010).
Africa
124.6
0.5
5.4
10.9
56.7
20.2
1.2
27.2
15.9
15.1
9.1
22.1
52.1
World
241.0
9.8
5.7
35.5
817.1
32.0
3.5
62.1
222.3
107.6
11.7
681.9
54.1
% of World
51.7
4.9
95.5
30.6
6.9
63.1
33.2
43.7
7.2
14.0
78.2
3.2
96.3
Table 2: Relative value (%) of other cereals compared to maize for poultry.
Grain
Crude protein
Metabolizable energy
Maize
100
100
Barley
124
74.5
Millet
118
86.5
Sorghum
114
96.7
Oats
122
70
Triticale
161
92.2
Rye
127
78.6
Wheat
132
94.8
Source: NRC (1994); Scanes et al. (2004).
52
Rate of substitution
100
50
65
100
50
30
25-30
100
Table 3: Relative value of other protein supplements compared to soybean meal for poultry.
Grain
Soybean (48 %)
Blood meal
Corn gluten meal
Cotton seed meal
Fishmeal
Meat/bone meal
Peanut meal
Canola meal
Sunflower seed meal
Source: Scanes et al. (2004).
Relative feeding
value (%)
100
120
50-75
85
115
100
95
80
95-100
Rate of
substitution
100
5-20
25
80
50-65
20-50
75-100
30
100
Short Communication
Local fowl and their egg quality in six local government areas of Imo State,
Nigeria.
*C.T. EZEOKEKE, I.C. OKOLI, C.S. DURUNNA, M.C. UCHEGBU, H.O. OBIKAONU AND V.M.
OKORO.
Department of Animal Science & Technology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State
*Correspondence: chycorn@yahoo.com
Abstract
A study was carried out to determine gender involvement in rearing of local chicken, management practice
and population of local fowls from six randomly selected local government areas (LGAs) in Imo State.
Another laboratory test was carried out to assess egg quality of the fowls. The women (84.33%) were more
involved than men in the rearing of the fowl and management systems were semi intensive and extensive
types. In the 300 households visited the numbers of cocks, hens, growers and chicks were 394, 614, 478 and
546, respectively. The cocks weighed more than the hens. According to the respondents common diseases
encountered included newcastle , coccidiosis and chronic respiratory diseases, egg parameters such as yolk
index, haugh unit, shell thickness and weight varied significantly (P<0.05) among the LGAs. Conservation
to stem extinction and improvement of the fowl needs to be encouraged.
Keywords: Local fowl, egg quality, local government, rearing.
Introduction
The local domestic fowl is said to have descended
from the red jungle fowl and domesticated from
Asia in 2500 B.C. (Rose, 1997). Indigenous or
native poultry birds could be defined as breeds of
varieties of any species of poultry which have thus
developed characteristics peculiar to a geographical
location (Oluyemi, 1979).
The traditional chicken production is based on free
range system where the fowls mostly scavenge for
feed, picking on food scraps and insects around the
homesteads (Aganga et al., 2000; Moreki, 2000).
This system is described as low input-low output
system where birds are given limited amounts of
feed to supplement what they scavenge (McAinsh et
al., 2004). The local chickens and their eggs tend to
be smaller than those raised on intensive farms
(Awolola, 1986; Lambrou, 1993). Badubi et al.
(2006) in their survey reported that 64.30%
indigenous poultry farmers did not provide housing
for their chickens, while only 35.70% of the farmers
provided housing of some kind.
In Nigeria most of the household rearers of local
fowl are women and the fowl is hardy, resistant to
diseases and very broody (Nwakpu et al. 1999). The
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
59
60
LGAs
2
SEM
38.06
37.79
37.51
0.85
50.35
0.08
0.31
8.67
46.05
0.09
0.32
8.67
47.68
0.09
0.29
8.78
12.72
0.01
0.02
0.18
0.30
3.68
0.25
3.70
0.26
3.82
0.03
0.29
18.72
20.16
20.11
1.76
LGAs
5
SEM
33.64
33.91
33.47
0.42
50.00
0.34a
0.43
8.00
48.71
0.30b
0.50
7.75
50.00
0.32ab
0.32
8.38
0.36
0.01
0.02
0.31
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
LGAs
2
SEM
38.06
37.79
37.51
0.85
50.35
0.08
0.31
8.67
46.05
0.09
0.32
8.67
47.68
0.09
0.29
8.78
12.72
0.01
0.02
0.18
0.30
3.68
0.25
3.70
0.26
3.82
0.03
0.29
18.72
20.16
20.11
1.76
LGAs
5
SEM
33.64
33.91
33.47
0.42
50.00
0.34a
0.43
8.00
48.71
0.30b
0.50
7.75
50.00
0.32ab
0.32
8.38
0.36
0.01
0.02
0.31
0.21b
4.70a
0.22b
4.38b
0.46a
4.04a
0.05
0.11
41.59a
39.23b
42.57a
0.62
Note: Means within rows having different superscripts a and b are significantly
different (P<0.05) and SEM represents standard error of mean.
63
Issue.
BADUBI, S.S. RAKERENG, M. and MARUME,
M., 2006. Morphological characteristics and feed
resources available for indigenous chickens in
Botswana. Livestock Research for Rural
Development 12.
CARD, L.E.,AUSTIC, R.E. and NEISHEM, M.C.,
th
1979. Poultry Production 12 Ed. Bailliers Tindak,
London.
HAUGH, R.R., 1937. The Haugh Unit for
Measuring Egg Quality. United States of America
Egg and Poultry Magazine.
HILL, D.H., 1954. Poultry Production in Nigeria.
Section Paper 10th World Poultry Congress
(Edinburgh), 1954: 318-321.
LAMBROU, L., 1993. Indigenous Poultry in
Zimbabwe. Family World 19:1-11.
MC AINSH, C.V., KUSINA, J.; MADSEN, J. and
NYONI, C., 2004. Traditional Chicken Production
in Zimbabwe. World Poultry Science Journal,
60:233.
64
2010 VOLUME 7
65
Plasma and liver cholesterol status of laying hens fed unpeeled cassava root
meal based diets
O.M.O. IDOWU, DAISY ERUVBETINE , A. O. OSO, A. V. JEGEDE AND A. O. FAFIOLU
Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
Abstract
Three hundred and sixty twenty-week old Black Harco replacement pullets were used to investigate plasma
and liver tissue cholesterol concentrations of laying hens fed four dietary treatments containing 0, 10, 20 and
30% Unpeeled Cassava Root Meal (UCRM) respectively for 560 days (80weeks in lay). Data recorded were
total lipid, cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations. Plasma cholesterol concentrations decreased
significantly with increased levels of UCRM at all stages of lay (0-80 weeks). Plasma cholesterol
significantly increased with the weeks in lay (P< 0.05). Increasing UCRM from 10-30% in the diets of layers
resulted in a concomitant linear reduction (P< 0.05) in the concentrations of the total cholesterol in the liver .
No significant (P>0.05) differences were observed between the overall lipid status of the control group
(0%UCRM) and that of the hens fed 10% UCRM diet except in the liver cholesterol content. The overall liver
cholesterol status of the hens fed 10% and 20% UCRM (80 weeks in lay) were statistically the same
(P>0.05). The overall assessment showed that the inclusion of 10-30 % UCRM reduced plasma cholesterol
by 3.6-28.1% while liver total cholesterol reduced by 27-42%. The mean concentration ranges for the total
plasma cholesterol during 20, 40, 60 and 80 weeks in lay were 84.69-128.17, 92.16-149.93, 100.34-185.67
and 120.16-219.33 mg/dL respectively. The range of mean values for the liver total lipid and lipid related
measurements were as follows: total lipid ( 27.23-29.75mg/g),total cholesterol (1.37-1.92 mg/g) and
triacylglycerol ( 1.62-2.75mg/g ) . The overwhelming evidence in this study therefore was that the feeding
of 10 - 30% UCRM in the laying hens diets resulted in 27 42% reduction in liver cholesterol and 3.6228.17% reduction in plasma cholesterol.
Keywords : cassava root meal, hens, plasma and liver tiisue
Introduction
Nutritional data from U.S. Department of
Agriculture reported that 100 gram sample of raw
cassava root contains 0.280g total lipid (fat), 0.074 g
fatty acids (total saturated), 0.075g fatty acid (total),
0.048g fatty acids (total poly unsaturated) and 0.00
mg cholesterol (USDA, 2003). Cassava root is
known to be relatively rich in calcium (10mg/100g
DM) and ascorbic acid (35mg/100g DM). It also
contains appreciable quatity of thiamine
(0.04mg/100g DM), riboflavin (0.02mg/100g DM)
and niacin 0.6 mg/100DM (Oyenuga, 1968). The
chemical composition of cassava has been reported
(Oyenuga, 1968 and James, 1994) to vary according
to variety, age of the plants and processing
techniques.
66
cholesterol
esterase
cholesterol
oxidase
POD
Absorbance of standard
+ fatty acids
glycerol-kinase
(2) Glycerol
+ ATP
dihydroxyacetone-phosphate
+ H 2O 2
H2O2 + 4-aminophenazone+4-chlorophenol
68
Calculations :
Triacyiglycerol concentration (mg/dL)
=
A sample
(1) Triglycerides + H 2O
peroxidase
X 200mg/dL
A standard
Statistical analyses
The data obtained in these studies were subjected
to Analysis of Variance and Duncan's Multiple
Range Test (Steel and Torrie, 1980) was used to
separate significant differences among the means
at 5% level of probability.
Results
Both total cholesterol and triacylglycerol
concentrations were significantly (P<0.05) affected
by the experimental diets. Concentrations of both
cholesterol and triacylglyceride decreased
significantly (P<0.05) in a linear manner with the
increasing level of UCRM in all stages of the period
of lay (Table 2). The initial cholesterol and
triacylglycerol were 96.11 and 360.00 mg/dL
respectively. Plasma total cholesterol content of
hens fed 30% UCRM based diets was significantly
lower (P<0.05) than all other dietary groups (0-20%
UCRM). Control (0% UCRM) group had the
highest total cholesterol concentration.
Triacylglycerol concentration at 20, 40, 60 and 80
weeks was highest in the control group (P<0.05) and
lowest in the hens fed experimental diet containing
30% UCRM. Cholesterol and triacylglycerol
concentrations of the hens on 0 20% UCRM diets
during 20, 40 and 80 weeks in lay were statistically
the same (P>0.05). No statistical difference existed
in values of cholesterol
and triacylglycerol
obtained in the plasma of hens fed 0 and 10%
UCRM diets in all stages of laying (0-80 weeks).
However the triacylglycerol content of the 20%
Quinoneimine + HCl + 4H 2O
Discussion
Plasma total cholesterol and triacylgycerol were
significantly reduced by the inclusion of UCRM in
the experimental diet. Plasma total cholesterol and
triacylglycerol were higher in the control group
(without UCRM) while the lowest concentrations
were obtained in the group fed with the highest
(30%) level of UCRM. Concentration decreased
significantly (P<0.05) in a linear manner showing
that further addition of UCRM in the experimental
diets above 30% would have reduced the plasma
lipid concentrations further. The data obtained for
plasma total cholesterol was in agreement with that
of Eruvbetine et al. (2000) who obtained significant
reduction in the plasma cholesterol when 10%
UCRM was fed to old laying hens for 8 weeks.
Turk and Barnett (1972), Anderson and Chen
(1979), Storey and Fumoroto (1990) and Lirette et
al. (1993) also obtained reduction in the plasma
total cholesterol when plant fibres were added to
corn-soya laying hens' diet. Piliang (1990) in his
investigation of the effects of high fibre diets on
cholesterol status of laying hens reported that 61 and
74% rice bran (containing 7.36 and 8.52% crude
fibre) in maize-soya bean diets (6.3% CF) (Table 1)
decreased cholesterol in the whole blood and
plasma proportionately. The explanations for the
observed reduction in plasma cholesterol could
therefore be associated with the hypocholesterolemic influence of the fibre content of the
cassava based diet or the presence of
hypocholesterolemic properties or agents in UCRM
which are currently not popular or understood.
Dietary plant fibre supplements or inclusion have
been known to precipitate increased faecal
excretion of neutral sterols such as cholesterol
(Anderson and Chen, 1979). Feacal loss of
cholesterol and bile salts could be a major route in
the hypocholesterolemic effects of UCRM based
diets. Although balance study was not done in this
study but the mechanism by which the dietary fibre
could have influenced the lipid metabolism are by
interrupting the enterohepatic circulation, binding
up with the circulating bile salts and thereby
prevented their subsequent reabsorption in the GIT.
Furthermore Leeson and Summers (1997) gave
some possible combination of different processes
by which dietary fibre influences lipids and
cholesterol metabolism. These include lowering
cholesterol absorption, shortening of the intestinal
transit time, and increasing faecal sterol excretion.
69
Ingredients (%)
0% UCRM
Corn
Wheat offal
Corn bran
UCRM
Fishmeal
Soyabean meal
Bone meal
Oyster shell
*Vit. Min. Premix
Salt
Lysine
Methionine
Total
Determined analyses
Gross energy (kcal/kg)
Dry Matter(g/kg)
Crude Protein (g/kg)
Crude Fibre (g/kg)
Ether extract(g/kg)
NFE (g/kg)
Ash(g/kg)
ME:P ratio
Cyanide content (ppm)
EXPERIMENTAL DIETS
10%UCRM
20%UCRM
30%UCRM
36.50
10.50
25.00
1.50
16.50
1.50
7.80
0.25
0.35
0.05
0.05
100.00
4252.22 + 4.11
903.00 + 0.09
161.10 + 0.01
57.80 + 0.05
76.00 + 0.04
559.20+ 1.52
48.90+ 0.21
197.08:1
-
24.00
10.50
25.00
10.00
1.50
19.00
1.50
7.80
0.25
0.35
0.05
0.05
100.00
11.50
10.50
25.00
20.00
1.50
21.50
1.50
7.80
0.25
0.35
0.05
0.05
100.00
4134.14 + 5.01
899.00 + 0.03
162.30 + 0.04
65.20 + 0.03
56.00 + 0.06
566.30+1.11
49.20 + 0.01
187.35:1
21.30
10.00
25.00
30.00
1.50
23.50
1.50
7.80
0.25
0.35
0.05
0.05
100.00
4098.14 + 3.17
900.00 + 0.07
160.90 + 0.05
70.00 + 0.04
48.00 + 0.07
522.30 + 1.11
48.80 + 0.22
185.89:1
42.60
4066.57+ 4.21
912.00 + 0.01
160.00 + 0.03
78.00 + 0.02
40.00 + 0.10
585.00 + 1.09
49.00 + 0.09
185.42:1
69.90
*Vitamins/ Mineral premix (Roche Nutripoul 5(R)): Based on 2.5kg per ton.
Vit.A:10 000 000 IU, Vit.D 3: 2 500 000 IU,Vit.E 20 000 mg, Vit.K 3: 2 000mg, Vit.B 1:3
000mg, Vit.B 2:7 000mg, Vit.B 6:5 000mg, Vit.B 12:25mg,Niacin: 30 000mg,Panthotenic
Acid:10 000,Folic Acid:800mg, Biotin:50mg, Manganese:80 000mg,Iron: 40 000mg, Zinc:
60 000mg, Copper :8 000mg , Cobalt: 250mg,Iodine 1000mg, Selenium(1%): 150mg,
Choline: 200 000mg and Antioxidant: 100 000mg
70
Table 2 : Effects of the experimental diets on the blood plasma lipid (0-80wks)
E X P E R I M E N T A L DIETS
0% UCRM
10% UCRM
20% UCRM
30 % UCRM
SEM
Parameters
Blood Plasma concentration
at:
Initial
Total cholesterol (mg/dl)
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/dl)
96.11
360.00
96.11
360.00
96.11
360.00
96.11
360.00
0.00
0.00
20 weeks in lay
Total cholesterol (mg/dl)
Total Triacylglycerol (m g/dl)
128.17a
459.29a
111.50 b
416.92b
91.90c
399.97c
84.69d
375.83c
4.36
34.56
40 weeks in lay
Total cholesterol (mg/dl)
Total Triacylglycerol(mg/dl)
149.93a
626.60a
115.76 b
487.21b
107.96c
472.66bc
92.16d
437.80c
5.16
20.89
60 weeks in lay
Total cholesterol (mg/dl)
Total Triacylglycerol(mg/dl)
185.67a
763.00a
138.33b
624.00b
114.69 c
546.67bc
100.34d
503.33c
9.61
23.21
219.33a
1203.00a
.
169.00b
929.00b
135.84 c
703.00 c
120.16 d
671.67c
11.32
48.11
138.28 a
746.77 a
133.65 a
600.73 b
112.60 b
534.82 c
99.33 c
485.42 c
5.66
27.22
80 weeks in lay
Total cholesterol (mg/dl)
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/dl)
Overall mean:
Total cholesterol (mg/dL)
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/dL)
All values within rows having the same or no superscript are not significantly different
(P>0.05).
71
E X P E R I M E N T A L DIETS
SEM
0 % UCRM 10 % UCRM
20% UCRM
14.46
29.75a
1.92a
2.75a
14.24
29.31a
1.60b
2.13b
14.01
28.31b
1.51c
1.84 c
13.69
27.23c
1.37d
1.62d
0.12
0.21
0.14
0.20
40 weeks in lay
Liver Weight (g/kg BWT)
Total Lipid (mg/g)
Total Cholesterol (mg/g)
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/ g)
18.17
37.14a
1.76a
2.54a
17.24
29.59b
1.56b
2.06b
17.19
29.06b
1.51bc
1.81c
16.04
27.60c
1.35c
1.47d
0.11
0.43
0.05
0.08
19.88
34.96a
2.73a
2.83
18.92
30.53b
1.88b
2.21
18.37
30.07b
1.80b
2.27
17.97
29.88b
1.44b
2.55
0.26
0.36
0.07
0.02
19.94
37.57a
2.97a
3.01
19.35
34.80ab
1.78b
2.22
18.73
31.40bc
1.57b
2.34
18.70
28.33c
1.38c
2.56
0.24
0.51
0.10
0.05
29.71 b
1.60 b
2.07
28.26 b
1.39 c
2.05
0.33
0.21
0.04
60 weeks in lay
Liver Weight (g/kg BWT)
Total Lipid (mg/g)
Total cholesterol (mg/g)
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/ g)
80 weeks in lay
Liver Weight (g/kg BWT)
Total Lipid (mg/g)
Total cholesterol (mg/g)
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/ g)
Overall liver means:
Total Lipid (mg/g)
Total cholesterol (mg/g)
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/g)
34.86 a
2.35 a
2.76
31.06 a
1.71 b
2.16
30 % UCRM
All values within rows having the same or no superscript are not significantly different
(P>0.05).
BWT=Body weight.
Another explanation for the hypocholesterolemic
properties of UCRM or cassava products suspected
to have contributed to the observed
hypochelosterolemic influence was the presence of
glycosides which has ability to interfere with the
intestinal absorption of dietary cholesterol and
lipids, thereby promoting faecal excretion (Cheeke,
1971). The mechanism of the anticholesterolemic
action of the glycosides was the formation of the
72
Conclusion
Feeding of UCRM based diets resulted in a
significant linear reduction in the concentration of
the total cholesterol found in the liver. The
hypocholesterolemic effect of the UCRM based
diets was pronounced in the liver lipid profile. The
overall mean values of the liver total lipid and total
cholesterol were significantly lowest in the hens fed
30% UCRM diet. Significant difference was noticed
between the overall lipid profile of the control group
and that of the hens fed 10% UCRM diet except in
the liver cholesterol content. The liver cholesterol
content of the group on 10% UCRM and 20%
UCRM were statistically the same (P>0.05). The
percentage reduction in the triacylglyceride content
was lower than what was obtained in the cholesterol
reduction.
The plasma cholesterol and triacylglycerol
concentrations over the period of 0-80 weeks in lay
were significantly affected by the UCRM inclusion
in the diets of laying hens. Cholesterol and
triacylglycerol concentration decreased
significantly with the increased levels of UCRM at
all stages of laying. Plasma cholesterol and
triacylglycerol increased with weeks in lay.
Inclusion of 10 - 30% UCRM in the laying hens
diets resulted in 27 42% reduction in liver
cholesterol and 3.62-28.17% reduction in plasma
cholesterol.
References
ANDERSON, J.W. AND CHEN, W.J.L. 1979.
Plant fiber: Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.
Anim. J. Clin. Nutr. 32: 346-363.
BRAGG, D.B., SIM, J.S. AND HODGSON, G.C.
1973. Influence of dietary energy source
o n
performance and fatty liver syndrome in White
Leghorn laying hens. Poultry Sci. 52: 736 740.
CHEEKE, P.R. 1971. Nutritional and physiological
implications of saponins: a review. Canadian J. Of
Animal Sci. 51:621-632.
CHRISTIE, W.W. AND MOORE, J.H. 1972. The
lipid components of the plasma, liver and ovarian
follicle in the domestic chicken. Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology 41: 287.
DONALDSON, W.E. 1989. Lipid metabolism in
liver of chicks: Response to feeding. Poultry Sci.
73
74
Abstract
The research focuses on poultry farmer's accessibility to relevant information and its implication on poultry
production level in Nigeria. Design expost-facto descriptive survey research design was used. Three states
were randomly selected out of 6 states that comprise South West zone. Farmers' poultry association registers
were used as sampling framework from where 350 farmers were randomly selected in the 3 states Data were
collected by administering structural questionnaires, and analyzed using inferential statistical tools. Results
showed that majority (62.3%) of the farmers was in the economic active age (35.-52) years, 96% of them
were literate, more than 58% of them were aware of ICT component. Majority 63.9% and 89.4% of the
farmers claimed that ICT components enhanced their living standard and increased poultry production.
Erratic power supply and non-availability of ICT component constraints rank first and second respectively.
There is correlation (p<0.05) between use of ICT's component and benefit derived from using ICT
components. There is every tendency that use of ICT will increase poultry production level, if solutions will
be provided to farmers' constraints to use of ICT identified in this study. Use of ICT components is a new
innovation in Nigeria and little or no researches have been done on effect of use of ICT on poultry production
in Nigeria.
Key Words: Farmers, information communication, constraints, production, living standard
Introduction
Dissemination of information using the right
communication technology is very important if the
receiver must make a meaning out of the message
received. In our world today, access to information
is now faster, quicker and especially now that there
is integration of computers to help facilitate
accessibility of information. The accessibility to
information which is made readily available by
information communication technologies (ICTS)
has helped in molding-attitude towards life as there
is more information about certain aspects of life
including the agricultural sector. More so there are
more information packages developed for
agriculture (Spore, 2004). Awoshakin (2002),
opined that emerging information communication
technologies are fundamentally transforming
society by influencing the way we live, play and
Nigeria Poultry Science Journal
Frequency
Percentage
15-24
46
12.3
25-24
29
25.4
35-44
45-54
Above 54
58
54
54
16.7
29.8
15.8
Tota1
350
100
Sex
Male
210
60.0
Female
140
40.0
Total
Marital Status
350
100
Single
Married
Divorced
115
180
10
33.0
51.0
13.0
Widowed
45
88.0
Total
350
100
Educational Qualification
No formal education
Primary Education
15
4.0
Secondary Education
30
9.0
Tertiary education
205
59.0
Informal education
100
29.0
Total
350
100
78
Frequency
Percentage
280
80.0
3000-4999
20
6.0
5000-4999
40
11.0
10
3.0
350
100
186
53.1
30
9.2
Deep litter
134
23.7
Total
350
100
Subsistence
26
7.4
Commercial
129
36.0
Both
195
56.6
Total
350
100
Poultry keeping
110
60.0
Civil servant
110
Total
Types of housing method used
Battery cage
Floor brooder
Artisan
16
2.0
Business
20
6.0
Others
1.0
Total
350
100
255
73.0
95
27.0
350
100
79
Frequency
Percentage
Internet
E-mail
Television
Radio
Video
Telephone
Newspaper
Journal
Multimedia
Overhead Projector
313
223
341
348
298
321
310
225
127
111
89.4
63.7
97.4
99.4
85.1
91.7
88.6
64.5
36.3
31.7
80
Table 5 Distribution of Poultry farmers by Benefits Derived from the use of ICTs
Components.
Benefit
Frequency
Percentage
Increase in production.
Low output(egg, meat)
Better Information about modern agriculture
Improved practices
I spend money for getting information
Increase in income
No significant improvement in my production
Enhanced my Standard of living
Unskilled labour hiring is limited
No visible change in my production
Wider market outlet due to production increase
Better knowledge of medical care
313
44
223
342
242
345
35
298
145
25
314
342
89.4
12.9
63.7
98.2
69.1
98.5
1.0
85.1
41.4
7.7
89.7
97.7
Access to client
Use of modern agricultural practices has
on my birds
247
44
70.6
12.6
adverse effect
81
Frequency
Rank
310
2nd
198
9th
251
7th
Too complex
232
8th
288
5th
112
11 th
345
1st
98
12th
Network problem
275
6th
122
10th
Server problem
300
3rd
298
4th
44
13th
Coefficient of
Decision
determination (r2)
Awareness
0.374xx
0.12641
Benefit derives
0.456xx
0.16681
*Critical value of r at 0.01 and 112 d.f = 0.2240 level of significant 0.01
Poultry, Farmers use of Information
Communication Technology Components
As indicated in Table 4 majority (99%, 97% and
91%) received poultry information from radio,
television and telephone respectively. Also 88.6%,
89.4% and 63.4% of them received poultry
information from newspaper, e-mail and internet
respectively. However, very few 36.3% and 31%
received poultry information from multimedia and
overhead projector.
It could be inferred from the findings that radio and
television was still the most accessible ICT
components to poultry farmers. This agreed with the
findings of Memeka (1990) and George (1990) who
noted that radio and television were the most
relevant ICT components for dissemination of
agricultural information. Hence, the three ICT
components could be used as appropriate means of
disseminating poultry information to farmers. The
findings also revealed that multimedia and overhead
project ICT components may not be appropriate for
the dissemination of poultry information to farmers.
Benefits Poultry Farmers Derived from Use of
ICT
Table 5 recorded benefit poultry farmer derived
from accessing information from ICT components.
The most prominent benefit derived by poultry
farmers are high production (89.4%), new poultry
production information (89.7%), medical care for
Nigeria Poultry Science Journal
technologies.
Hypothesis 2
There is no significant relationship between derived
benefits from ICTs and use of ICT by the poultry
farmers. Table 8 indicated that a positive and
significant relationship exist between awareness
benefit derived by poultry farmers and use of ICT
components. These showed that the benefit and
awareness of ICTs explain 17% and 13%
respectively of poultry farmers' use of ICT
component
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study the following
conclusions are drawn.
n Higher proportion of the farmers in the study
areas are in their middle age, male and were
married.
n The literacy level is high among the poultry
farmers. This high literacy level influenced their
use of other components of ICTs rather than
extension agent, radio and television.
n Radio, television, telephone and newspaper in
that order were the most popular ICT
components used by the poultry farmers.
n There is a positive significant relationship
between, awareness and derived benefit from
use of ICT components utilization n the areas.
In view of the foregoing, it is recommended that:
Making the ICT components available and
accessible to poultry farmers.
provision of stable power supply;
provision of solution to server problems
provision of credit facilities and
reduction in the price of ICT components to
enable poultry farmers make use of ICT
component.
References
AWOSHAKIN, T. 2002. The Metropolitan Area
of Ibadan: Its growth and structure. Department
of Geography, University of Ibadan.
FAO 2000. Research. Extension and Training
Division. Communication for Development Group.
Extension Education and Communication Service
(SDRE).
83
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, ShabuLafia Campus, P.M.B. 135, Lafia, Nigeria.
2
Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, Lafia, Nasarawa State.
*Correspondence: abdul_mojeedy@yahoo.com
Abstract
Multivariate analysis has been established as a very powerful and effective tool in classifying and grouping
individual traits. In the present study, broiler chicken performance was evaluated using canonical
discriminant analysis. A total of 480 chicks from two commercial broiler strains, Anak Titans and Arbor
Acres were utilized in the 4-week trial. Each genetic group was divided into three replicates of eighty birds
each in a completely randomized design. A clear distinction between strains was found, where final body
weight, average weekly body weight, average weekly body weight gain and feed conversion ratio were
significantly (P<0.05) higher in Arbor Acres compared to their Anak Titans counterparts. There were no
strain-associated differences (P>0.05) in average weekly feed intake and mortality rate. In the discriminant
function analysis, the six original performance traits were reduced to one canonical variate, which explained
100% of the total variation. Average weekly body weight gain was retained as the most discriminating
variable between the two strains.
Keywords: broiler strains, performance traits, discriminant analysis, Nigeria.
Introduction
The potential of development in broiler chickens
can be assessed using body composition and
growth performance. Performance traits such as
final body weight, feed intake, body weight gain
and feed efficiency are some of the selection
variables that form an integral part of poultry
breeding. The evaluation of these traits has been
centred on univariate analysis. However, the
mechanisms involved in the control of growth in
chickens are too complex to be explained only
under analysis of variance (Rosario et al., 2007).
This is because of the biological correlation of the
performance traits. Multiple variable analyses
therefore offer a better complement.
Canonical discriminant analysis is a multivariate
technique that describes the relationship between
two variable sets by calculating the linear
combinations that are maximally correlated
(Tabachnick and Fidel, 2001; Manly, 2005). It
consists of two closely related procedures that
allow researchers to discover underlying, dominant
gradients of variation among groups of sampling
entities (such as species, breeds, individuals, or any
naturally occurring group) from a set of
multivariate observations. The goal is to elucidate
how variation among groups is maximized and
Nigeria Poultry Science Journal
Table 1: Effect of strain on the performance traits of four-week old Anak Titan and Arbor
Acre broilers
Arbor
Anak
Acres
Titans
Mean
SD
SE
Prob.
Mean
SD
SE
Traits
FBW
472.26
23.07
13.32
559.62
28.67
16.55
*
AWBW
290.87
11.78
6.80
340.45
22.52
13.00
*
AWBWG 107.90
4.94
2.85
126.99
5.91
3.41
**
AWFI
277.99
11.24
6.49
291.42
5.73
3.31
ns
FCR
2.58
0.07
0.04
2.30
0.07
0.04
**
MORT.
9.17
1.91
1.10
7.50
1.25
0.72
ns
FBW: Final body weight (g); AWBW: Average weekly body weight (g); AWBWG: Average
weekly body weight gain (g); AWFI: Average weekly feed intake (g); FCR: Feed conversion
ratio; MORT. : Mortality (%); SD: Standard deviation; SE: Standard error; *P<0.05;
**P<0.01; ns: not significant
Table 2: Summary of the standardized canonical discriminant function coefficient of
broilers
Parameter
Value
1
4.558
100.00
100.00
0.91
0.180
6.003 (P<0.01)
strictly.
Data collection
The parameters taken were final body weight;
average weekly body weight; average weekly feed
intake; average weekly body weight gain; feed
conversion ratio was calculated by dividing feed
intake by weight gain; animal checks were done
three times daily and mortality was recorded as it
occurred; this was later expressed as a percentage of
the total number of birds per group.
85
Statistical analysis
Univariate analysis of variance was employed in
determining the effect of strain on birds'
performance using the General Linear Model
(GLM). The multivariate technique involved the
use of Canonical Discriminant Analysis. A
discriminant function, also called a canonical root
is a latent variable which is created as a linear
combination of discriminating (independent)
variables (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001).
The ultimate goal of a discriminant function is to
evaluate the relative contribution of each
independent variable in this case (final body
weight, average weekly body weight, average
weekly feed intake, average weekly body weight
gain, feed conversion ratio and mortality) to the
derived canonical functions in order to explain the
nature of the relationship(s). The mathematical
expression of a discriminant function is:
Fkm = U0 + U1X1km + U2X2km + - - - UPXPkm
where,
Fkm = the value (score) on the canonical
discriminant function for case m in the group k
X1km = the value on discriminant variable X1 for case
m in group k; and
U1-P = coefficients which produce the desired
characteristics in the function
U0 = a constant
Wilks` Lambda (U statistic) was used to test the
significance of the discriminant function while the
Bartlett`s V transformation of Lambda (chi-square
statistic) was later used to compute the significance
of Lambda. SPSS (2001) statistical package was
employed in the canonical discriminant analysis.
Results and Discussion
The effect of strain on the performance indices of
broilers is presented on Table 1. Genotypeassociated differences (P<0.05) were observed in
final body weight, average weekly body weight,
average weekly body weight gain and feed
conversion ratio with higher values recorded for
Arbor Acres compared to their Anak Titans
counterparts. However, the two genetic types were
similar (P>0.05) in ranking in terms of average
weekly feed intake and mortality. The feed
conversion ratio indicated that less feed is required
by Arbor Acres for a-unit increase in body weight.
The present results on body weight and feed intake
are consistent with the findings of Bozkurt et al.
(2006). In another related study, Marks (1991),
observed major differences in the feed efficiency of
diverse genetic groups when data were segmented
into periods which allowed investigation of
86
Conclusion
The univariate analysis revealed that at four weeks
of age, Arbor Acres were better than their Anak
Titans counterparts in final body weight, average
weekly body weight, average weekly body weight
gain and feed conversion ratio. There were no
significant differences between the strains in
average weekly feed intake and mortality rate.
However, when the six original traits were
subjected to stepwise canonical discriminant
analysis, they were reduced to a single discriminant
function, with average weekly body weight gain as
the most discriminating variable. Thus, average
weekly body weight gain is the trait of utmost
importance in classifying the two strains into
separate distinct groups at early ages.
References
th
87
88
Summary
Livestock production contributes significantly to green house gas (GHG) emissions which have been implicated in
climate change. The impact of poultry production is significantly less compared to other livestock species. Its
contribution emanates mostly from the emission of nitrous oxide, ammonia and eutrophying gases in waste
management. A high proportion of poultry's share in global GHG emission stems from the feed supply chain which
includes land use in the cultivation of grains, energy use in feed processing and transportation. Improving the
efficiency of this process has the potential to minimise the impact of poultry production on climate change. A key
factor in this regards is the genetic improvement of poultry species to become more feed efficient, less susceptible to
disease and stress, more fertile and highly productive. Success achieved to date via traditional selection and breeding
has been pivotal in limiting GHG emissions in poultry to current low levels. Recent developments in this field, such as
application of genomic selection techniques, has the potential to further accelerate the rate genetic improvement of
these traits. This implies that further progress will be made in reducing the impact of poultry production on climate
change with the adoption of highly feed efficient and resilient strains and increased efficiency of the feed supply chain.
Introduction
Recent data from various sources suggest that our world
is warming up resulting in climate change. In Africa, the
climate is believed to be warmer now than it was 100
years ago and it is projected that climate change will
bring about further increases in temperature and huge
variation in precipitation in the continent. Several
climate model simulations under a range of possible
emissions scenarios suggest that for Africa in all
seasons, the median temperature increase lies between
3C and 4C, which is about 1.5 times the global mean
response (van de Steeg et., al. 2009). The National
Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) declared
2010 and 2005 before then as the two hottest years in the
last century (NASA, 2011) and indicated that global
temperature trend has been on the increase since 1998.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) has predicted global temperature increases of 1.8
o
o
- 3.9 C (3.2-7.1 F) by the year 2100 (IPCC, 2007). In a
comprehensive analysis of the impact of climate change
on agriculture in East central Africa (ECA), van de Steeg
et., al. (2009) reported that many parts of the ECA are
likely to experience a decrease in the length of the
growing period (LPG) defined as 'the number of days in
any given rainfall season when there is sufficient water
stored in the soil profile to support crop growth.' They
estimated that the surface area with prolonged growing
period over 210 days will decrease in most countries.
Such a reduction in the area of land which supports high
crop yield will result in a decline in the production of
many major crops.
Increasing global temperatures has been attributed
Nigeria Poultry Science Journal
mostly to the effect of green house gasses like carbondioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide (N2O) and
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
(Koneswaran and
Nierenberg, 2008). It is now generally accepted that
increasing concentration of these gases is mostly due to
human activities (Rosenzweig et al., 2007) of which
agriculture and livestock production play a part
(Steinfeld et al., 2006; Koneswaran and Nierenberg,
2008; Pelletier, 2008). The forgoing suggests that
agriculture, including livestock production, is caught in
the climate change circle where it contributes to the
change and is also affected by the change.
Poultry Versus Other Species In GHG Emission
The livestock sector is believed to be responsible for
18% or one fifth of the human induced GHG emissions
(Steinfeld et al., 2006). The contribution of individual
livestock species to total GHG emission however
depends on emissions per unit animal and the total
number of animals present. In the UK it was estimated
that in 2005 cattle contributed 76% of the total UK
agricultural methane production while sheep
contributed 19%. Pigs and poultry were estimated to
each contribute 2% respectively. These livestock species
in that order also accounted for 52%, 5%, 10% and 12%
respectively of agricultural NH3 emissions (NAEI,
2007). N2O emissions estimates for Western Europe as a
whole suggest that cattle, sheep/goats, pigs and poultry
generally account for 50%, 19%, 19% and 8%
respectively (Steinfeld et al., 2006). These indicate that
poultry, compared to other livestock species, contributes
less to direct GHG emission. This low impact of poultry
89
90
Table 1
Estimated genetic trends per year that have been achieved in the UK industry at
the com mercial level for monogastric species (after accounting for the relevant penetration
rates)
Species/year range
trend applies to
Broilers
All years
Layers
All years
Turkeys
1988-07
2008-22
Pigs
All years
Traits selected
Daily gain
(g/d)
0.80
FCR
(kg/kg)
-0.02
Mortality
(%)
-0.07
Killing
out (%)
0.10
Eggs per
breeder hen
0.90
Hen live wt
(g)
-25.20
FCR
(kg/kg)
-0.03
Egg weight
(g)
0.11
Finishing
live wt (kg)
0.11
0.16
FCR
(kg/kg)
0.00
-0.01
Eggs per
breeder hen
0.45
1.00
Lifetime
daily gain (g)
6.40
FCR
(kg/kg)
-0.02
Numbers born
alive per litter
0.12
Table
2. Percentage
reduction
in methane
* Adapted
from Genesis
Faraday,
2007band nitrous oxide emissions per tonne of product
from genetic improvement between 1988 and 2007
Kg GHG per
tonne of product
Methane
Layers
Broilers
Turkeys
Pigs
Dairy (milk)
Beef
Sheep
Adapted from Garwes, 2009.
30
20
0
17
25
0
1
Nitrous oxide
29
23
0
14
30
0
0
GWP100 (Global
warming
potential) *
25
23
0
15
16
0
1
* GWP100 is Global warming potential of the emissions over 100 years. The GWP100 is
expressed in CO2 equivalents and is mainly driven by emission of methane and nitrous oxide.
A Role for Genomic Selection
Improvement of the traits identified as essential in
mitigating the effect of climate change (Genesis Faraday,
2007a) is very challenging because of the difficulty and
high cost of recording, low heritability and antagonising
relationship with other traits of economic importance.
This combination of factors makes genetic improvement
through traditional methods slow though steady.
Genomic selection (Meuwissen eta al., 2001) has been
shown to have the potential for the rapid improvement of
traits especially those that are presently difficult to record
because of sex and age limitations as well traits that
presently can only be recorded on sacrificed relatives. It
is also promising for traits with low heritability because
Nigeria Poultry Science Journal
93
Growth Performance and Cost Benefits of Chicks and Growing Pullets Fed
Fermented and Unfermented Groundnut Husk Meal Based Diets
*BELLO, K. O., FANIMO, O. A., ERUVBETINE, D. and AINA, B. J.
College of Animal Science and Livestock Production
University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
P. M. B. 2240, Abeokta, Ogun State, Nigeria
*correspondence: kazeembello19@gmail.com
Abstract
Astudy comprising 2 experiments was conducted to evaluate the performance and cost benefits of chicks and
growing pullets in a 3 x 3 factorial arrangement of 3 main treated groundnut husk meal (Unfermented GHM,
Fermented GHM and Unfermented GHM supplemented with enzyme) and 3 levels of GHM (0, 30 and 60%)
as replacement for wheat offal. Dominant brown pullets (540) were randomly allocated to 9 diets. Records
of their growth parameters and cost per diet were taken and analyzed statistically. The results revealed that
treated GHM influenced (P<0.05) the feed intake and cost of daily feed intake of pullets chicks while GHM
levels significantly (P<0.05) influenced the final weight, weight gain, feed conversion ratio, protein
efficiency and cost of feed intake of starting pullets. The mortality of growing pullets decreased (P<0.05)
from 3.54 to 0.95% with increasing GHM levels. The Study concluded that fermented GHM could serve as
replacement for wheat offal up to 60 % replacement levesl in diest of chicks and 60% in Unfermented GHM
diets supplemented with enzyme for growing Pullets.
Key words: Fermented Groundnut Husk, Unfermented Groundnut Husk, Enzyme, Chicks, Growing pullets.
Introduction
Biofuel production through the use of maize,
additional energy requirement for industrial growth
and the expected increase human population by
st
mid-term of 21 century poses a serious threat to the
environment and the required basic needs of man
(Daly, 1993; Eruvbetine, 2008). The ways out to
these challenges are to produce plants/crops that
maintain the earth's ecosystem without
compromising its bio-diversity and minimizing
waste through recycling (FAO, 1995). Livestock
play a symbiotic role. Therefore, priority should be
given to livestock species that combine efficiency
of conversion and productivity and have capacity to
use by-product and residues of cropping systems.
Poultry, undoubted is the preferred animal species
(Cardozo 1993).
Nigeria is the 3rd leading producers of groundnut in
the world (FAOSTAT, 1999) and it is an important
component of Nigerians' diets. About 5 percent of
the estimated 58.9gm of crude protein available per
94
TABLE 1:
Ingredients
(%)
Maize
Soybean
Meal
Groundnut 11.00 11.00
cake
20.00 14.00
Wheat
offal
UFGHM
6.00
FGHM
UFGHM + Enzyme
Fish Meal
3.00
3.00
Bone Meal 2.50
2.50
Oyster
0.50
0.50
Shell
Lysine
0.20
0.20
Methionine 0.30
0.30
Premix*
0.25
0.25
Salt
0.25
0.25
Total
100.00 100.00
Calculated Analysis (%)
Crude
20.21 19.72
Protein
Crude fibre 7.63
7.63
3.53
3.49
Ether
1.06
1.06
Extract
Calcium
Phosphorus 0.69
0.69
FGHM
30%
5
47.00
15.00
60%
6
47.00
15.00
UFGHM + ENZYME
0%
30%
60%
7
8
9
47.00 47.00 47.00
15.00 15.00 15.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
8.00
20.00
14.00
8.00
20.00
14.00
8.00
12.00
-
6.00
-
12.00
-
-+
6.00+
12.00+
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
19.60
20.21
19.89
19.53
19.79
19.60
20.10
7.33
3.64
1.06
7.63
3.53
1.06
7.72
3.56
1.06
7.67
3.57
1.06
7.78
3.59
1.06
7.81
3.61
1.06
7.63
3.75
1.06
0.69
0.69
0.69
0.69
0.69
0.69
0.69
96
97
16.78
7.68
0.83
0.61
16.85
7.76
0.83
0.61
16.40
7.79
0.83
0.61
60%
3
45.00
15.00
3.50
13.20
19.80
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
16.86
7.76
0.83
0.61
0%
4
45.00
15.00
3.50
33.00
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
16.74
7.81
0.83
0.61
FGHM
30%
5
45.00
15.00
3.50
23.10
9.90
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
16.40
7.74
0.83
0.61
60%
6
45.00
15.00
3.50
13.20
19.80
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
UFGHM +
UFGHM
30%
2
45.00
15.00
3.50
23.10
9.90
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0%
1
45.00
15.00
3.50
33.00
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
Maize
Soybean Meal
Groundnut cake
Wheat offal
UFGHM
FGHM
UFGHM+
Bone Meal
Oyster Shell
Lysine
Methionine
Premix**
Salt
Total
Calculated Analysis (%)
Crude Protein
Crude fibre
Ether Extract
Phosphorus
Ingredients (%)
TABLE 2:
16.62
7.88
0.83
0.61
16.55
7.85
0.83
0.61
16.74
7.72
0.83
0.61
UFGHM + ENZYME
0%
30%
60%
7
8
9
45.00
45.00
45.00
15.00
15.00
15.00
3.50
3.50
3.50
33.00
23.10
13.20
-+
9.90+
19.80+
2.20
2.20
2.20
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
100.00
100.00
100.00
98
0.29
50.37
2.31ab
1.01
0.21
0.30
50.37
2.29b
Mortality (%)
Feed Efficiency
0.21
2.36a
50.48
0.28
0.20
1.52
46.75a
9.30
554.44
33.65
UFGHM + Enzyme
8.96b
9.40b
0.28b
0.27b
2.30b
2.29b
50.25
0.20b
0.20b
50.14
1.52
1.52
45.53
535.56b
560.00b
45.98
33.56
30 %
33.22
0%
Means within rows followed by different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05)
UFGHM
=
Unfermented Groundnut Husk
FGHM
=
Fermented Groundnut Husk
UFGHM + Enzyme =
Unfermented Groundnut Husk supplemented with Enzyme
ab
45.89ab
45.40b
9.62
572.22
9.71
577.78
33.45
FGHM
33.45
UFGHM
Main Effect of Treated and Levels of GHM on Performance and Cost Benefits of Pullet Chicks
Treated GHM
GHM Levels
Parameters
Table 3:
2.37a
50.84
0.31a
0.22a
0.51
46.53
10.26a
608.89a
33.78
60 %
0.02
0.06
0.01
0.01
0.77
0.35
0.25
14.07
0.13
SEM
99
Table 4: Interactive Effect of Treat ed and Levels of GHM on Performance and Cost Benefits
of Pullet Chicks
DIETS
Parameters
1
2
3
4
5
6
Initial Weight (g/bird)
33.22
33.56
33.59
33.22
33.56
33.59
Final Weight (g/bird)
603.33ab
570.00abc
523.33bc 623.33a
560.00abc 570.00abc
9.58abc
10.16ab
9.58abc
8.74bc
10.53a
Weight Gain (g/bird/day) 9.39abc
Mortality (%)
1.52
1.52
0.00
1.52
1.52
0.02
c
bc
bc
ab
bc
45.73
45.88
46.69
45.31
45.67bc
Feed Intake (g/bird/day) 44.58
Feed Efficiency
0.21abc
0.21abc
0.22ab
0.21abc
0.19bc
0.23a
ab
ab
a
b
ab
0.30
0.32
0.27
0.28
0.31a
Protein Efficiency Ratio 0.28
50.14b
50.14b
50.84a
50.14b
50.14b
50.84a
Cost Per Kilogram Diet
(N/kg)
Cost Per Feed Intake
2.23b
2.29b
2.33b
2.34b
2.27b
2.32b
(N/day)
abc
Means within rows followed by different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05)
8
33.56
513.33c
8.57c
1.52
45.55bc
0.19c
0.27b
50.47b
2.30b
7
33.22
550.00abc
9.23abc
1.52
46.66ab
0.20bc
0.26b
50.14b
2.34b
2.44a
9
34.16
600.00ab
10.10ab
1.52
48.03a
0.21abc
0.30ab
50.84a
0.006
SEM
0.04
4.69
0.08
0.26
0.12
0.002
0.003
0.02
100
37.32
3.32
0.122
0.72
37.66
3.19
Feed Efficiency
ab
3.98a
2.02b
Mortality (%)
3.38
37.66
0.70
0.112
1.52b
89.67
10.02
1326.11
Means within rows followed by different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05)
0.76
0.11
88.28
84.82
9.67
10.30
1317.00
3.22
37.42
0.72
0.114
3.54a
86.07
9.78
1312.67
3.34
37.42
0.72
0.113
3.03a
89.23
10.01
1306.67
3.33
37.79
0.74
0.118
0.95b
87.45
10.21
1394.89
1371.11
535.56
560.00
608.89
554.44
577.78
60 %
Table 5: Main Effect of Treated and Levels of GHM on Performance and Cost Benefits of Growing Pullets
Treated GHM
GHM Levels
Parameters
Unfermented
Fermented
Unfermented + Enzyme
0%
30 %
0.089
0.192
0.01
0.005
0.617
2.351
0.326
24.231
14.075
SEM
101
3.03ab
3.03ab
86.17
0.12
0.72
37.42
3.22
Mortality (%)
Feed Efficiency
abc
10.43
10.43
3.17
38.12
0.74
0.13
32.99
0.00b
10.47
1409.33
603.33ab
3.26
37.42
0.72
0.11
87.15
4.55a
9.32
1286.67
570.00abc
3.25
37.42
0.73
0.11
86,91
4.55a
9.66
1267.33
523.33bc
Means within rows followed by different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05)
3.18
37.42
0.70
0.12
86.17
1336.00
1368.00
570.00ac
560.00abc
3.46
37.12
0.82
0.11
90.77
4.55a
9.52
3.19
37.42
0.72
0.11
84.89
2.85ab
9.52
600.06ab
3.58
37.42
0.72
0.11
95.50
3.03ab
10.43
3.38
38.12
0.65
0.11
84.89
0.00b
10.11
1316.67 1378.33
550.00ab 513.33c
1397.00 1283.33
623.33a
Table 6: Interactive Effect of Treat ed and Levels of GHM on Performance and Cost Benefits
of Growing Pullets
DIETS
5
6
Parameters
1
2
3
4
0.03
0.06
0.01
0.002
0.78
0.00
0.11
8.08
4.69
SEM
nd
103
Relationship between hatching egg quality or incubation conditions and dayold chick quality
A
Summary
A bird's egg is a self-contained life-supporting system for the developing bird embryo. However, the weight and
quality of the day-old chicks depend on several factors. These factors may include pre-incubation and incubation
factors. Several studies have determined the effect of some of these influencing factors on broiler chick hatching
weight with little attention to post-hatch performance. In hatchery management, the judgement of the quality of a dayold chick is usually based on qualitative aspects, such as abnormalities and contamination. Thus, day-old chick quality
when removed from the hatcher seems to be an all-or-none question. But recently, methods for determining and
quantifying chick quality based on physical appearance were reported. Physical parameters for determining chick
quality were defined and scored according to the level of anomaly in the parameters. Also, the potential influence of
these parameters on post-hatch performance was reported. This paper reviews the different methods available for
measuring chick quality. It, also, provides an overview of incubation systems, incubation conditions and delay in feed
access, and their effects on day-old chick quality and post-hatch performance. All these factors have implications on
chick embryo physiology and development and consequently on the quality of the hatched chick. It is clear that
adaptations of the incubation/early post-hatch environment to the 'needs' of the embryo/hatchling could potentially
lead to improved post-hatch performance.
Pre-Incubation Factors
The successful development of the fertilized ovum
through the embryo and day-old chick is mainly
determined by hatching egg characteristics. Egg
characteristics involve several parameters which can be
classified into two groups namely physical and internal
characteristics. Egg physical characteristics include size,
shape, colour, cleanness, integrity of the shell, and
absence of shell malformations (Decuypere et al., 2001
and Narushin and Romanov, 2002). Egg internal
components include albumen, yolk and inclusions such
as blood, bloodspot or meat spot. All the factors that can
affect egg characteristics, within lines, strains or flock
are determined mainly by the age of the breeders and the
egg storage conditions (Williams, 1992).
Effects of age of breeders on egg characteristics
Flock age has a major impact on both external and
internal egg qualities. According to Bains (1994), hens
start to lay the eggs of the best quality by 35 weeks of age
and this progressively becomes worse as they reach 50
weeks of age. The effects of age and genotype of the
breeder parents on egg quality are well known
(Proudfoot, 1962; Kidwell, 1964; Fletcher et al., 1981,
1983).
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
Incubation conditions
Temperature
It is the most important single factor that affects
hatchability. Ancel et al., (1993) reported that the
optimum temperature for chicken embryo development
is between 37.5 to 38C (Table 1) and gives the highest
chick quality as well as the best hatch. The developing
embryo temperature is dependent on the incubator
temperature, the ability of heat transfer from the
incubator to the embryo and the metabolic heat
production of the embryo itself (French, 1997). The
chicken embryo is more sensitive to high than to low
temperature and the sensitivity to hyperthermia increases
as the embryo age increases (Wilson, 1991, French,
1997). Eggs incubated at high temperature (38.8C)
hatch earlier than those incubated at temperature of
35.8C (Decuypere et al., 1979).
106
108
Figure 1. Effects of storage duration, broiler breeders' age and turning duration on broiler chick juvenile growth
Abstract
In Kenya village chicken represents 81% of all (32m) the chicken (GOK, 2010). The chicken is preferred by many
consumers and comparatively commands higher market prices. Reports (Robert, 1992; GOK, 2006; Kaudia, 2002;
Kitalyi, 1998) indicate that village chicken has the potential to break the vicious cycle of poverty, malnutrition and
disease and improve social welfare of women who are the main custodians of the chicken. This has not been possible in
Kenya because productivity and income under natural production are very low with many rural smallholder farmers
living below the poverty line. The objective of the study was to investigate the effect of artificial incubation, brooding
and supplementation on productivity and to indentify key challenges to commercial production.
Key words: Village-Chicken, market-prices, poverty, malnutrition, disease, productivity
Introduction
In Kenya village chicken represents 81% of the total
number of chicken (GOK, 2010). However, the income
earned from selling village chicken remains low with
many farmers living below the poverty line even in areas
with large numbers of this chicken (Kaudia and Kitalyi,
2002). For example, in Kusa Nyando district, households
earn an average of US$ 0.23 per person per month from
sale of village chicken in the local market (Kaudia, 2002)
According to Roberts (1992), village chicken has the
potential to break the vicious cycle of poverty,
malnutrition and disease. According to Sonaiya (1990),
production of village chicken has however, attracted little
attention from policy-makers, scientists and development
workers possibly due to its low productivity compared to
exotic breeds.
Pandey (1992), Aini (1990) and Kitalyi (1998) reported
that improved poultry production common with exotic
broilers and layers has not been applied on village
chicken. Village chicken therefore suffers high mortality
because of starvation, lack of water, predation and
diseases. Consequently, benefits of keeping village
chicken are not currently being realized in Africa
particularly south of the Sahara. The objective of this
research is to investigate the effect of artificial hatching
and incubation on the productivity of village chicken.
Materials and Methods
Determining Productivity and Production Systems
A total of 250 households were interviewed to determine
village chicken productivity and production methods in
Kusa village of Nyando district. To estimate quantitative
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
Production parameters
Weight at first egg (kg)
Number of eggs 144 weeks
% Hatchability of fertile
Free range
1.2
85
58
Semi intensive
1.4
142
69
Intensive
1.8
176
77
Parent Flocks
Management
system
Free Range Hens
Semi Intensive
Hens
Intensive Hens
Semi
intensive
6
5.5
Intensive
Free range
Intensive
70
69
Semi
intensive
20
17
5
4
69
16
4
3.5
Intensive management resulted in faster growth rate, earlier attainment of market weight and
reduced mortalities.
114
Conclusions
Artificial incubation and improved management as well
as application of innovative technologies are the key
factors in improving productivity of village chicken.
The main challenges are free range system, failure to
apply innovative technologies, lack of coordination
mechanisms and lack of skilled human capital.
References
AINI, I. 1990. "Indigenous chicken production in
South-eastAsia", Worlds poultry, 46, 51-57.
GOK, 2010, National Censors Report
GOK 1999. Economic Survey. Livestock Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural
Development.
KAUDIA, T. J. 2002. Poultry Production in Kusa
(Unpublished)
115
Observations on the parasites and pathology of gastrointestinal tract of freerange chickens in Abeokuta, Southwestern Nigeria.
OLANIYI, M. O.,AKINYEMI, A.A., AKANDE, F..A., TAKEET M.I., AJAYI O.L. AND OLUGBOGI
E.I.
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta. Nigeria.
Correspondence: mosh_unaab@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study was aimed at identifying the parasites and associated pathology of gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of
indigenous domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) reared on free-range in Abeokuta and its environs
in Ogun state, Nigeria. GIT samples from fifty one (51) apparently healthy adult male and female chickens
were examined. Thirty (58.8%) were infected with at least one species of helminth and the infection was
predominantly polyparasitism. Six (6) species of helminths were recovered; these were Ascaridia sp.
(13.7%), Heterakis sp. (7.8%), Subulura sp. (11.8%), Raillietina sp. (45.1%), Choanotaenia sp. (17.6%),
and Amoebataenia sp (5.9%). However no trematode was recorded. Cestodes occurred more frequently
(P<0.05) than nematodes with Raillietina sp having the highest worm burden of 29.2%. Male fowls carried a
significant worm burden (P<0.05) than the females. Morphological appearance of lesions observed along the
GIT included catarrhal / haemorrhagic enteritis (60.8%), hypertrophy of intestinal wall with serosal oedema
(47.1%), mucosal hyperaemia with or without haemorrhagic exudates (17.6%), haemorrhagic caecal tonsils
(58.8%) and focal areas of ulceration in the intestinal mucosa (2.7%). The implication of the result is
discussed with reference to the management system, public health importance and control of helminthosis of
free-range chickens in the
study area and Nigeria at large.
Keywords: Helminth/free range chicken/gastrointestinal tract/pathology
Introduction
Rural poultry production, particularly free-range
chickens followed by ducks play a significant role
in the socio-economic development of Nigeria and
almost 90% of all rural families keep a small
number of indigenous chickens under traditional
free-range (Sonaiya, 2003). In Nigeria, the local
chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) is widely
reared traditionally on a free-range at a subsistence
level (Adegeye et al.,1988; Fakae and Paul-Abiade,
2003) with more than 80% of this poultry
population found in the rural areas (Sonaiya, 2003).
Homestead in rural and peri-urban areas in Nigeria
is estimated to keep 8 free-range chickens where
these chickens contribute over 90% of the internal
supply of poultry meat (Ikeme,1997) and cash
income when sold (Sonaiya, 2003).
Statistics had shown that there are over 150 million
poultry in Nigeria of which 102.8million are
indigenous (RIM report, 1993). Throughout the
developing world this birds are raised under
extensive system of management with little or no
supplementary feed and without any veterinary care
116
Results
A total of 51 intestinal samples were collected
during the study. 30 (58.82%) samples were
infected with at least a helminth. However the
infections were mainly polyparasitism. 6 helminths
species observed were: three nematodes namely:
Ascaridia sp. (13.7%), Heterakis sp. (7.8%), and
Subulura sp. (11.8%) and three cestodes viz
Raillietina sp. (45.1%), Choanotaenia sp. (17.6%),
and Amoebataenia sp (5.9%). No trematode was
recorded. The prevalence of each worm species are
shown in figure 1. The result showed a stastistically
significant difference (P<0.05) in the prevalence
and incidence rate of cestode and nematode
in the infected birds (Table 1).
The highest prevalence of infection in this study
was due to Rallietina spp (45.1%), followed by
Choanotaenia spp (17.6%). The prevalence and the
mean worm burden of the birds examined are as
shown in Table 1. Male birds carried significant
worm burden (P<0.05) than the female (Fig.2).
The common combinations of helminthes observed
in this study are presented in Table II. Coccidia
oocysts occurred in 26.8% of the studied chickens
and in all cases, oocysts occurred concurrently with
at least one helminth. Catarrhal/ haemorrhagic
enteritis (60.8%) topped the list of pathological
lesions observed, this is closely followed by
haemorrhagic caecal tonsils (58.8%), and other
lesions are hypertrophy of intestinal wall with
serosal oedema (47.1%), mucosal hyperaemia with
or without haemorrhagic exudate (17.6%)
and focal ulceration of intestinal mucosa (2.7%).
Of the coccidia oocysts observed in this study,
Eimeria brunetti had the highest infection rate
followed by E. tenella. Rallietina spp and Ascaridia
galli were found attached to the small intestinal
mucosa particularly the ileum resulting into focal
areas of ulceration observed in this study.
Discussion
The present study recorded a relatively high
prevalence (58.87%) of helminth in the
traditionally reared free range chickens; this figure
was lower than the previous studies by Fabiyi
(1972) and Fakae et al., (1991). This could be as a
result of the fact that people are becoming more
enlightened on the need to give proper
management.
117
Table 1: Frequency, worm burden and female to male ratio of helminths species recovered
from the proventriculus and Small intestine of free range chicken in Abeokuta.
Helminth species
No infected
Total number
Of chicken
infected
Total number
Sampled =51
Mean
Male : female
Ratio
45.1
29.2
3 :1
17.6
9.4
3.5 :1
5.9
3.5
1 :2
26
11
37
68.6
Ascaridia galli
13.7
7.2
1 : 0.6
Heterakis gallinarum
7.8
6.8
1 : 0.4
Subulura spp.
11.8
4.1
2:1
14
17
31.5
Cestodes:
Ralietina
Choanotaenia
Amoebotaenia
Total cestode
Nematode:
Total nematode
(%)
18
25
Table 2. Common combinations of GIT worms observed in the free-range chickens during
the study.
Genera
Infection rate (%)
Rallietina spp alone
52.8
Subulura spp
22.9
Rallietina spp and Heterakis spp
8.2
Rallietina spp, Heterakis spp and Ascaridia galli
5.8
Rallietina spp, Heterakis spp, Coccidia and Ascaridia galli
26.8
The high prevalence recorded in this study might be
a result of continuous exposure of free range
chickens to conditions that facilitate infections.
Throughout the developing world indigenous free
range chickens are known to scavenge for survival
with little or no supplementary feeding (Fakae et
al., 1991). They satisfy their nutrient requirement
by roaming from place to place usually seeking
their feed in the superficial layer of the soil which
often are contaminated with all kinds of living
organisms including various insects and
earthworms which serves as intermediate hosts for
helminthes that infect poultry (Fakae et
al., 1991,Ashenafi and Eshetu, 2004).
The highest prevalence of infection in this study
was due to cestode (68.6%) of which Rallietina spp
118
35
Prevalence (%)
30
25
20
Male
Female
15
10
5
ai
lli
et
in
a
sp
.
ho
an
ot
ae
ni
a
sp
Am
.
oe
ba
ta
en
ia
sp
.
As
ca
rid
ia
sp
.
H
et
er
ak
is
sp
.
Su
bu
lu
ra
sp
.
Helminths species
Fig. 1: Prevalence and incidence rate of gastrointestinal helminths of free-range chickens inAbeokuta.
60
50
Number (%)
40
30
20
10
0
Male
Female
Sex
Fig. 2: Frequency distribution showing prevalence of infection in male and female birds.
119
121
122
123
Dr R. Kassali (Poultry
Economics and French abstract
sub-editor)
Department of Agricultural
Economics, Obafemi Awolowo
Education : B Sc.
(Agriculture), University of
Niamey, Niger; M Sc, PhD
(Rural Economics), University
of Cocody, Cote de Voire.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Research
interest is focused on the economics of poultry products
in Nigeria. Has a number of publications to his credit.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Member:
Nigerian Association of Agricultural Economists,
Farm ManagementAssociation of Nigeria.
ProfessorA.O.Adebambo
Address: Department ofAnimal Breeding and Genetics,
University ofAgriculture,Abeokuta, Nigeria
Education : B.Sc. (Hons) Animal Science; Ph.D
Animal Breeding (University of Ibadan, Nigeria)
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Research focus is
on evaluation of indigenous livestock genetic resources
for effective utilization and the development of new
strains and breeds of truly tropical livestock breeds for
the Nigerian market. So far 2 new breeds of pigs,
namely the NIGERHYBS I and II, and 2 new strains
of chicken namely, Alpha White (meat-type) and Alpha
Brown (egg-type) are the results of several years of
research for the Nigerian farmer. The First and only
female Professor of Animal Breeding and Genetic in
West Africa. Recipient of several research grants,
scholarships, study and research fellowships. Has
supervised/advised over 25 graduate students. Has over
80 scientific publications including edited books,
reports and peer reviewed papers.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Life member of
Genetics Society of Nigeria and Nigerian Society for
Animal Production and member, British Society for
Animal Production; American Society for Animal
Science; Rare Breeds International (World Society for
Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources); World
Poultry ScienceAssociation.
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Professor S. Yalcin
Address: Department of
Animal Science, Ege
University, Turkey
Education: B.S., PhD, Ege
University, Izmir-Turkey
Scholarly Interests and
Publications: Her current
researches are on genotype by
environment interactions,
adaptation and prenatal stress, developmental stability
in broilers, broiler carcass and meat quality. Has over 70
scientific publications. Professional
Organization/Affiliations: Secretary of WPSA Turkish
Branch, elected 1999 and Chairman of WG11
(Education and Information) of WPSA European
Federation since 2004.
Professor O.Adeola
Address: Department of
Animal Sciences,
Purdue
University, West Lafayette, IN
47907, USA.
Education: Ph.D. in Animal
Science with Distinction,
Univ. of Guelph, Canada; M.
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Dr V. Olori
Address: Aviagen Inc., Scotland, United Kingdom
Education: PhD (Quantitative Genetics / Animal
breeding), University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh,
Scotland, M. Sc. , B. Agric in Animal Science, Obafemi
Awolowo University Ile - Ife, Nigeria.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Dr Olori is a
System Geneticist with Aviagen ltd., a poultry breeding
company with breeding programs for broiler Chickens
and Turkeys. He is responsible for the routine genetic
evaluation of several pure lines of Chickens and Turkeys
in the breeding programs within the Aviagen portfolio.
He is equally involved in research as well as genetic
system (computing) developments to facilitate and
enhance accuracy of breeding selection. He has
published extensively with over 50 peered reviewed
journal articles, book chapters, conferences
proceedings, abstracts and technical report.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Member of
Nigeria Society of Animal Production (NSAP);
International Network for Rural Poultry Development
(INFPD); Canadian Society of Animal Science (CSAS);
and Irish GrasslandAssociation (IGA).
Professor Hui Li
Address: College of Animal
S c i e n c e & Te c h n o l o g y
Northeast Agricultural
U n i v e r s i t y, H a r b i n ,
Heilongjiang Province, 150030,
P. R. CHINA
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
Dr K.M. Shouq
Address: 392-A, Samanabad
Faisalabad Pakistan-38070
Education:
D . V. M
(University Of Agriculture
Faisalabad, Pakistan) F.Sc
Agriculture (University Of
Agriculture Faisalabad,
Pakistan); S.S.C Sargodha
Board.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Dr Shouq has
been editor to many publications including;
www.agrilive.com.pk; www.pakissan.com; livestock
and poultry information network (LPIN); veterinary
news and views weekly; agricultural news agency
Pakistan; poultry and livestock industry finders (PLIF)
and many others.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Life Member
of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Association and Pakistan
Veterinary Medical Council (RVMP-84); Secretary
Pakistan Veterinary Medical Association Punjab Zone;
Secretary Advisory Board Pakistan Veterinary Medical
Association Punjab Zone; Secretary, World Poultry
ScienceAssociation, Pakistan Branch.
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