Roads Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife

Roads,
Sensitive Habitats
and Wildlife
Environmental Guideline for
India and South Asia
Asha Rajvanshi
Vinod B. Mathur
Geza C. Teleki
Sujit K. Mukherjee
Roads,
Sensitive Habitats
and Wildlife
Environmental Guideline for
India and South Asia
Asha Rajvanshi
Vinod B. Mathur
Geza C. Teleki
Sujit K. Mukherjee
CEC Canadian Environmental Collaborative Ltd.
Published by
Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
Post Box # 18, Chandrabani
Dehradun - 248001 INDIA
Tel : +91-135-640111 to 115; Fax : +91-135-640117
Website : http://www.wii.gov.in
In collaboration with
Canadian Environmental Collaborative Ltd. (CEC)
410 Mill Wood Road,
Toronto , Ontario, CANADA M4S 1K2
Tel : +1-416-488-3313; Fax : +1-416-488-2468
Wildlife Institute of India, 2001
All rights reserved.

Apart from the purpose of study, research, review and the application of environmental
guidelines in road planning, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or
otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN 81-85496-10-2
Citation
Asha Rajvanshi, Vinod B. Mathur, Geza C. Teleki and Sujit K. Mukherjee
(2001). Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife: Environmental Guideline for
India and South Asia. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun and Canadian
Environmental Collaborative Ltd., Toronto.
Word Processing and Layout
Mukesh Arora and Narinder Singh Bist
Map Illustrations
Panna Lal, Dinesh S. Pundir and M. Veerappan
Typesetting
and Printing
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Tel : +91-135-655748
Distributor
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23-A New Connaught Place, P.O. Box 137,
Dehradun - 248001, India
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Cover
Concept : Asha Rajvanshi and Vinod B. Mathur
Design : Mukesh Arora and Abhimanyu Gahlot
Photographs : Personal collection of authors
iii
CONTENTS
PREFACE, vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, ix
PART I THEORY AND PRACTICE

1.
ROADS AND WILDLIFE: THE RELATIONSHIP, 1

1.1 Wildlife, 2
1.1.1 Economic Values, 2
1.1.2 Ecological Values, 3
1.1.3 Recreational Values, 3
1.1.4 Scientific Values, 3
1.1.5 Spiritual, Cultural and Religious Values, 3
1.2 Roads, 4
1.2.1 South Asia, 6
1.2.2 Road Project Categories, 6
1.3 Roads and Wildlife, 7
1.4 The Target Audience, 8
1.5 Using the Guide, 9
1.6 Additional Sources of Information, 10
1.7 References, 10
2.
PROTECTED AREAS, WILDLIFE AND ROADS:

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES, 13
2.1 Impacts of Roads, 13
2.1.1 Habitat Fragmentation and Modification, 14
2.1.2 Restriction of Animal Movements: The Barrier Effect, 15
2.1.3 Injury and Mortality of Wildlife, 16
2.1.4 Soil Erosion and Sedimentation, 18
2.1.5 Environmental Contamination, 18
2.1.6 Noise, 19
2.1.7 Human Colonization-induced Disturbances, 19
2.2 Cause-and-Effect Relationships and Impact Types, 20
2.2.1 Direct Impacts, 20
2.2.2 Indirect Impacts, 20
2.2.3 Cumulative and Synergistic Impacts, 21
iv
2.3 Impact Significance, 21

2.4 References, 23
3. ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS, LEGISLATION
AND PROCESS, 25
3.1 India, 25
3.1.1 The Institutional Framework, 25
3.1.2 Project Proponents, 26
3.1.3 Regulatory Agencies, 26
3.1.4 Other Stakeholders, 26
3.1.5 Facilitators, 27
3.1.6 Contractors, 28
3.1.7 Legislation, Policies and Guidelines, 28
3.1.8 Environmental Quality Standards, 30
3.1.9 The Clearance Process, 33
3.2 EA in the Region, 36
3.2.1 Bangladesh, 36
3.2.2 Bhutan, 37
3.2.3 Nepal, 38
3.2.4 Pakistan, 39
3.2.5 Sri Lanka, 41
3.3 References and Sources of Information, 44
4.
ECOSYSTEMS, IMPACTS AND MITIGATIVE

MEASURES, 47
4.1 Ecosystem Types and Sensitivity, 47
4.1.1 Aquatic Ecosystems, 47
4.1.2 Coastal Ecosystems, 48
4.1.3 Desert Ecosystems, 48
4.1.4 Mountain and Alpine Ecosystems, 48
4.1.5 Savannah and Grassland Ecosystems, 49
4.1.6 Forest Ecosystems, 50
4.1.7 Special Ecosystems: Caves, Coral Reefs and
Micro-Climatic Zones, 52
4.2 Impacts, 53
4.2.1 Habitat Modifications, 53
4.2.2 Barrier Effect of Roads, 59
4.2.3 Animal Mortality, 62
4.2.4 Human Use Problems, 63
4.2.5 Tourism, 65
4.2.6
4.2.7
4.2.8
4.2.9
Hunting, 66
Fires, 67
Resource Exploitation, 67
Erosion and Sedimentation, 67
4.3 Mitigative Measures and Best Practices, 68

4.3.1 Mitigating Fragmentation and Isolation, 71
4.3.2 Compensation for Habitat Fragmentation or Loss, 73
4.3.3 Mitigating the Barrier Effect, 74
4.3.4 Preventing Vehicle-Wildlife Collisions, 76
4.3.5 Mitigating Human Use Problems, 77
4.3.6 Mitigating Erosion and Resulting Siltation and
Sedimentation, 79
4.4 References, 80
5.
METHODS AND TOOLS, 89

5.1 Environmental Assessment and Decision Making, 91
5.2 Screening and Scoping, 91
5.2.1 Checklists, 94
5.3 Collecting the Information, 95
5.3.1 Baseline Studies, 95
5.3.2 The Field Survey, 95
5.4 Defining Impacts: The Available Tools, 98
5.4.1 Matrices, 98
5.4.2 Networks, 99
5.4.3 Overlays and Computerized Mapping, 100
5.4.4 Predictive Models, 103
5.4.5 Expert Systems, 104
5.5 Summary, 105
5.6 Significance, 107
5.6.1 Magnitude of Impacts, 107
5.6.2 Duration of Impacts, 108
5.7 Remedial Measures, 109
5.7.1 Avoidance, Mitigation and Enhancement, 109
5.7.2 Compensation, 110
5.8 Public Consultation as Part of Mitigation Planning, 110
5.9 Follow-up, 112
5.9.1 Compliance Monitoring, 112
5.9.2 Effects Monitoring (Evaluation), 113
vi
5.9.3
The Environmental Management Action Plan

( EMAP), 113
5.10 Suggested Practice, 114

5.11 Useful Websites Concerning EA, Wildlife Methods, and
Models, 115
5.12 References, 117
6.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION, 121
PART - II CASE STUDIES

1.
Road and Rail Network Development and Gir National Park

and Sanctuary, 131
2.
Kohalpur-Mahakali Highway Project, Nepal, 139
3.
Mumbai-Pune Expressway Project, 147
4.
Linear Developments and Elephant Movement in Rajaji-Corbett Conservation

Area, 155
5.
Colombo-Katunayake Expressway Project: Integrating Environmental Considerations in Project Planning, 163
6.
Andhra Pradesh State Highway Rehabilitation and Maintenance

Project: The Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road, 173
ANNEXURES
Annexure I
- Glossary, 181
Annexure II Sample of Environmental Management Action Plan, 193

INDEX, 208
vii
PREFACE
The distribution of the World Banks Roads and the Environment

Handbook (since 2000, as an electronic document on the Banks web site)
marked the start of a new approach to guidebooks for the World Bank;
namely the creation of a parent Handbook on environmental issues related
to land transportation development, with a view to encouraging more detailed
region or topic-specific handbooks.
This Guideline is the first such offspring and its initiation can be
credited to Dr. Chris Hoban, now the Banks resident advisor in New Delhi.
The original thought was to call this document a Best Practice
Guide focusing on tigers and leopards. In undertaking the background
investigation and examining lessons learned with other projects, it became
clear that limiting the guide to a few charismatic species would do little to
advance road-wildlife impact reduction and that there is often no Best
Practice, but rather a number of well documented approaches and avoidable
pitfalls in the planning of land transportation development in proximity of
sensitive wildlife habitats. It was therefore felt that a broader framework
was needed and that Environmental Guideline would be a more
appropriate title.
Land transportation projects are perhaps the greatest direct and
indirect causes of wildlife degradation in any type of development project.
Not only can they bring out physical displacement of species and cause
habitat degradation but they can also induce increased resource stress and
depletion by making human access to an area possible or easier. Thus, it
was considered to bring out this Guideline.
Well known mitigative measures exist, yet they are typically poorly
understood and implemented. A basic how-to guideline was therefore
considered to be a useful tool for Bank staff, borrowers and consultants in
South Asia, but also for the land transportation sector as a whole.
The work was also given a regional emphasis, since there is a huge
emphasis on road development in India and South Asia. For example, in
India over 13,000 km of roadway is now in the planning stage and 11,285
km in Sri Lanka and 201,182 km in Bangladesh are now already in use.
With this activity there are consistent documented recurring environmental
viii
concerns related to roads and wildlife. As well, the countries in the region
are in the process of strengthening their environmental institutions,
regulations and policies, and this Guide was seen as contributing to this
momentum.
It is hoped that it will inspire others to contribute case studies on
lessons learned. The teams idea is to create a web-based document, where
the submission of case studies would be encouraged, then added to the
website database and made available to all users. I hope that this volume
will stimulate other regional, national or sub-sector specific works, such as
for Pakistan, or Bangladesh or coastal zones and urban transportation.
The Guideline, in its present form, evolved from a need to provide a
critical mass of information to transportation sector professionals. Based
on a knowledge of the expectations of Indian and South Asian professionals,
the notion of a short report as originally envisioned by the World BankWII-CEC team, did not meet that need. After consulting the Bank, WII
and CEC Ltd. moved forward to publish this volume. This Guideline will
also be available, in a slightly abridged form, on WIIs and CECs website.
Geza C. Teleki
President, CEC Ltd.
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project was funded through the Canadian Environmental Trust
Fund of the World Bank, and in that regard we appreciate the World Banks
and Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and the
Government of Canadas support. Dr. Chris Hoban, Transportation Group,
World Bank headquarters (now resident advisor in New Delhi), initiated
the idea for this endeavour and secured the funding. Mr. Anil Somani, a
Senior Environmental Specialist with the Bank, undertook a technical
review of the draft document. These two key involvements are gratefully
acknowledged by the authors.
We are grateful to Dr. R. Anandkumar, Director, Impact
Assessment Division, Dr. S. Bhomick and Dr. S.K. Aggarwal, Additional
Directors, Impact Assessment Division of the Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Govt. of India for their unfailing support in providing technical
information on the procedural aspects of environmental clearance in the
Indian EIA system.
Mr. Paneer Selvam, and Ms. Sonia Kapoor, both environmental
specialists of the World Bank (India Office) shared their professional
experience with environmental assessments of several Bank funded projects
with us. Their inputs benefited us immensely.
Interactions with a large number of people enabled us to improve
the contents of the case studies provided in this document. We sincerely
acknowledge the contributions of Mr. H.S. Panwar, Former Director, Wildlife
Institute of India, Mr. Mahesh Singh, DCF (Wildlife), Sasan, Gir, Mr. A.P.
Singh, Civil Engineer, U.P. Irrigation Department, Mr. Jhamak Karki,
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal and Mr.
H.D.V.S. Vattala, Central Environment Authority, Sri Lanka.
At the Wildlife Institute of India, we sincerely thank Mr. Bivash
Pandav and Mr. Kartikeyan Vasudevan, faculty members and Mr. M.K.S.
Pasha and Mr. G. Arindran, research scholars, for their valuable inputs in
the development of case studies. We thank Dr. Yogesh Dubey and Mr.
Prakash Dash for their assistance in literature search. Computing, designing
and mapping efforts of Mr. Narinder Singh Bist, Mr. Mukesh Arora, Dr.
Navneet Gupta, Mr. Panna Lal, Mr. Dinesh Pundir, Mr. Muthu Veerappan
and Late Shanmugam of the EIA Cell and GIS & Computer Centre of
the WII are sincerely acknowledged. We thank Mr. M.S. Rana and the
staff of the WII Library and Documentation Centre for providing valuable
support for this work.
In Canada, we are grateful for the expert technical editorial work
of Mr. Simeon Stairs, and Maya Katal, both with CEC Ltd. They
contributed very significantly in enhancing the quality of this document.
Over the duration of the project, a number of other colleagues provided
suggestions and valuable reactions to components of the work. Their input
is also acknowledged.
Dehra Dun, India and

Toronto, Canada
Asha Rajvanshi
Vinod B. Mathur
Geza C. Teleki
Sujit K. Mukherjee
vii
PART I
THEORY AND PRACTICE
1. ROADS AND WILDLIFE: THE

RELATIONSHIP
n 1997, the World Bank published Roads and the Environment: A

Handbook (World Bank Technical Paper No. 376), a guide designed to
encourage the integration of environmental considerations into road projects
by all Bank borrowers. The handbook is generic, drawing on the experience
of many agencies, including the World Bank. One of the Banks intentions
with the publication of the handbook was to provide a template from which
could spring subject-specific or regional guidelines. This Guide for India and
South Asia is the first of such follow-up documents.
The donors transportation sector lending portfolio for India alone
exceeds 2 billion dollars, and projects throughout the country (e.g. Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan) have had or are facing environmental
problems. Environmental Assessments (EAs) and related analyses are
increasingly being turned down or approved only subject to extensive
conditions. Such outcomes often stem from inadequate treatment of wildliferelated issues.
Lessons already learned in India and throughout the region about how
roads and the environment can co-exist are an invaluable resource that can
be used in the search for environmentally appropriate solutions to road-wildlife
conflicts. Unfortunately, road developers rarely turn to the large body of past
experience because a) they are not aware that such information exists, or b)
if they are aware that it exists, they either have no idea how to obtain it or
the acquisition process is cumbersome and bureaucratic. Consequently, instead
of drawing on past experience, road developers seem to make the same mistakes
again and again. The idea that wildlife and its habitats get in the way of
roads reflects a common and persistent mindset, and a growing problem in
India as well as in most parts of the world.
Clearly, there is a need to make lessons learned from past experiences
with road development and wildlife in the region more readily available to
the people who are involved in the road development process. The lack of
accessible information on past projects is particularly acute at the state level
and not much better nationally. This Guide is intended to highlight lessons
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
learned and to provide practical instructions for avoiding and managing

conflicts between roads and wildlife.
1.1 Wildlife
Recent estimates of the total number of species on the planet range from
13 to 14 million, of which only about 1.4 million species (see Table 1.1) have
been scientifically described (Wolf 1987). The tremendous variety of
organisms, the genetic material they contain, and the ways in which they
interact with each other and their
Table1.1
1.1 Species
Speciesestimates
estimates
environments constitute the planets Table
biological diversity, or biodiversity.
Life forms
Known species
Broadly defined, wildlife includes all
Lower plants, fungi
73,900
uncultivated flora and fauna and
and algae
thus is nearly synonymous with
Higher plants
248,400
biodiversity.
Micro-organisms
36,600
Biodiversity represents the

Invertebrates
116,873
natural biological capital of the earth,
Insects and arthropods
874,161
which present and future human
Fish
19,056
generations, communities, and
nations will continue to draw on for
Birds
9,056
life and development. People rely on
Herptiles
8,962
such biological wealth, and the
Mammals
4000
ecosystems that sustain it, to provide
Total
1,391,008
innumerable direct and indirect
benefits. Wildlife supports many Source:
Source:IUCN
IUCN1996
1996
consumptive and non-consumptive
economic activities, as well as many other pursuits, such as recreation,
scientific research and education. Wildlife is also a key element of aesthetic,
spiritual, and religious experience. The protection of wildlife and its habitats
makes a great deal of sense in light of the many values that they have for the
people of India and the world.
1.1.1 Economic Values
Economic uses of wildlife include commercial harvesting of wildlife
products to be sold in formal markets, a benefit implicitly reflected in national
income accounts. Wildlife products are also directly consumed without
entering the channels of trade. Genetic material, species, ecological
communities, and even biological processes are used to meet the human need
for food and drink; clothing and fabrics; building and manufacturing
materials; fuels; and medicines.
Roads and WildLife: The Relationship
1.1.2 Ecological Values

Direct ecological benefits of healthy ecosystems include ecosystem services
such as cleansing of the atmosphere; maintenance of soil fertility; and
dispersal, breakdown and recycling of wastes. Forests and wetlands regulate
the runoff of water from the hills; coral reefs, mangroves and salt marshes
shield the coast from storms and protect against coastal erosion; microorganisms clear the earth of dead and decaying matter; and many species of
animals exert biological controls on pests and disease vectors. Such ecological
functions contribute to both the economic and social well-being of humans.
1.1.3 Recreational Values
Wildlife also has an enormous recreational value in terms of the
maintenance of the psychological well-being of people. Studies have shown
the damaging effects on the human psyche due to long-term isolation from
nature, as is the case with many urban dwellers. Increasingly, people are
looking to the natural world as an escape and as a means of enrichment of
their lives and fulfillment of aesthetic tastes. Nature-based psychological
renewal is becoming increasingly important in India and elsewhere. All of
this translates into strong economic values, as is demonstrated by the growth
in ecotourism and other nature-based forms of recreation.
1.1.4 Scientific Values
Wild genetic resources are used in strengthening the gene pools of
economically important animals and plants, for recombinant DNA research,
and the biosynthesis of new products. The success of animal husbandry in
developing improved crossbreeds of livestock is dependent on breeding trials
with different kinds of genetic resources taken from the wild.
Wildlife species are also sentinels of the health of our ecosystems (NRC
1991). For example, protozoa, bryophytes and lichens, as well as fish and
mollusks, are used as reliable indicators of air and water quality degradation.
Bird species have generally been employed as indicators of pesticide presence,
and the top carnivores in terrestrial ecosystems are considered as indicators
of the richness of the prey base and the overall health of the natural
environment.
1.1.5 Spiritual, Cultural and Religious Values
Reverence for nature is the unifying ethical principle of Hinduism and
Buddhism, and is evident in some other religions. All life is deemed sacred,
and each creature has its own place and function in natures mosaic. At the
root of Buddhas teachings was the view that all wild creatures enjoyed
privileged positions of protection. Wild animals such as the lion, elephant,

monkey, pea fowl, swan and owl have been revered in Hindu mythology
and many trees are held sacred and are worshipped. The ancient Hindu rulers
were greatly influenced by the environmental philosophies of Hindu epics and
promoted nature conservation. As early as the 3rd century BC, emperor
Ashoka designated areas as protected, perhaps the first such governmental
decree on record anywhere. Animals and plants have found special places
in the religions of many tribal and rural communities as well. Worship of
trees and animals are among the elements of animism practiced by many
South Asian tribal populations.
The enormous pressure to convert wildlands to agricultural uses, fueled
by massive population growth, has meant that India has had to compromise
(somewhat) its remarkable conservation ethic. The story is the same for other
South Asian countries. Roads have played a pivotal part in this change.
1.2 Roads
In 1994, India had 3 million km of roads, of which about 50% were
surfaced (Table 1.2). As of 1997, the Ministry of Surface Transport was
planning almost 1,300 km of new roads for its national highway system.
Table 1.2 Statistics of Indian roads
Road length (km)
Category
Total (T)
Surfaced (S)
1991
1992
1993
1994
All India
T
S
2350365
1112521
2485783
1159741
2716291
1283259
2919439
1431378
Highways
T
S
1953829
945509
2083946
989646
2299084
1102856
2494465
1156146
National and state

highways & PWD roads
T
S
670396
549177
683316
562196
659628
563122
667265
570888
Panchayat roads
T
S
954291
330504
959782
339281
1075411
426925
1085769
436972
Rural roads
T
S
329142
65828
440848
88169
564045
112809
741431
148286
Urban roads (Municipal,

railway and port roads)
T
S
186799
136644
189352
137325
195150
141110
200368
145497
Forest roads
T
S
127385
30368
127752
32770
127889
39293
130118
39735
Project roads (irrigation

and electricity)
T
S
67363
15733
69521
17257
74101
20433
74223
20561
Source: Government of India 1997
In addition to the already

ambitious existing road design and
construction programme, in early
1999 India announced plans to
construct, by 2010, a national expressway system stretching across the
country for 13,000 km, from north to
south and east to west (see Table
1.3). The national network would
involve many new alignments,
certain to present many conflicts with
the countrys protected areas (national
parks and wildlife sanctuaries) and
wildlife. The potential for serious and
permanent negative effects on wildlife
resources is high (see Box 1.1).
Table 1.3 Current and proposed roadwork in India: 1996-2003

Road project
Golden quadrilateral
km
5952
NH2 Delhi Calcutta
1469
NH5&6 CalcuttaChennai
NH4, 7, 45 & 46
1745
Chennai Mumbai
1302
NH8 Delhi Mumbai
1436
North South and

EastWest cor ridors
7300
Source : National Highway Authority of India

1999
Box 1.1 Indias Golden Quadrangle Road Project

In early 1999 the Government of India (GOI) initiated its National Integrated Highway
Development Project (NIHDP). The objective of NIHDP is to build a 7300 km-long high
speed, six-lane controlled-access, toll way across the length and breadth of the country. The
estimated cost is Rs. 28,000 crore or $US 6 billion. The project will be implemented by the
National Highway Authority
through a host of funding
mechanisms, each triggering
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#
%
#%
#
%
%#
habitat conservation concerns
#
## #
#
#
#
#
#
#
Golden Quadrangle Road Project ##
#
%
%
%
###
North-South Road Corridor Project
###
##
into road development. This
#
#
#
#
#%
# #
East-West Road Corridor Project
# ##
#
#
#
#
Guide should prove to be a
#
%Existing National Park
%
#
## #
#
%
##
#
#
##
# Existing Wildlife Sanctuary
#
%
#
# KANYAKUMARI
valuable resource at all stages of
%
%Proposed National Park
%
#
#
%
#
%
# Proposed Wildlife Sanctuary
the work.
1.2.1 South Asia

Other South Asian countries are also undertaking large-scale road
development programmes and presently have road networks, ranging between
7,700 km in Nepal to 225,000 km in Pakistan. Bhutan, the smallest country,
has less than 1000 km of roads.
1.2.2 Road Project Categories
All road projects, without exception, can be expected to affect their
environments in some way. Projects can also be expected to vary in the nature
and extent of their effects on surrounding areas, including the wildlife found
in them. The setting in which a road project is to be undertaken and the
activities the project is to include are major determinants of the type and
severity of the impacts. Road projects can be grouped into four categories
with respect to their settings and the activities they entail:
z
z
z
z
(i)
new roads;
existing road rehabilitation/upgrades;
rural roads; and
urban roads.
New versus existing project types
Impacts associated with new and existing project types are significantly
different (see Box 1.2). The key difference is that, for new projects, the focus
is on preventing impacts from occurring, whereas for existing or upgrade
projects, the focus is on rehabilitating and mitigating existing chronic problems
stemming from past mistakes, as well as preventing new impacts from road
improvement and upgrading work.
(ii) Rural versus urban project types
In the rural setting, the key impacts usually revolve around loss of
productive agricultural lands and the opening up of previously inaccessible,
or marginally accessible, territory to in-migration, loss or degradation (e.g.
fragmentation) of healthy ecosystems as well as accelerated resource
extraction. Since rural life is so closely integrated with the biophysical aspects
of the environment, issues such as water quality and biodiversity conservation
deserve special consideration.
In the urban setting, where population densities are higher and the
connection to the biophysical environment is less significant, the dominant
impacts generally have to do with displacement of people and their homes,
Box 1.2 Comparison of key EA considerations for new versus upgrade or

rehabilitation projects
For a new facility the focus is on the proper technology, siting and avoidance of impacts
all together. The proponent must:
i.
justify the need and the use of a preferred technology;
ii.
describe the actions taking place during each of the main phases of a project
(construction, operation, and maintenance) which could lead to environmental damage
(for example, wildlife habitat fragmentation);
iii.
prepare alignment drawings which show the location of the facility relative to the local
bio-physical and socio-cultural environmental features;
iv.
identify the potential impacts of the facility relative to surrounding land use within a 5
km radius/corridor* of the facility; and
v.
formulate a plan to prevent anticipated undesirable impacts from occurring, such as

loss of wildlife habitat or migration corridors.
For existing facilities, which generally undergo enlargement or upgrading, the focus
should be on any necessary repair or rehabilitation of prior environmental damage. For
example, a road passing near or through a wildlife area where migration routes have been
cut and existing wildlife mortality is significant, special attention would be paid to realignment
of the road or the provision of wildlife passages (both over and underpasses). For existing
projects the analyst would:
vi.
define the nature of the proposed work and how it would change the existing facility;
vii. identify which, if any, aspects of the existing facility have caused unacceptable negative
impacts;
viii. analyze the combined effect of the rehabilitation action with that of the existing facility
operations; and
ix.
prepare an action plan for the repair of the past damage done and for the prevention
of any negative effects resulting from the new work. This requirement does not suggest
that the state of the environment in the study area must be brought back to the predevelopment conditon but rather that, at the very least, the degradation be halted and
the environment not be subjected to significant new negative impacts.
Width of a corridor to be studied depends on the legal requirements plus the predicted
extent of the impacts, identified during the project scoping. In India, corridor widths
often range from 50 to 1000 m (for new roads associated with sensitive features).
neighbourhood disruption, local air shed contamination, noise and aestheticvisual degradation. These effects can translate into serious health effects.
1.3 Roads and Wildlife

Changes in land use, exploitation and a fast-eroding natural resource
base threaten the structure and function of ecosystems that support the worlds
biological wealth (WRI, IUCN and UNEP 1992). Habitat loss and
fragmentation, invasion by introduced species, decline in primary productivity
of ecosystems, depletion of living resources, pollution of water and air, and
global climate change are some of the processes contributing to far-reaching

ecological and economic implications. Roads have been closely linked to many
of these processes and impacts, often as a fundamental cause. The single largest
threat to wildlife and indeed biodiversity is the loss of forested areas. The
pace at which prime tropical forests are being destroyed in Asia and other
parts of the world is alarming (see the FAO and WCMC websites
www.fao.org and www.wcmc.org). Habitat loss, disruption of ecosystem
functions, and extinction of species are among the most certain manifestations
of forest destruction. Even if the extinction of a given species does not occur,
it may become endangered due to the loss of genetic variability through
elimination or fragmentation of habitats. Roads are commonly associated
both directly and indirectly with deforestation and habitat fragmentation.
Aquatic biodiversity can also be significantly threatened by poorly designed
and laid out roads, which can constrict flows, prevent fish movement, flood
or drain areas, and degrade water quality (see Chapter 2 for greater detail).
Once lost or degraded, wildlife habitat is difficult or impossible to repair,
and the cost of ecological restoration can be very high, often far beyond the
means of most countries. Conservation of wildlife species stands out as the
best means of maintaining and possibly improving (or enhancing) natural
processes and components of the systems from which we derive so much value.
Environmentally sensitive road planning and operation is one component of
conservation which, in concert with effective regulations and credible
compliance monitoring and enforcement, can lead to better protection of
Indias and South Asias wildlife and especially its endangered animals and
plants. This Guide should become the base-level tool for road planners and
environmental practitioners of the region working to design and operate roads
in balance with an areas wildlife ecosystems.
1.4 The Target Audience

Just as good road project planning, management and execution requires
professional transportation engineers who are technically credible and
sensitive to environmental issues, road EAs require experienced environmental
professionals, supporting the engineering team. Since EA combines a good
deal of qualitative judgment with technical facts, the involvement of
experienced environmental specialists is essential. Such people should be
brought into the project planning process at a very early stage. While final
decisions on EAs are often made at the political level, EA practitioners,
working with the project engineers, should consider themselves as decision
shapers. With well-prepared and presented information, they can have great
influence on how EA-related decisions are made. EA practitioners (i.e. the
engineering-environment-social teams who assess road projects) will find the
Guide useful as a reference document, helpful in addressing a range of

environmental issues.
EA practitioners are by no means the only groups who will use this
Guide. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), research groups,
community organizations and government agencies, as well as any others
whose input is desired during both the project development and EA
implementation, are all potential users of this Guide. The target audience
therefore also includes transportation managers, planners, road designers and
engineers, technicians, and any environmental units within the responsible
transportation agencies. Contractors should also use this Guide.
1.5 Using the Guide

Part I of this Guide provides the first layer of information, guiding
the practitioner in the identification of the nature and scope of wildlife-road
problems and ways of resolving them. While it is a basic document, the Guide
should also be useful to professionals as a reference text and as a source of
case studies that highlight lessons learned and past experience with certain
practices as they affect wildlife habitat.
Users are urged to become familiar with the material presented in this
chapter and Chapter 2, and use Chapter 3 as a reference to the EA process
and related legislation in India. Chapter 3 also includes an overview of how
EA and wildlife-road issues are addressed elsewhere in South Asia.
Chapter 4 provides a summary discussion of the key impact types likely
to arise during or after implementation of a road project. Each impact type
is defined, and lessons learned and best practices are described. The chapter
can be used as a reference in constructing likely impact scenarios, and is most
useful if consulted during impact analysis and mitigation planning.
Chapter 5 provides a summary of the methods and tools applied at each
stage of environmental analyses. The methods and tools described are
considered to be examples of tested and effective practices that are in
compliance with the EA requirements of Indias Ministry of Environment
and Forests (MoEF), most South Asian nations environmental regulations
(see Chapter 3), as well as those of the International Finance Institutions
(IFIs).
Chapter 6 provides a set of important references and websites, which
address road and wildlife issues in India and in general. These references
are in addition to those found at the end of each chapter, some of which are
available at the library of the Wildlife Institute of India.
10
Part II includes six case studies, provided as examples of existing

wildlife-road issues and the EA work which should have been or was
undertaken to address them. They have been selected to cover a broad range
of wildlife-road issues. Collectively the cases present important lessons
learned from past work completed in India and South Asia.
1.6 Additional Sources of Information

The following databases, related to the execution of road-wildlife related
environmental studies, are available on the WIIs website (www.wii.gov.in)
which is updated regularly.
z
Indian environmental institutions, organizations, contacts and their

addresses and phone numbers;
Samples of key MoEF EA and related application forms;
Summary of Indias central and state level environmental laws and

regulations;
List of protected areas in India;
Listing of threatened and endangered wildlife in India;
Demographic and other Indian environmental statistics related to

roads and wildlife;
Indias regulations on ambient water, air and noise quality as well

as limits to emissions from motorized vehicles;
Indias National Wildlife Action Plan (1983);
Indias National Forest Policy (1988); and
Best-Use Classification for Indias Inland Waters.
1.7 References
Government of India (1997). Basic Road Statistics of India. Ministry of Shipping and Transport.
IUCN (1996). List of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
National Highway Authority of India (1999). News Update, Internet accessed
09/99. (http://www.nhai.org/north-south-east-west-corridor.htm)
11
National Research Council (NRC) of the USA (1991). Animals as Sentinels

of Environmental Health Hazards. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Wolf, E.C. (1987). On the Brink of Extinction: Conserving the Diversity.
World Watch Paper No. 78.
World Bank (1997). Roads and the Environment: A Handbook. Technical
Paper No. 376. The World Bank, Washington, DC.
WRI, IUCN and UNEP (1992). Global Biodiversity Strategy: Guidelines
for Action to Save, Study and Use Earths Biotic Wealth Sustainably
and Equitably. UNESCO -World Resources Institute.
2. PROTECTED AREAS, WILDLIFE AND

ROADS: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
ithin the past 50 years, Protected Areas (PAs) have become some of
the last refuges for wild plants, animals, and communities in India
and South Asia. Such PAs maintain characteristic and representative samples
of unique ecosystems and communities, and thereby protect and preserve
species and biotic communities of national and international significance.
They are often referred to as biodiversity conservation areas. Areas outside
PA boundaries can provide links between protected areas. These are essential
in ensuring the functional integrity of wildlife habitats and maintenance of
viable populations of rare and endangered species. The vast network of roads
in India and South Asia and the wide range of landscapes and habitats that
it affects has a significant bearing on the ecology and integrity of PAs and
the areas that serve as links between them. Considering the importance of
wildlife to human society, and the need for its conservation, the impacts of
roads on wildlife values must be managed throughout the life cycle of a road
project, including the planning, construction and operation periods.
The purpose of this section of the Guide is to synthesize the information

on wildlife impacts associated with road design, construction and operation.
The identification and description of these impacts will provide transportation
planners with a better understanding of what to avoid, improving the chances
that roads will be more compatible with the ecosystems through which they
pass, and that negative impacts are prevented and/or minimized.
2.1
Impacts of Roads
In the last decade, considerable research has established that the most
pervasive threats to biological diversity involve roads (World Bank 1997).
Review of the published literature reveals that the impacts of road projects
on wildlife values (see Figure 2.1) can be broadly grouped into the following
six categories:
z
habitat fragmentation and modification;
restriction of animal movements;
injury and mortality of wildlife species;
14
z
soil erosion and hydrological alterations;
environmental contamination; and
human colonization-induced disturbances.
SOURCE OF BIOTIC
AND ABIOTIC
EFFECTS
BARRIER
ROADSIDE HABITAT
7 ROAD KILL
HABITAT
MODIFICATION
ROADSIDE HABITAT
BARRIER
CONDUIT
FOR
MOVEMENT
Fig. 2.1 Schematic representation (after Van der Zande et al. 1980) of wildlife impacts
of road projects : Habitat modifications, animal movement restriction, mortality
of animals, induced biotic and abiotic disturbances.
2.1.1Habitat Fragmentation and Modification

The most significant effect associated with road construction and
operation is the fragmentation of large wildlife habitat areas into smaller
patches (Andrews 1990; Rebecca et al. 1996). This typically occurs when new
road alignments are established in previously undisturbed or little-disturbed
habitat areas. A single road can turn a habitat area into isolated units, while
a network of new roads can effectively reduce a contiguous habitat area to a
large number of discrete patches. Several small patches of habitat, even if
collectively equivalent in area to the original larger patch, are not its functional
equivalent. Gaps between habitat patches prevent dispersal and recruitment
of both individuals and species. Populations isolated in forest patches
surrounded by other habitat are often not of sufficient size to maintain
themselves over the long term without genetic exchange with other
populations of the same species (see Case Study No.3). Insularization of
populations generally leads to their decline and eventual demise, to the
detriment of the ecosystem. The nature of habitats is itself changed by the
creation of new ecotones (where cleared areas and forests meet) along new
patch borders. Higher proportions of edge habitat favour edge-adapted species
over those that rely on undisturbed interior forest habitat. While these changes
may in fact increase biodiversity, it would likely be at the expense of
indigenous species. Such changes must be planned and should not be
accidental.
Opening a road allowance through a forested area may also induce
micro-climatic changes, thereby bringing about modification of the ecosystem.
Protected Areas, Wildlife and Roads : Environmental issues
15
Typically, right-of-way clearing and subsequent thinning of roadside vegetation

during the operation phase exposes habitats near the road to the drying effect
of winds and the sun, which may eliminate favourable germination and
growing conditions for certain plant species surprisingly far from the road
cut itself. A drier micro-climate may also lead to increases in the incidence
of fire.
Roads passing near or sometimes through coastal mangroves and
estuarine wetlands pose a special threat. Wetlands in these areas are a mixture
of fresh and brackish water, with most plants depending on a constant blend
or mixing cycle, thus maintaining a specific level of salinity. Roads without
carefully planned cross drainage can cause severe and rapid destruction of
such areas by interfering with natural flushing and creating a saline imbalance,
leading to mass mortality of all organisms unable to tolerate new salinity
levels.
Losses for aquatic ecosystems can be particularly severe in areas where
streams are intermittent, i.e. they are dry during part of the year. In many
cases, such streams are important fish spawning waters during the wet season,
but can be easily obliterated by dry-season construction activities.
2.1.2 Restriction of Animal Movements: The Barrier Effect
Animals move to forage, find mates, seek shelter, reach breeding sites
and participate in social interactions. These movements occur on a variety
of spatial scales ranging from less than a meter for some invertebrates to
hundreds or thousands of kilometers for mammals and migratory birds.
Roads and railway tracks are one of the main obstacles to the movement of
land vertebrates (Bennett 1991). Three components of a road that can act as
barriers to the movement of terrestrial animals are (i) bare road surfaces; (ii)
altered roadside habitats, including deep roadside ditches and fences; and (iii)
the broad band of emissions and disturbances such as noise, dust, headlight
illumination, and airborne pollutants in the soil and vegetation. Wide
highways with high traffic volumes bring the highest levels of ecological
disturbance and present the greatest barriers to wildlife.
Construction of roads through wetlands and channelization of flowing
water where roads cross streams are significant barriers to free movement of
aquatic animals and can isolate and divide populations. Filling in of small
streams to allow crossings, and consequently blocking or channeling water
through culverts, can seriously restrict the movements of aquatic species.
Noise from construction equipment, blasting, and subsequent traffic on
roads also contributes to the barrier effect. Most animals are naturally afraid
of loud mechanical noises, and vehicle noise may not only dissuade them
16
from crossing roads, but also from using roadside habitat areas. The barrier
effect is less serious at night when traffic volumes on most roads are lower.
Wildlife barriers imposed by roads inhibit movements, change home
ranges, isolate populations and reduce genetic diversity and the ability of
populations to remain in equilibrium, (Lode 2000) all of which may lead to
altered population dynamics and considerable ecosystem losses (see Case
Study No. 2).
2.1.3 Injury and Mortality of Wildlife
A significant number of animals are injured or killed by passing vehicles
(see Table 2.1). The improvement of roads permits higher average speeds,
thereby increasing chances of fatal wildlife-vehicle collisions. Animals that
are attracted to the road surface, or to the roadsides to exploit food sources,
tend to be the species most frequently killed. Such species include reptiles that
are drawn to sun-warmed asphalt, herbivores such as deer grazing on roadside
grasses, and predators attracted to roads to feed on carcasses of earlier accident
victims.
Animals that regularly cross roads as part of their movements between
different habitats are also likely victims (Case Study Nos. 1 and 2). For
example, roadside bird mortality is a relatively new environmental dimension
in developing countries such as India. With the recent increase in the number
of high-speed cars and the simultaneous improvement of roads in India, birdcar collisions and the resultant bird mortality are becoming significant. In a
study undertaken in Punjab State of India, as many as 11 bird species were
reported to collide with moving vehicles on a 270 km drive travelling at speeds
of 80 to 120 km per hour. The bird species killed generally included ring doves,
house sparrows, red wattled lapwing and Indian roller (Dhindsa et al. 1988).
Road kills can have significant impacts on the population dynamics of
species, especially those with restricted and declining distributions. In a review
of the literature dealing with the effects of roads on wildlife, Forman and
Alexander (1998) found that since the 1970s, road mortality has replaced
hunting as the major human-induced cause of wildlife mortality in several
countries. Road kills become very significant when rare or endangered species
such as the tiger, lion, leopard, as well as their prey such as sambar, chital,
and nilgai are killed (see Table 2.1). The carnivores are already few in number
and any reduction would seriously affect the populations reproductive
potential.
Data on road-related mortality of animal species in India is still very
scarce. This is not because road kills are uncommon, but largely because
17
focused studies dealing with transportation impacts on wildlife have still not
become a major issue that attracts the attention of wildlife conservationists
and park managers. Although scattered information on road kills is available
from national parks and sanctuaries, animals killed on Indian roads outside
PAs are rarely documented. Given this situation, the information contained
in Table 2.1 should be considered to be a gross under-estimation of actual
wildlife losses on Indias roads.
Table 2.1 Animal mortality on roads in protected areas of India and Nepal (1997-1998)
Number of
individuals
killed per
year
Wildlife habitats and the nature of roads on which mortality is reported

Tadoba
Tiger
Reserve
Sariska
Tiger
Reserve
Gir
National
Park and
Sanctuary
Corbett
Tiger
Reserve
Pench
Tiger
Reserve
Royal Bardia
Natio nal
Park
Nepal
FR
SH
SH
SH
NH
NH
Chital
Sambar
Nilgai
1
2
Wild boar
Lion
Leopard
Tiger
Langur
17
Civet
4
5
37
1
1
Porcupine
Barking deer
Mongoose
Hyaena
Jungle cat
Total road kills
Source
1
1
1
29
46
Dubey,
1997
pers.
comm.
Johnsingh
et al.
1998
Singh &
Kamboj
1996
Uttaranchal
Forest
Dept.
Areendran
& Pasha
1999
pers. comm.
Karki &
Shreshtha
1998
pers. comm.
F R = Forest Road,
NH = National Highway,
SH = State Highway
18
2.1.4 Soil Erosion and Sedimentation

The construction of roads affects soil and land stability. Instability tends
to be most pronounced in hilly areas and where geological features exacerbate
construction-related destabilization. Creation of steep cuts in rapidly
weathering rock, removal of basal support of slopes, loading of unstable
surfaces, inadequate drainage provisions, removal of vegetation and vibration
from blasting and traffic may all lead to slope failure and erosion (see Box
2.1).
Box 2.1 Vegetation and slope stability
The relationship between landslide activity and forest cover was studied along two hill roads
crossing steep hillsides in the Kumaun Himalaya. The Kilbury road was cut through reserved
forest (2924N7928E, altitude 2100m). The Almora bypass crossed a suburban fringe
(2916N 7940E, altitude 1650m). Tree canopy cover upslope of the road cut was found to
be 56.8% along the Kilbury road and 14.1% along the Almora bypass. Tree canopy cover
down slope of the roadbeds, prior to the road being built, was very close to upslope figures.
After road construction tree cover downslope was found to be 35.7% and 7.6% respectively
for the two roads.. Ground cover downslope of the road was also much reduced. This example
illustrates the potential for degradation of ecosystems as a result of slope instability originating
with construction.
Source: Haigh et al. 1995.
Construction of drains, embankments, cuts and fills can affect local

hydrology both within and beyond the boundaries of the road right-of-way.
When roads are poorly sited, improperly constructed, or badly maintained,
erosion is a common result. Indirect effects may be quite widespread as
sediment from the road site is washed into and deposited in streams and
wetlands. Such sediment inputs can permanently affect aquatic ecosystems
that are not adapted to high-sediment conditions.
Channel relocation during road construction, obstruction of flow to
wetlands, and drainage of wetlands to prevent flooding of roads have negative
environmental implications for fish. Although sedimentation may only directly
affect the most sensitive aquatic organisms such as benthos and fish, all
components of the wetland community will eventually be degraded indirectly
stemming from the secondary effects of the damage to, or sometimes the
extirpation of, the more sensitive organisms.
2.1.5 Environmental Contamination
Runoff from road surfaces typically contains a range of contaminants,
the composition of which depends on traffic volume, fleet condition, fuels
used, types of cargo transported, and road surfacing materials. Common
19
pollutants in surface runoff include tyre particles, lubricants, petrol, phenols,

and organic wastes. In addition, airborne pollutants from vehicle exhausts
may include solid particles, oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur, and lead.
Both airborne and waterborne contaminants can affect vegetation and other
organisms in the habitats adjacent to roads in various ways, depending on
their quantities and concentrations, as well as characteristics of the receptor
species.
Road dust during construction and operation often settles on vegetation
as well as dwellings, reducing photosynthesis in plants and degrading air
quality inside homes and businesses. These impacts have been observed to
occur at distances of 10 to 200 m from road edges (authors experiences).
2.1.6 Noise
Noise from road construction and operation can cause animals to avoid
areas near roads. Forman and Alexander (1998) reported that noise
significantly decreases bird species richness as one gets closer to the edge of
the pavement. Usually impacts are strongly influenced by the type of cover,
traffic volume and speed. For example, at 120 km per hour and traffic volumes
of about 10,000 vehicles per day, the noise-effect distance was 305 m in
woodlands; for 50,000 vehicles per day, the noise-effect distance was 810 m.
In grasslands, the distance is typically much less. Road noise effectively makes
habitat areas near roads unusable for some species, a condition that can affect
not only those species success, but the structure of the ecosystem well beyond
the road right-of-way.
2.1.7 Human Colonization-induced Disturbances
Roads and railways facilitate the entry of people into natural areas,
protected or otherwise, simply by providing improved access and opportunities
for economic exploitation of resources. New roads in previously undisturbed
areas are often followed, within a short time, by clusters of roadside
settlements that spring up to serve passing motorists. These bases provide
exploitative access to adjacent forest areas. Over time, roadside clusters grow
into a continuous narrow band of urbanization along the road. These
become an ever-widening swath of human influence as side trails and
community roads extend outward from the original road, creating their own
colonization effects. In this way, a previously remote and inaccessible forest
area can become a highly fragmented, human-dominated landscape within
just a few years.
In theory, the colonization effects of roads should not occur where roads
pass through designated PAs. Although legislation for the protection of such
20
areas may be in place in most countries, allocations of staff and financial

resources for enforcement are hopelessly outmatched by the forces of human
migration. Unless provisions are made for proactively increasing protection
in parallel with increasing road-related colonization pressure, PAs will
continue to be seriously degraded. Road planners must keep this consideration
in mind from the earliest stages of route selection.
2.2 Cause and Effect Relationships and Impact Types

Although roads and road improvements may in some cases have positive
environmental effects (e.g. bypass roads often reduce congestion, thereby
reducing emissions), impacts arising from road development are for the most
part negative. Therefore, this Guide focuses on describing how to avoid and
mitigate negative impacts.
Impacts arising from road development can be organized into three
broad groups:
z
direct or primary impacts;
indirect or secondary impacts; and
cumulative and synergistic impacts.
2.2.1 Direct Impacts

Direct impacts are the primary effects of activities associated with road
building and operation. For example, a direct impact of clearing a right-ofway would be loss of habitat; the creation of steep cut slopes would yield
soil erosion as a direct impact; and upgrading a road to allow higher traffic
speeds would directly influence the rate of road kills (Lode 2000). Direct
impacts are the easiest impacts to understand and predict because of the
straightforward cause-effect relationships that are evident. They are not
necessarily the most important.
2.2.2 Indirect Impacts
Indirect impacts are the consequences of direct impacts, and are often
considerably more complex. For example, the barrier effect of a road may
restrict the movement of some species (a direct impact); an associated indirect
impact might be that in which the species reduced mobility upsets key
predator-prey relationships, thereby altering the dynamics of the entire
ecosystem (see Case Study No. 3). Road-related land clearing for subsistence
agriculture is a good example of an indirect impact, in that the clearing is
not caused by the road itself, but is a consequence of in-migration, which is
itself a direct result of the road being built.
21
Indirect impacts may have more profound consequences on the

environment and be more difficult to foresee than direct impacts, because of
the uncertainties involved in assessing each likely impact.
2.2.3Cumulative and Synergistic Impacts
Cumulative and synergistic impacts are generally the consequences of
either (i) a single impact occurring many times over a project period, e.g.
blasting during construction; (ii) multiple interrelated impacts occurring in
the same period, e.g. roads may induce competition for resources, redefine
home range boundaries, and induce stress among animals simultaneously;
or (iii) multiple unrelated direct and indirect impacts, e.g. barrier effect, human
colonization, and habitat contamination. In all cases, individual impacts
cannot be considered in isolation, but rather must be seen as components of
the more serious cumulative or synergistic effects.
In the case of cumulative impacts, each individual impact has an additive
effect, such that although it may be minor in itself, its incremental
contribution to the overall impact may be quite significant. Effects contributing
to synergistic impacts can be thought of as multiplicative, in that the
combination of two or more separate impacts creates effects greater than the
sum of individual impacts occurring separately. Synergistic effects may arise
where one impact compounds or prevents effective mitigation of another. For
example, soil erosion and contamination of soil during road operation are
two common impacts, neither of which may be especially serious if properly
mitigated. If, however, the contamination is severe enough that establishment
of vegetation (a common mitigative measure for erosion) is impeded, the
consequent erosion could be much worse, and the distribution of soil-borne
contaminants much more widespread, than would otherwise be the case.
Prediction of cumulative and synergetic impacts is difficult because of
uncertainties regarding the interrelationships of individual impacts. The works
of Spaling and Smit (1993), Lawrence (1994), Bedford and Preston (1996),
and CEAA (1998) are especially useful in assessing cumulative and synergistic
impacts, and should be consulted if such impacts are suspected.
Table 2.2 illustrates cause-effect linkages for certain project activities, in
relation to wildlife. The impact-level characterizations further highlight the
complexities of interacting systems and the cause-effect relationships that lead
to direct or synergistic long-term and irreversible effects.
2.3 Impact Significance

The significance of impacts is a function of their magnitude and severity
(see World Bank 1997) and its determination is vital for better mitigation
planning (see Section 5.5).
22
Table 2.2 Examples of potential impacts of roads on wildlife

Project characteristics/ Direct impacts
activity
Indirect
impacts
Cumulative/
synergistic impacts
Clearing of
vegetation
Loss or degradation of habitat
Reduction in
habitat use
Decline in wildlife
population and diversity
Right-of-way
clearing
Fragmentation
of habitat
Reduction in
structural
diversity, increase
in isolation of
habitats
Reduction in population
size and integrity
Construction
and operation
of roads
Barrier to
dispersal
Disproportionate
utilization of
habitats
Competition for resources

and redefined boundaries
of home range
Increased stress and
related health declines
Mowing of
roadsides
Changes in
vegetation
composition
Fluctuations in
small mammal
density due to
discontinuity
with adjacent
wooded habitats
Alteration of trophic
dynamics, ecosystem
change
Application
of herbicides
to control
vegetation
along roadways
Transportation
of chemicals to
water bodies
Changes in
wetland
characteristics
Loss of habitat niche

for dependent species,
population decline
Road construction
in coastal
areas
Alteration of
tidal flushing
cycle in mangroves
and salt marshes
Increased or
decreased
salinity
Changes in habitat
quality and species
composition
Road construction
on unstable land.
Soil erosion
Siltation of water
bodies
Degradation of aquatic
habitat, species decline
Dust raised during

operation and
construction.
Dust deposition
on vegetation,
interference with
photosynthesis
Reduced primary
productivity
Reduction of food
sources, species decline
Traffic
Disturbance to
wildlife species
of road verges
Changes in
activity patterns
leading to habitat
use more during
night
Competition for resources

with nocturnal animals,
decline of certain species
Abandonment of
habitat, migration
to others
Overuse of other habitat

areas, eventual decline of
some species
Decline in
populations
Change to trophic
dynamics and species
composition
Increase in
traffic volume
Increased road
kills
Project characteristics/ Direct impacts

activity
Indirect
Channel
relocation
Degradation
of wetland
dependent on
flooding
Threats to conservation
of some wetland species
Diminished
ground water
Localized drought,
decline in productivity
Alteration
direction of water
flow
impacts
23
Cumulative/
synergistic impacts
recharge
Road alignment
through wildlife
habitat
Increased access to
pristine wildlife
habitat areas
Increased flow
Reduced habitat
in receiving
streams
suitability for some

species, affecting
species composition
Unplanned
development
Decline in habitat
quality
Poaching
Species decline
Changes in
behavioural
responses,
and physiological
disorders
Increased mortality
Construction
activities, blasting
and vehicle
movement
Stress on
animals
Land taking
for road
Displacement of
people
Colonization
pressure in
unsettled areas
Deterioration of
previously undisturbed
natural areas
Construction of
temporary access
roads for quarries
Facilitation of
public access
Eventual
acceptance of road
as permanent features
Colonization
stimulating roadhabitat conversion
Road construction
in mountain
ecosystems
Barriers to vertical
migration and
dispersal of species
Sub-division of
populations in
in previously
connected habitats
Threat to endemic
character of the
mountain ecosystem
Reduced fertility
Reversible, short term impacts confined to small spatial limits are

generally easiest to mitigate; for example, impacts associated with the creation
of temporary roadside trenches. Impacts involving faulty route alignment,
construction activities and traffic-related environmental degradation are
generally long term, often permanent, and therefore more severe.
2.4 References
Andrews, A. (1990). Fragmentation of habitat by roads and utility corridors:
a review. Australian Zoologist 26, 130-42.
24
Bedford, B.L. and E. Preston, eds. (1996). Cumulative Effects on Landscape

Systems and Wetlands: Scientific Status, Prospects and Regulatory
Perspectives. Springer International, New York.
Bennett, A. F. (1991). Roads, roadsides and wildlife conservation: A review.
In: Nature conservation: The role of corridors, (ed. D.A. Saunders & J.
Hobbs), pp. 99-118. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Sydney.
Canadian Enviornmental Assessment Agency (CEAA). (1998). Cumulative
Ef fects Assessment Practitioners Guide. CEAA, Ottawa, Canada
[www.ceaa.gc.ca]
Dhindsa, S., J.S. Sandhu, P.S. Sandhu and H.S. Toor (1988). Roadside birds
in Punjab (India): relation to mortality from vehicles. Environmental
Conservation, 15 (4),303-310.
Forman, R.T.T and L.E. Alexander (1998). Roads and their major ecological
effects. Annu. Review. Ecol. Syst. 29, 207-31.
Johnsingh, A.J.T., K. Shankar and Shomita Mukherjee (1998). Saving prime
tiger habitat in Sariska Tiger Reserve. Cat News 27, 3-4.
Lawrence, D. (1994). Cumulative effects assessment at the project level. Impact
Assessment 12, 253-273.
Lode, Thierry. (2000). Effect of a motorway on mortality and isolation of
wildlife populations. Ambio 29 (3),163-166.
Rebecca, A.R., J. Johnson-Barnard and W.L. Baker (1996). Contribution of
roads to forest fragmentation in the Rocky Mountains. Conservation
Biology, 10(4), 1098-1106.
Singh, H.S. and R.D. Kamboj (1996). Biodiversity Conservation Plan for
Gir. Gujarat Forest Department, Gujarat, India.
Spaling, H. and B. Smith (1993). Cumulative environmental change:
conceptual frameworks, evaluation approaches, and institutional
perspectives. Environmental Management 17(5), 587-600.
Van der Zande, A.N., W.J. ter Kerurs and Van der Weiden (1990). The impact
of roads on the densities of four bird species in an open field habitatevidence of a long distance effect. Biological conservation 18, 299-321.
World Bank (1997). Roads and the Environment: A Handbook. World Bank
Technical Paper No. 376. The World Bank, Washington, DC.
3 . ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS,
LEGISLATION AND PROCESS
he principal environmental regulatory agency in India is the Ministry of

Environment and Forests (MoEF). The MoEF formulates environmental
policies, sets standards and gives environmental clearance for major projects
in accordance with legislative directives. The central and state legislation that
regulates the environmental clearance of roads and highway projects focuses
on the following:
z
preventing pollution of the environment;
managing natural resources; and
gaining a better understanding of and control over the linkages

between pollution and natural resource conservation.
In this chapter the basic elements of the management framework for

road-wildlife-environment issues in India and other South Asian countries
are described.
3.1 India
3.1.1 The Institutional Framework
The planning, construction and operation of major roads in India is
largely the responsibility of central and state road agencies. Recent
amendments to the National Highway Act (1956) have opened the way for
private sector involvement. There are five major stakeholders (see Figure 3.1)
in road development, construction and operation. These are:
z
the proponents;
the regulatory agencies directly responsible for the project;

other stakeholders, such as agencies and private sector groups and
individuals who are affected by the project and/or have an indirect
regulatory role;
the facilitators, such as consultants and advisors; and
the contractors who build and maintain the roads.
26
A broad understanding of the functions and roles of these stakeholders,

in the context of roads and protected areas and EA in India, will help to
clarify how best to involve each group in the environmental approval process.
3.1.2 Project Proponents
In India, EA applies to both public and private sector projects. Central
and state Public Work Departments (PWDs) are usually the major proponents
involved. The National Highway Authority of India (NHAI), an
autonomous body under the Ministry of Surface Transport (MOST), has the
responsibility for planning, construction, development, operation and
maintenance of all national highways in the country. The NHAI also invites
private sector involvement and encourages foreign/government agencies and
other institutions to get involved in road development activities. The roads
along Indias frontiers are under the control of the Border Road Organization,
a unit within the Ministry of Defence.
3.1.3 Regulatory Agencies
Developmental planning is regulated by various government ministries
and the autonomous bodies under them. The Planning Commission grants
the approval of funding allocations for road projects under the national Five
Year Plan. New roads are administered by state governments and the MOST.
The MOST regulates the allocation of the funds for detailed feasibility studies;
land acquisition; relocation of utilities; and resettlement and rehabilitation
of affected communities. The Indian Road Congress (IRC) is an advisory
body that provides the standards and specifications for construction,
maintenance and improvement of roads, highways and bridges. The Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB), an autonomous body of the MoEF, is the
agency that ensures that environmentally acceptable methods and mitigative
measures are employed, and that Indias environmental standards for road
development and operation are adhered to. The role of the State Pollution
Control Boards (SPCBs) and the state forest departments is to provide the
state-level clearances (e.g. the No Objection Certificate (NOC) under the Air
and Water Act and the Forest Clearance under the Forest Conservation Act)
that are necessary initial steps before the MoEFs environmental clearance for
a project can be sought.
3.1.4 Other Stakeholders
Government agencies, NGOs, corporate groups and citizens directly or
indirectly affected by road developments are numerous (see Figure 3.1). The
consideration of their concerns by the proponent is an important and highly
advisable step in the environmental clearance of a project. Through the public
Environmental Institutions, legislation and process
27
hearing process that has recently been made mandatory (for Schedule I
projects) in India, the inputs of the directly and indirectly affected groups
are recorded, considered and incorporated (where relevant) in project design
and construction (see Case Study Nos. 3 and 5).
PROPONENTS
National Highway Authority
State Roads and Building Department
State Transport Corporations
Public Works Department
Border Road Organisation
FACILITATORS
(Specialists)
EIA Consultants
Academic and Scientific Institutions
Research and Development
Organisations
Road Research Institutes and Civil
Engineering Departments of other
Engineering Institutions
CONTRACTOR(S)
They implement
construction-related
mitigative measures
defined in the
environmental
documents
REGULATORY AGENCIES
Planning Commission
Ministry of Surface Transport
Ministry of Environment and Forests
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
State Pollution Control Board (SPCB)
Indian Road Congress
State Forest and Wildlife Departments
OTHER
STAKEHOLDERS
Wildlife Conservation Groups
Non Governmental Organizations
Municipal Corporation & Residents of
Project Area
Trade and Commercial Establishment
and their Regulatory Agencies
Culture and Heritage Groups
Fig. 3.1 Key participants in assessment of road related wildlife issues in India
3.1.5 Facilitators
Facilitators include the various consultants and advisors that participate
in the EA and road planning processes. They help shape the final, and
ultimately, political decisions made with respect to a projects clearance.
Significant among these facilitators are academic and research institutions,
which have considerable expertise in conducting assessments of project impacts
on different components of the environment. The institutions that have
particular relevance to the assessment of wildlife and biodiversity impacts
include the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE),
Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Salim
Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON), and leading nongovernmental organizations like Bombay Natural History Society ( BNHS)
and the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) - India. Besides these, some
universities also have the necessary expertise to conduct environmental and
ecological assessments. A detailed list of these institutions and organizations,
including their mandates and contact addresses, is provided on the WII
website.
On the road engineering side, key organizations include the Central
Institute of Road Transport (CIRT), Central Road Research Institute (CRRI)
and Central Building Research Institute (CBRI).
28
Unfortunately, linkages between the environmental and engineering

organizations are weak, providing little opportunity for inter-agency activity
or cross-disciplinary cooperation. This condition represents a major obstacle
to Indias (and indeed most countries) efforts to plan more environmentally
friendly roads.
3.1.6 Contractors
Most guidebooks and discussions regarding road-environment issues
exclude specific mention of the road construction and maintenance
contractors as key players. This is a serious oversight, since, aside from those
who prepare the construction guidelines, contractors are the ones who have
the most influence in determining whether a project will be environmentally
acceptable or would have serious effects.
Two problems are often highlighted when projects that contain
environmentally sensitive elements are being bid on by contractors: a) bid
documents do not specify the level of effort or environmental measures
required, such that contractors do not allocate adequate resources to the
required tasks; and b) contractors often do not have the technical expertise to
assess what is needed, what it will cost, and how to implement measures
defined in bid documents. Therefore, the responsibility lies squarely with the
proponent (the contractors employer) for including well-prepared and
comprehensive environmental clauses in the bid packages. It is useful to check
a contractors environmental track record, a kind of pre-qualification exercise.
Cooperation between the contractor and the proponents and their technical
specialists at the earliest possible time is recommended in order to minimize
lost time, unnecessary spending, and the occurrence of avoidable
environmental impacts. Such actions will lead to significant savings in the
long run.
3.1.7 Legislation, Policies and Guidelines
Conservation, protection and preservation of the environment are
cornerstones of the Indian ethos, culture and traditions. They have been
written into Indias Constitution, one of the first in the world to recognize
the importance of environmental conservation. The 42nd amendment to the
Indian Constitution in 1976 forced the states to take measures to protect and
improve the environment, and to safeguard the forests and wildlife.
Many central and state laws have been enacted over time for the
protection of the environment. The key central and state laws and regulations
that govern the process of environmental clearance of new highway, road,
bridge and rail projects are identified and briefly described below. More
detailed information on each is available on the website of MoEF.
(i)
29
The Environmental Protection Act
The Environmental (Protection) Act (1986), passed as Notification No.

G.S.R. 1198(E), includes rules to protect the environment through planning
and execution of a standard nationwide programme for the prevention, control
and abatement of environmental pollution. It also specifies standard procedures
for handling hazardous substances.
(ii) Environmental Guidelines
In 1989 the MoEF, in conjunction with the MOST, published
comprehensive environmental guidelines for rail, road and highway projects.
These guidelines assist project authorities and contractors in planning and
conducting environmental assessments, and in devising comprehensive
environmental management plans for transportation projects, including rail,
roads, highways, expressways and airports. The guidelines also list which types
of project are subject to EA requirements. The environmental guidelines
emphasize the evaluation of project impacts through the prediction of change
in selected biophysical and socio-economic parameters (see the WII website
for details).
In addition to adequate information on ecological values, details on the
operational characteristics of the road project must also be presented. The
guidelines go into special detail on what is required for roads proposed in
hilly terrain. They specify that contractors should:
z
adopt appropriate cut and fill technologies;
establish vegetative cover on all cut/fill slopes and afforest roadside

land;
adopt and adhere strictly to erosion control measures and

implementation schedules;
protect and retain, wherever possible, natural drainage systems; and
dump excavated material only in accordance with best practices.
(iii) Environmental Impact Assessment Notification

The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, issued on January
27th, 1994 and amended on May 4th, 1994 under clause (a) of sub-rule (3)
of rule (5) of the Environmental Protection Rules (see the WII website for
details), streamlined the EA process for development projects. Schedules listing
the project types requiring comprehensive and preliminary environmental
analyses are included in the Notification. Besides setting time schedules for
decision-making, the Notification also describes the procedures to be adopted
for obtaining clearance and for public involvement.
30
(iv) EIA Notification for road and highway projects

Schedule I of the EIA Notification (Govt. of India 1994) states that all
major road and highway projects require environmental clearance from the
central government. Such projects include tarred roads in the Himalayas and
on any forest land; any national highways more than 5 km long; and state
highways exceeding 5 km in length and involving forest lands. All new road
projects affecting sites defined as ecologically sensitive or fragile under the
Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 also require environmental clearance,
irrespective of whether they are listed under Schedule I of the EIA Notification
(see the WII website for details).
An amendment to the EIA Notification (April 10th,1997) exempts any
highway projects that involve improvement work such as widening and
strengthening of existing roads, where the total new land acquisition is less
than 10 hectares. Any road scheduled for improvement that passes through
or infringes on ecologically sensitive areas, including national parks,
sanctuaries, tiger reserves and reserved forests, does not qualify for this
exemption. In some states, such as Gujarat, roadside plantations are treated
as forest tracts and before any clearing can take place, the NOC from
Department of Forest (DoF) for the removal of forests and a reforestation
plan, approved by the DoF, is required.
(v) National wildlife and forest conservation policies
The two major documents that emphasize the need for wildlife and
biodiversity conservation and provide frameworks to achieve it are the
National Wildlife Action Plan (MoEF 1983) and the National Forest Policy
(MoEF 1988). These documents promote wildlife conservation by suggesting:
z
the creation of a network of protected areas to cover representative

samples of major wildlife ecosystems and with adequate geographic
distribution;
the restoration of protected areas to their natural states;
the rehabilitation of endangered species, including restoration of

former habitats;
the development of adequate corridors for genetic continuity in

production forests and pasture land; and
the strengthening of management of existing protected areas.
3.1.8 Environmental Quality Standards

The MoEF has the overall responsibility to set policy and standards for
the protection of the environment. For air, water and noise, it does this
31
through its Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The CPCB stipulates
the environmental quality standards to be adopted for all development projects.
Sections 3.3.1 through 3.3.3 present the quality standards for air, water and
noise, the environmental components most often affected by road building
and operation.
(i) Ambient air quality standards
Ambient air quality standards were defined by the CPCB in 1994 (Table
3.1).
Table 3.1 Ambient air quality standards for India
Concentration in ambient air (
g/m 3)
Pollutant
Time weighted
average
Industrial
area
Residential/
commercial area
Sensitive
area
Sulfur Dioxide
(SO 2 )
Annual averagea
24 hoursb
80
120
60
80
15
30
Oxides of Nitrogen
(as NO 2)
Annual average
24 hours
80
120
60
80
15
30
Suspended
Particulate Matter
(SPM)
Annual average
24 hours
360
500
140
200
70
100
Respirable
Particulate Matter
(RPM)
Annual average
24 hours
120
150
60
100
50
75
Lead (Pb)
Annual average
24 hours
1.0
2.0
0.75
1.00
0.50
0.75
8 hours
1 hour
5.0
10.0
3.0
4.0
4.0
2.0
Carbon Monoxide
(CO)
Source: Website of Central Pollution Control Board 1999. a Annual arithmetic mean of minimum
104 measurements in a year taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform interval. b 24 hourly/8
hourly values should be met 98% of the time in a year. It may exceed this level 2% of the time,
but not on two consecutive days.
(ii) Water quality standards

The CPCB has designated Best-use classes of water (Table 3.2) for all
the major rivers of the country (see the WII website). Use classes refer to
maximum pollution levels that a water body may be permitted to degrade to
while still meeting the quality standard for its designated use.
Further details on environmental quality standards are also available on the websites of MOEF
(www.envfor.nic.in), CPCB (www.envfor.nic.in/cpcb/cpcb.html) and WII (www.wii.gov.in).
32
Table 3.2 Ambient water quality standards for India

Designated-Best-Use
Class of water
Drinking water source

without conventional
treatment but after
disinfection
Outdoor bathing
(organised)
Criteria
1.
Total coliform organism

MPN/100ml shall be 50 or less
pH between 6.5 and 8.5
Dissolved oxygen 6mg/l or more
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
5 days 20oC 2mg/l or less
2.
3.
4.
1.

pH between 6.5 and 8.5
BOD 5 days 20oC 3mg/l or less
2.
3.
4.
Drinking water source
after conventional
treatment and
disinfection
Propagation of wildlife
and fisheries
Irrigation, industrial
cooling, controlled waste
disposal
1.
2.
3.
4.

pH between 6 to 9
BOD 5 days 20oC 3mg/l or less
1.
2.
3.
pH between 6.5 to 8.5

Free ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less
1.
2.
pH betwwn 6.0 to 8.5

Electrical conductivity at 25oC
micro mhos/cm max 2250
Sodium absorption ratio max. 26
Boron max. 2mg/l
3.
4.
Source: Website of Central Pollution Control Board 1999.
(iii)
Ambient noise standards
Ambient noise standards were established by the MoEF in 1989. They

are based on the A-weighted equivalent decibel noise level (Leq) and grouped
into four categories (Table 3.3) in accordance with the dominant land use in
the area.
Table 3.3 Indian national ambient noise standards
Type of landuse
Industrial
Code
Noise limits in L eq dBA

Daysa
Night
75
70
Commercial
65
55
Residential
55
45
Silence area b
50
40
Source: Schedule III inserted into G.S.R. 1063(E) dated 26.12.89. Published in the Gazette No.643
(1989). a Day time is from 0600 hrs. to 2100 hrs.; b Silence zone is an area up to 100 meters
around hospitals, schools and courts; no horns, loud speakers or bursting of fire crackers.
33
3.1.9 The Clearance Process

(i)
Environmental clearance
The Impact Assessment Division of the MoEF plays the key role in
processing environmental clearance applications for road projects. The Forest
and Wildlife Divisions of the MoEF are often asked to evaluate the
environmental studies conducted as part of the overall feasibility studies for
the proposed projects (see Figure 3.2). This is particularly true for projects
involving conversion of forest land or the alignment of roads and highways
near to or within wildlife areas.
Minister
Secretary
Special Secretary
Director General
of Forests (DGF)
Joint Secretary
Additional DG
(Forest)
Additional DG
(Wildlife)
Director, Impact
Assessment (IA) Division
Dy. IG
Forest
Dy. IG
Wildlife
Forest
Division
Wildlife
Division
Areas of responsibility of IA Division

IA-I:
Water resource and nuclear power projects
IA-II:
Industry, thermal power and mining projects
IA-III:
Coastal zone, infrastructure and
miscellaneous projects
Fig. 3.2 Organization and chain of command for the MoEF
Project proponents who want to undertake the types of new road

projects listed in Schedule I of the EIA Notification, 1994 are required to
submit an application to the Secretary of the MoEF, using a standardized
form (see the WII website for a copy). The application should be accompanied
by a feasibility or project report, which includes an Environmental Appraisal
Questionnaire (see WII website); an EIA report; and an Environmental
Management Plan (EMP) prepared in accordance with the MoEFs
34
guidelines for rail, road and highway projects (MoEF 1989). A public hearing
report is also required. Rehabilitation plans must also be submitted where
large-scale displacement of people is anticipated. India is currently reassessing
its policy on displacement and resettlement of people.
The exceptions to these procedural requirements are projects involving
paved roads in the Himalayas, national highways less than 5 km long, state
highways shorter than 5 km and involving forest land, and all state highways
not involving forest land. These require only state government approvals.
The documents submitted by a proponent are first reviewed by a
multidisciplinary team in the MoEF (see Figure 3.3) who may undertake site
visits wherever required, interact with the proponent and hold consultations
with experts and other stakeholders on specific issues, whenever necessary.
After this preliminary internal scrutiny by the MoEF, the documents are given
to the Environmental Appraisal Committee (EAC), which meets regularly
to appraise rail, road, highway and other infrastructure projects.
Based on the evaluation (see Figure 3.3) of documents submitted by
the proponent and other information gathered at the EAC meeting and the
site visit, the Committee will recommend that the project be either approved,
rejected or approved with conditions. The recommendations and conditions
of the Committee are then processed by the MoEF. All conditions stipulated
are binding and must be dealt with by the proponent to the satisfaction of
the MoEF before the project can break ground, or before the date specified
in the statement of conditions. Interestingly, there is no legal requirement
for the submission of a completion report in which the proponent certifies
that all conditions have been met. In other words, implementation of
conditions is based on the honour system.
The entire process, from the time all relevant documentation has reached
the MoEF, through the EAC evaluation and the subsequent MoEF decision,
should take less than 120 days. In practice, this deadline is seldom met. The
involvement of several agencies, with communication gaps between them,
often results in long delays. The Forest Clearances and NOCs that must
precede the environmental clearance, often provided by state-level agencies,
are also frequently delayed, further slowing the process. The most likely reason
for this situation is that central and state agencies are not directly involved
in a projects planning until the applications for clearance are submitted.
Naturally, such agencies need time to catch up, ask questions and review
the project in the context of what is happening in their jurisdictions.
Early proactive communication by the proponent with all regulatory
agencies should significantly reduce this bottleneck. If EA documents are
poorly prepared, and the proponent has not consulted the MoEF, particularly
Submission of State-level
application of No-Objection
Certificate (NOC)
Whether the State-level or

Central approval process
needs to be followed,
depends on the nature of
road project, the source
and amount of funding
Submission of the environmental appraisal questionnaire

by proponent to MoEF
Project documents to be submitted by

proponent
-EIA and EMP and Public Hearing Report
-Resettlement Plan
-Engineering Feasibility Study Report
If needed
No
SPCB NoObjectionCertificate
Application
35
Submit by proponent
State-level approval
can bypass these
applications
Forest Department
(State) NoSubmit by proponent
Objection
Certificate
Application
MoEF assembles
all Information and
proceeds with
environmental
clearance
MoEF staff scrutinize documentation,

for basic compliance
None
compliant
Yes; Documentation submitted to EAC Committee for evaluation
Review and
evaluation by EAC
State level approval options

-reject
-approve
-approve with conditions
Pending rejections are

transmitted to proponent
with an opportunity to correct
problems if possible
EAC recommendations to MoEF

-reject
-approve
MoEF Evaluates may request technical
assessment, more information, etc. and
renders a decision to:
-reject
-approve
MoEF sends environmental clearance to
proponent with or without conditions - Proponent
can proceed with project ground breaking
Usually MoEF does not

require verification that
proponent has complied with
conditions, but reserves the
right to audit at any time
Fig. 3.3 Steps in environmental clearance in India
when sensitive issues are involved, further delays will occur while the MoEF
consults experts. If improperly planned and executed, public hearings can also
delay decisions.
(ii) Procedures for projects involving forest clearance
For projects involving clearing of forest land, the proponent must obtain
permission under the Forest Conservation Act from either the central or state
government, depending on the size and location of the forest. Permission to
clear forest land must be obtained before applying for environmental clearance
of a project. The application for clearance is prepared by the proponent and
submitted to the MoEF if the clearing area is greater than 20 ha, or to the
Regional Chief Conservator of Forests (RCCF) if the clearing area is less than
20 ha. Applications going to the MoEF require a site inspection if they involve
more than 40 ha, with recommendations for actions being made by the
MoEFs Central Advisory Committee. For applications going to the RCCF,
recommendations for sites smaller than 5 ha are made by the RCCF. The
36
state forest departments advisory group makes recommendations for areas

between 5 and 20 ha in size. Recommendations are assembled by MoEF
and a formal approval order, e.g. the NOC, is issued by the state government
involved.
3.2 EA in the Region

Environmental assessment of transportation projects in countries within
the South Asia region, namely Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka, varies considerably in terms of the details required and available legal
and administrative support. A summary of the EA procedural process for
each South Asian country, in relation to Indias approach, is presented below
in order to help practitioners compare methods applied elsewhere, presenting
a range of approaches, as well as some lessons learned.
3.2.1 Bangladesh
Road transportation projects in Bangladesh are the responsibility of the
National Roads and Highways Department (RHD). In mid-1998, the RHD
added a new Road Design and Environment Circle to its Technical Services
Group. Three divisions have been established within the Circle, one of which
is the Environment and Resettlement Division (ERD). The ERD has 3 staff
positions; as of October 1998 it had an executive engineer and an EA specialist,
and a resettlement specialist will be hired in the future. The Divisions executive
engineer is the RHDs representative on the National Environment Committee,
which decides on the EA requirements and the adequacy of existing EAs.
The formation of the ERD has provided a single point of contact for
transportation EAs. Since the formation of the ERD within the RHD, studies
at the Initial Environmental Evaluation (IEE) level have been done within
that Division. All other more detailed work is undertaken by outside
consultants.
(i)
Legislation and policies
In 1995 the Government of Bangladesh enacted its Environmental

Protection Act and in 1997 passed the Environmental Preservation Law
(S.R.O. No.197-Law/97), which categorized industries and projects into four
groups: Green, Orange-a, Orange-b and Red , with green signifying the least
severe likely impacts and red the most severe. Orange and red category projects
usually require some form of EA.
Clause (3) of the Environmental Preservation Law is a Declaration of
Ecologically Critical Area and identifies 11 areas that are subject to strict
37
government control. Reserved forests, wildlife habitat and animal preservation

areas are included. The clause does not set out a clear designation, but gives
the national government discretion as to how a critical area is treated.
Also in 1997, 14 sets of standards defining acceptable air, noise and water
quality as well as permissible contamination levels for a range of materials,
including solid and liquid waste, were made law. The Department of
Environment (DoE) within the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
enforces these standards.
(ii) Environmental Approval: Steps involved
As a first step the proponent, in nearly all cases the RHD, completes a
feasibility study and the associated environmental documentation in
compliance with the Environmental Preservation Law, 1997. The proponent
must also meet donor requirements wherever they are more specific than the
national regulations.
Once prepared by the proponent, the EA documentation is passed on
to the DoE and finally to the National Environment Committee for approval.
Once approved, and with a letter of no objection from the local community,
the project can move to implementation. Mitigation plans contained in the
EA document must be implemented according to a specified schedule. Under
such a system, environmental approvals pass through only two entities.
3.2.2 Bhutan
Currently, Bhutan does not have a legal procedure or standard which
can be used for the completion of environmental analyses in relation to roads
or other types of infrastructure projects. The recommendations of a recent
Asian Development Bank-funded project to develop sectoral EA guidelines
for Bhutan (ADB/Hatfield 1999) form a basis for standards and guidelines
now being developed.
The ADB/Hatfield (1999) study, which has been endorsed by the
government of Bhutan, proposes a streamlined process with four categories
of projects, each related to the extent of impacts predicted.
(i)
Proponents contemplating road and infrastructure projects in Bhutan

should have a working understanding of the following rules, regulations and
acts:
38
z
Municipal Act;
Rules and regulations for construction of buildings (semi permanent

and permanent) within rights-of-way (Ministry of Home Affairs);
Road Safety and Transport Act, 1997;
Rules and Regulations (1992) pertaining to construction of

infrastructure;
Water and Sanitation Rules, 1995.
Bhutan also has a set of construction rules that are relevant for road
projects. The construction of any sort of structure within 15 m of the roads
edge is not permitted, and it is suggested that all non-road-related facilities
be kept at least 45 m away from the roadway. This in essence is a right-ofway regulation.
(ii) Contractor licensing
Bhutan has various licensing procedures to certify contractors, according
to project size. The Ministry of Trade and Industry issues these licenses, which
are renewed yearly. Contractors must adhere to certain engineering standards
monitored by the Division of Roads. Under the proposed environmental
assessment process (ADB/Hatfield 1999), how well contractors implement
environmental requirements will be linked to the renewals of licenses, thus
providing an easy compliance monitoring system.
3.2.3 Nepal
Nepal began practicing EA in 1992, and the following year its national
EIA Guidelines were created. EA guidelines for five sectors of the economy
(one being roads) are being developed. In 1995 the Ministry of Environment
and Population was formed, and the Environmental Protection Act was made
into law in 1996. As well, the National Economic Planning Agency,
traditionally the senior development planning entity in the country,
strengthened its environment sector. In 1998 the government enabled its
Environmental Protection Rule, which laid out the steps for EIA and indicated
what intensity of EA would be applied to projects commonly undertaken in
Nepal. The Department of Roads has gone far in terms of developing specific
EA guidelines and setting certain standards. They even have bioengineering
guidelines for road projects.
Even with this in place, projects environmental works are often driven
by donor requirements.
(i)
39
Nepal has a number of acts and rules (regulations) that deal with the
conservation of wildlife and protected areas. They include:
z
The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973)
The Wildlife Sanctuary Rules (1977)
The Forest Act (1992)
Local Self-Governance Act (1998)
These are enforced by at least four agencies: (i) the Department of

Agriculture; (ii) the Ministry of Forests and Soils; (iii) the Department of
National Parks and Wildlife Conservation and (iv) the Ministry of Population
and Environment. The first two agencies often must approve forest cutting
and land use conversions from forest to agriculture while, at the same time,
acting to protect wildlife ecosystems.
(ii) Environmental approval: steps involved
Nepals environmental approval process is evolving, and at present begins
with the proponent agency receiving an approval in principle to proceed with
a feasibility study from the Ministry of Finance (MOF). The MOF, sometimes
in consultation with the Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE),
decides on the level of environmental analysis required for a given project.
Donor-funded projects often have specific requirements that the Government
of Nepal follows. The proponent must then organize the environmental
analysis and submit a full EA report, with an engineering feasibility study,
to the MOF. The MOF then calls in the MOPE for technical review. Since
almost all development work is donor driven, EA requirements are usually
dictated by donor regulations and the EA work is completed by outside
consultants. MOPEs environment unit is staffed with highly trained people
but these people are hugely over worked and as such environmental protection
suffers.
In the event that projects are private sector investments with no foreign
public funds involved, environmental requirements are at the discretion of
the MOF and the MOPE (if invited to comment by the MOF).
3.2.4 Pakistan
In 1992, Pakistan established its Ministry of Environment, Urban Affairs,
Forestry and Wildlife (MEUFW). The Ministry, now called the Ministry of
Environment, Local Government and Rural Development (MoELG&RD),
was put in charge of creating proper legislation, regulations and standards
40
with which EAs could be conducted and environmental protection ensured.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established at both federal
and provincial levels for the enforcement of environmental laws. Environment
Sections were also established in the planning departments of both federal
and provincial governments. An Environment Section (ES) was created in
the federal Planning and Development Division (PDD) in 1992, and has
played a key role in the implementation of EA processes ever since.
The Planning and Development Division (PDD) is responsible for the
coordination and approval of all foreign-aided and federally funded projects
costing more than US$ 3.16 million. All provincial and locally funded
projects costing less than US$ 3.16 million are coordinated and approved by
the provincial Planning and Development (P&D) departments. The distinction
between national and provincial project authority has been clearly delineated
and is based on geographic scope, cost, and project type. A number of line
agencies, such as the National Highway Authority (NHA), have environment
cells (or units) whose responsibility it is to make sure that projects proposed
by their agencies comply with the countrys environmental requirements.
Pakistan has a project screening process and associated project
categorization. At present all standard development projects have been
classified into one of three categories, each with a prescribed level of
environmental assessment. Sectoral EA procedures and guidelines were
prepared in 1998. The NHA, under the federal Ministry of Communication,
and its provincial counterparts, the provincial Communication and Works
(C&W) departments, now have EA guidelines as well as a project screening
and categorization process.
(i) Legislation and policies
In 1996, the MoELG&RD began to enforce the national environmental
quality standards which dealt primarily with end-of-pipe standards including
air quality, water quality, and noise in relation to vehicle operation. In 1997,
revised standards were finalized after extensive consultation with different
government departments, the private sector and NGOs. At the same time, a
more comprehensive Environmental Protection Act was being enacted (199798). Under the new Act, EA has been made mandatory for all projects, and
a two-tiered EA process has been introduced. It includes, depending on the
nature of the project, Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) and
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
(ii) Environmental approval: steps involved
Once a project concept has been conceived and documented by a
proponent, such as the NHA, a proposal describing the project and other
41
details is submitted to the PDD along with a copy of the EA report. The
PDD has traditionally decided on the level of EA to be undertaken. The
proponent agency is now required, in consultation with the EPA office or
the Environment Section of the PDD, to submit the relevant EA report (using
the sectoral guideline) to the PDD. This should be a complete EA, including
the type, significance and duration of negative impacts, the mitigative measures
to be applied, and the risks associated with their failure. If the project only
requires an IEE, the study must confirm that impacts fall within the limits
defined in the sectoral guideline.
The EPA must also review all documents, including IEEs. The EPA
recommends that proponent agencies hold a project briefing meeting with
all concerned agencies at the start of the IEE activity. Usually the agencys
environmental unit acts as the focal point for EA completion. In the provinces,
there may not be an environmental unit attached to the department, in which
case consultants are hired to prepare an EA report.
Once completed, a draft EA document is submitted to the PDD and
usually to the EPA for review and comment. The EPA may request public
consultation, if it feels that people will be negatively impacted and the EA
has not adequately addressed this issue. EA documents contain the
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and an Environmental Management
Plan (EMP). A summary of a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP), if required,
is included in addition to the full RAP submitted as a separate document.
This full submission, plus an application known as PC-1, is handed over to
the PDD for final approval and funding. Once the submission is approved
by PDD, groundbreaking can begin.
3.2.5 Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, the National Environmental Act (NEA) No. 47 (1980)
introduced the EA requirements for development projects and laid down the
procedures for obtaining environmental clearance. The 1985 NEA Amendment
Act No. 56 stipulated that road projects must receive environmental clearance
before their approval for implementation.
The project review and approval agencies include the Department of
Coast Conservation; Department of Wildlife Conservation; Urban
Development Authority and the Central Environmental Authority. The
proponent agency (any agency sponsoring a project) and the Central
Environmental Authority give the final environmental approval.
As of March 1999, all development projects in Sri Lanka were classified
into three categories: (i) projects prescribed under NEA; (ii) projects not
42
prescribed under NEA but with impact potential; and (iii) projects that are
categorically exempt from any EA approval.
(i)
Projects prescribed by NEA
Projects located in environmentally sensitive areas, as specified in Part

III of Gazette Notification No. 772/22, 1993, require environmental clearance
irrespective of their magnitude and whether or not they are located in the
coastal zone. Environmentally sensitive areas are defined as any areas within
100 m of land designated under various Acts and Ordinances including the
National Heritage Wilderness Act No.3 of 1988, and the Forest Ordinance
(Chapter 451).
(ii) Projects not prescribed under NEA
A large number of activities that are part of road development are not
covered by the NEA. They may, however, be subject to an environmental
review depending on their impact potential. Examples of such activities are:
rehabilitation and reconstruction of local, provincial and national roads and
bridges, and area-wide traffic management schemes.
(iii) Projects that have categorical exemptions from environmental
approval
Projects under this category are not subject to the project approval process
as laid down in the NEA. Projects or actions that are included in this category
meet four criteria for exclusion from EA requirements. They are expected to
result in: (i) no significant impediment to planned growth or land use of the
area; (ii) no relocation of significant numbers of people or enterprises; (iii)
no major changes in air or water quality or in noise levels; and (iv) no
significant impact on travel patterns that would add congestion or cause unsafe
conditions. Examples of such projects that qualify for the exemption category
include:
z
planning and technical studies;
utility installations situated along or across transport facilities;
construction of bicycle and pedestrian lanes, paths and facilities (with

the exception of area-wide programmes);
installation of noise barriers or alterations to existing publicly owned

buildings;
site-level landscaping, installation of fencing, warning and other

signs, pavement markings, small passenger shelters, traffic signals,
where no substantial land acquisitions and traffic disruptions will
occur; and

z
43
emergency repairs, rehabilitation, or reconstruction carried out on

an existing right-of-way.
3.2.5.1 Legislation and policies

The NEA is the basic national charter for protection and management
of the environment. The following laws must also be taken into consideration
during the environmental approval steps for any road project:
z
Urban Development Authority Law, No.41 of 1978;
Greater Colombo Economic Commission Law, No.4 of 1978;
National Heritage Wilderness Act No.3 of 1988;
Forest Ordinance (Chapter 451);
Coast Conservation Act, No.57 of 1981;
Botanic Gardens Ordinance (Chapter 446);
Town & Country Planning Act No.13 of 1946 (and subsequent

amendments);
Land Acquisition Act of 1956; and
Highways Act Motor Traffic.
3.2.5.2 Environmental approval : steps involved

A set of regulations under Section 23 CC of the NEA, read with Section
32 of the NEA, governs the project approval process. Regulation No. 5
emphasizes that the project proponent should submit preliminary information
(any of the four listed in Section 3.5.5) to the project approving authority as
early as possible. To that end, the project proponent is required to submit
several (see below) documents relating to environmental impacts of
development projects to enable the project approving agencies to make
informed decisions. In the case of projects in the transport sector, the most
important of these documents are:
z
the Preliminary Information (PI) document;
the Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) report; and
the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report.
The PI document assists the project approving agencies in deciding

whether they can make a finding of no significant impact. Such a finding
allows a conditional environmental clearance for the project. The next level
is the IEE, where the possible environmental impacts of the project and their
intensity are identified. A well-prepared PI document can also serve as an
44
IEE report. A comprehensive EIA is required when significant environmental

impacts are foreseen.
The proponent agency and the Central Environmental Authority give
the final environmental approval.
3.3 References and Sources of Information

INDIA
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). (1974). Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act. Government of India, New Delhi.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (1981). Air (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act. Government of India, New Delhi.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (1980). The Forest (Conservation) Act.
Government of India, New Delhi.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (1986). Environment (Protection) Act.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (1994). The Environmental Impact
Assessment Notification. Government of India, New Delhi.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (1983). Revised list of Schedules to the
Wildlife Protection Act Consequent on Amendments to the Schedules
(The Gazette of India, New Delhi, Wednesday, April 13, 1983).,
Ministry of Environment and Forests (1989). Environmental Guidelines for
Rail/Road/Highway Projects. Government of India, New Delhi.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (1994). Handbook of Environmental
Procedures and Guidelines. Government of India, New Delhi.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (1983). National Wildlife Action Plan.
Ministr y of Environment and Forests (1988). National Forest Policy.
45
BANGLADESH
Department of Environment (1997) EIA Guidelines for Industries. Ministry
of Environment and Forest, Government of the Peoples Republic of
Bangladesh, Dhaka.
Jamal, A. (1993). Bangladesh: The State of the Environment. Coastal Area
Resource Development and Management Association, Dhaka.
Ministry of Environment and Forest (1995). National Environment Action
Plan ( NEMAP) Volume II, Main Report. Government of Bangladesh,
Dhaka.
Peoples Republic of Bangladesh (1997). Bangladesh Environmental
Preservation Law: S.R.O. No.197-Law/97 ( English Translation).
BHUTAN
Asian Development Bank and Hatfield Consultants Ltd. (1999). Bhutanese
Environmental Assessment: Sectoral Guidelines-in ADB TA-2531-BHU,
Strengthening EA Capabilities and Preparation of Environmental
Guidelines in Bhutan. (7-volume set). Prepared by Hatfield Consultants,
Vancouver, Canada.
NEPAL
Asian Development Bank (1992). Nepal: Economic Policies for Sustainable
Development. ADB TA NO. 5339 final report. Asian Development Bank,
Manila, Philippines.
Bio-Engineering Unit (1998). Depar tment of Roads: Environmental
Guidelines. Ministry of Planning and Public Works, Nepal.
Bio-Engineering Unit (1998). Department of Roads: Environmental Policy.
Ministry of Planning and Public Works, Nepal.
PAKISTAN
Government of Pakistan (1997). The Environmental Protection Act. National
Assembly of Pakistan, Islamabad.
IUCN (1997). Rapid Assessment of the EIA Needs of the Environment Section.
IUCN, Environmental Assessment Services, Islamabad.
IUCN (1997a). EIA Needs Assessment Survey of Federal Government Departments.
IUCN, Pakistan Programme, Islamabad.
46
World Bank (1996). Pakistan Environmental Protection and Resource Conservation

Project. Mid-Term Review Report. South Asia Region, World Bank,
Washington, DC.
SRI LANKA
National Environmental Act No. 47 (1980) amended by Act No. 56 of 1988.
Central Environmental Authority (1993). Guidelines for Implementing the
EIA Process, No.1. A General Guide to Project Approving Agencies
(PAA). Second Edition. CEA, Sri Lanka.
Central Environmental Authority (1995). Guidelines for Implementing the
EIA Process, No.2. Guidelines for Conducting Environmental Scoping.
CEA, Sri Lanka.
Central Environmental Authority (1997). Environmental Guidelines for Road
and Rail Development in Sri Lanka. CEA, Sri Lanka.
4. ECOSYSTEMS, IMPACTS AND

MITIGATIVE MEASURES
here have been extensive studies done on the impacts of roads on the
environment (e.g. Oxley et al. 1974; Oxley and Fenton 1976; Waechter
1979; English Nature 1994; Clevenger 1998; Bryon 1999), all concluding that
roads can be a serious threat to the maintenance of biological diversity. If
poorly planned and constructed, roads eliminate and fragment habitats
(Andrews 1990; Rebecca et al. 1996), cause accidental wildlife deaths (Lewis
1989; Drews 1991, 1995; Rosen and Lowe 1994; Evink et al. 1996), affect
wildlife distribution and movement patterns, and destroy wetland habitats
(US EPA 1997).
The response of an ecosystem to impacts is governed by many factors,
and different ecosystems can be expected to adapt in different ways to roadrelated impacts. The type of ecosystem in which a proposed road development
is to be undertaken is therefore a major consideration in determining potential
impacts. This chapter describes common impacts of road development on seven
types of ecosystems commonly found in India and South Asia, and outlines
a set of appropriate mitigative measures to counter them.
4.1 Ecosystem Types and Sensitivity

The biophysical environment is made up of a myriad of ecosystems, each
responding to impacts in different ways and displaying variable levels of
resilience in the face of change. Factors such as biogeography, climate, patch
area, richness, redundancy and uniqueness of adjacent ecosystems shape
impacts. Road planners and managers should be aware of this complex
variability and interplay of factors if they hope to practice effective
environmental impact management.
4.1.1 Aquatic Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems include rivers, lakes and wetlands. Wetlands often
support a large number of rare and endangered species, and generally have a
high abundance of fish and water birds. Erosion from poorly constructed
and inadequately rehabilitated sites can lead to downstream siltation, ruining
spawning beds for fish. Constriction of flows at water crossings can make
the current too fast for some species. Alteration of flood cycles, tidal flows,
48
and water levels can upset trophic dynamics by affecting the life cycle of
plankton, with corresponding effects on the rest of the food chain. River valleys
and their riparian zones, particularly in drier climates, are very sensitive to
any development that removes vegetative cover, since such areas are delicately
balanced micro-climatic zones, depending on very limited moisture supplies.
The wildlife found in these conditions often represent unusual assemblages
and need to be protected from unnecessary disturbance. Rechannelling of
waterways is often undertaken as part of road construction. This can result
in a loss of aquatic habitat diversity and lead to potentially serious and
chronic erosion. Finally, streambeds are often used as sources of aggregate
material. Serious impacts can occur because of the disruption and outright
removal of streambed habitats, and from pollution derived from machinery
regularly working in the streambed.
4.1.2 Coastal Ecosystems
Coastal ecosystems include estuaries, salt marshes, beaches and near shore
islands, and tend to be diverse and productive. Coastal ecosystems are closely
linked to mangrove forests, and the two are often considered together. Coastal
systems are strongly affected by land-based alterations to drainage, effluent
discharges and land use modification, which often occur with road
development. The estuarine system is particularly vulnerable to development,
including road, bridge and causeway construction. Estuaries, salt marshes
and eelgrass bed areas are often prime locations for settlements and harbours.
Such developments have displaced hundreds of species that use these coastal
areas as their nursery and rearing grounds (see Box 4.1).
4.1.3 Desert Ecosystems
Desert ecosystems typically have very dry and extreme climates, little
vegetation, and soils that are extremely vulnerable to disturbance and erosion.
Soil stability and fertility are often highly dependent on the formation of soil
crusts, which all too often are indiscriminately disturbed by road development.
Impacts on desert ecosystems are of special concern because of these systems
fragility and the long time required for the disturbed desert vegetation to
regenerate.
4.1.4 Mountain and Alpine Ecosystems
Mountain and alpine ecosystems are characterized by temperate climates,
with large daily and seasonal variations in temperature, and often harsh
growing conditions. Mountain environments are generally rich in animal and
plant communities, many of which are unique to these ecosystems. Mountain
ecosystems tend to be less resilient than those that do not experience such
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
49
Box 4.1 Sea turtles, black buck and coastal highway planning in Orissa
A 35 km long coastal road connects two major tourist centres, Puri and Konark, along the
eastern coast of India. The road was constructed in the early 1980s and a 15 km stretch
passes through the Puri-Balukhand Wildlife
Sanctuary. This Sanctuary provides protection
KADUA R.
to the endangered blackbuck (Antelope
MOUTH
cervicapra) and olive ridley sea turtle
(Lepidochelys olivacea), along with a host of
other animal and plant species. A 5 km stretch
B
of this road was constructed initially very close
a
y
to the high tide line of the sea, directly affectKONARK
ing the sea turtles by (i) reducing the space availo
able for them to nest and (ii) disturbing their
f
KUSHABHADRA
egg laying activities with 24 hour vehicular
MOUTH
traffic. The presence of heavy vehicular traffic
B
on this road resulted in recorded road kills of
e
the endangered blackbuck. Besides the road
n
kills, the original alignment also has provided
PURI-KONARK
g
ROAD
an easy access for poachers to enter this Wildlife
a
Sanctuary. In the mid 1980s, this stretch of road
l
was damaged by a cyclone and the reconstructed alignment was moved away from this
NUANAI
MOUTH
sensitive coastal zone. Although damaged by the
cyclone, the original alignment has never been
fully blocked off, and the damage to that
PURI
N
ecosystem continues to take place.
0
7.2
km
Puri-Balukhand Wildlife Sanctuary
Source: Pandav et al. 1994.
harsh conditions and extremes, and therefore the impacts on them are
generally longer-lasting. Wildlife in mountain ecosystems (e.g. the various
species of wild goat) tend to migrate vertically, that is up and down the
mountain slopes in response to changing seasons and food supplies. Roads
through steep mountainous terrain, often requiring deep cuts, tunnel portals
and viaducts, can pose severe obstacles to these vertical wildlife movement
patterns (see Box 4.2), sometimes magnifying the existing stress on mountain
species, many of which are rare, threatened or endangered.
4.1.5 Savannah and Grassland Ecosystems
Savannah ecosystems occur at varying latitudes and are characterized
by semi-arid climatic conditions. Their vegetation consists mainly of widely
spaced drought-resistant tree species, interspersed with herbaceous and shrub
species. Seasonal fluctuations in rainfall tend to be large, and soil disturbed
by road construction can be extremely vulnerable to erosion during the wet
season.
Grassland ecosystems are dominated by herbaceous species and generally
occur in areas experiencing relatively low rainfall, large amounts of sunshine,
50
Box 4.2 Mountain ecosystems: The Dakpai-Buli road, Bhutan

A 36.5 km long new road, connecting Dakpai and Buli, in the Zhemgang Dzongkhag
mountain area of Bhutan, was recently approved. An 8 km long section from km 16-24
runs through a dense and very steep-sloped broad leaf evergreen forest. Just after the village
of Tali, the terrain is so steep that trees grow at a tilt. The forest is a habitat of the golden
langur, an endemic species of the Himalayan ecosystem, as well as the hornbill, Himalayan
bear, barking deer, monkey, leopard and wild pig. The golden langur exists in three troupes;
one about 3 km away from Zhemgang town, occupying a habitat below the national highway.
The other troupes are located down the valley but still along the proposed highway. Golden
langurs are largely arboreal and the clear-felling of trees within a 15 m-wide road RoW
would lead to potentially serious impacts. Since they move in the tree tops, a 15 m-wide
break in the canopy would mean that the langurs would need to descend to the forest floor
during their feeding activity, where competitors and predators await. Given the steep and
sensitive topography of the area, blasting and earthworks during construction are expected
to lead to major forest destruction, threatening the golden langurs habitat. If large canopy
trees could be left standing along both sides of the road every few kilometers such that their
crowns touched above the road, movement corridors for the langur could be maintained
for use by the langurs despite the noise, air pollution, and steady traffic below. Clearly,
some action is better than nothing at all.
Source: Jimba et al. 1998
and plentiful winds. Grasslands are major carbon dioxide processors, and
are thus important to global climate regulation. The sod layer operates as a
highly effective natural barrier against negative impacts, specifically erosion
and desertification. Roads in these areas, especially busy ones, can have serious
impacts on wildlife in terms of vehicle-wildlife collisions, barrier effect, habitat
fragmentation and human use pressure (see Box 4.3).
Box 4.3 Roads and grasslands: The Dudhwa Tiger Reserve in Uttar Pradesh State
Dudhwa Tiger Reserve in the northern Indo-Gangetic Plain is home to a small population
of tigers as well as the endangered swamp partridge and swamp deer (barasingha), both
habitat specialist species inhabiting the grasslands. It boasts of one of the finest quality
Dipterocarp (Shorea robusta) forests in India, and probably the best remaining tall-grass
grasslands on the subcontinent. Nevertheless, two major roads, the Dudhwa-Gauriphanta
and Dudhwa-Chandanchowki roads, pass through the core zone of the National Park. The
road network disturbs 16 percent of the PA, fragmenting this grassland-swamp complex.
These roads provide people with 24-hours a day unrestricted entry into the PA, further
stressing the ecosystem. Since this road network was constructed years before Indias EA
process became law, no assessment or attempts to mitigate negative effects were ever
undertaken. In light of the ecological and cultural value of this Reserve, it seems unusual
that authorities have not been able to protect this unique area from road impacts.
Source: Press Clipping retained by WII 1999
4.1.6 Forest Ecosystems

Forest ecosystems in South Asia are characterized by dominant multistoried canopy trees, shrubs, lianas and climbers. This ecosystem type has
51
great species diversity as well as broad vertical stratification1, and a complex

canopy structure. There are six broad categories of forest ecosystems: (i)
mangroves, (ii) tropical rain forest, (iii) dryland forest, (iv) deciduous forest,
(v) coniferous forests, and (vi) high-altitude cloud forest. Within these
categories there are many subcategories, distinguished mainly by climatic
conditions, which encourage certain plant and animal communities and
suppress others. South Asian forests are highly diverse and support a wide
range of wildlife, including most of the regions endangered mammals. Of
all the ecosystems exposed to the impact of roads, forest ecosystems are affected
the most, and usually exhibit change in the shortest amount of time, yet
fortunately are highly resilient. They are also the best understood in terms of
impact cause-effect relationships. The most significant road-related impacts
in forest ecosystems are habitat fragmentation and wildlife mortality (see Box
4.4).
Box 4.4 Forests, wildlife and roads: The Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary
POL
LAC
HI
The Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (IGWS) is in the Anamalais forest in the Western
Ghats (hills) of Tamil Nadu. Nearly 60% of all herpetofauna, 80% of caecilians (limbless
amphibians) and uropeltids (shield-tailed snakes) are endemic to the IGWS, and are poorly
understood. The Sanctuary has an extensive network of existing roads, established prior to
the designation of the IGWS. Apart from contributing to the fragmentation of the Sanctuary,
the roads have caused the steady depletion of the IGWSs rare and endemic wildlife, through
road kill. Karthikeyan et al. 1999 recorded road kills on selected road segments within the
IGWS from November 1998 through January 1999. Wildlife recorded as having been killed
included the spiny doormouse, small Indian civet cat, common palm civet, bonnet macaque,
common langur and sambar. For the 170.7 km-days (number of km walked X number of
days walked) of sampling along four road segments, 311 amphibians and 70 reptiles,
comprising 20 species of herpetofauna, were
recorded. Road kills tended to be higher in
TAMIL
ALIYAR
areas which had large canopy trees and
NADU
RESERVOIR
woody vegetation adjacent to the road.
PARAMBIKULAM
RESERVOIR
Roads in barren areas or with adjoining
INDIRA GANDHI
VALPARAI
deforested strips, as in tea plantations, had
WL SANCTUARY
lower incidences of road kills. Based on the
UPPER
ALIYAR RESERVOIR
condition and timing of the sighting of roadS
LL
HI
kills, most were thought to occur at night.
CHALAKUDI
I
LA
Closure of the road during night hours
AMA
ANN
should be considered, in order to protect
KERALA
these endangered species. However, such a
SCALE = 1:1,000,000
restriction might be difficult to implement
State Boundary
Road connecting Pollachi & Chalakudi
since the road is a major haul route for
IGWL Sanctuary
industrial and commercial goods destined for
the areas tea industry.
Pollachi-Chalakudi road across
Source: Karthikeyan et al. 1999.
Annamalai hills
1 Vertical stratification refers to the range of forest levels at which different species live, e.g. the forest
floor to the high canopy.
52
4.1.7 Special Ecosystems: Caves, Coral Reefs and Micro-Climatic Zones

Caves and limestone karst areas
Construction of roads and related infrastructure is highly dependent on
concrete, for which limestone is a major raw material. Limestone is often
mined from limestone caves and karst areas, and these systems and their
ecological and cultural values are increasingly threatened by road
development. The World Bank has recently highlighted the extraordinary
value of these fast-disappearing ecosystems in a new technical paper
(Vermeulen and Whitten 1999). Asia is a primary world location for these
formations and little technical information has, until now, been available on
them. The following paragraphs have been paraphrased from Vermeulen and
Whittens report.
The biodiversity of limestone ecosystems, both surface and cave systems,
is highly localized and includes species which are able to cope with the highly
alkaline environment, species which can endure the severity of exceedingly
dry soil conditions over part of the year, and species which are confined to,
or found primarily in, limestone caves. Some species are confined to single
hills or cave systems. Many of the species concerned are relatively small, little
known, and are rarely included in lists of threatened and endangered species,
which tend to focus on the larger and more conspicuous species. Some of
these little-known species have important and under-appreciated values. For
instance, the cave-nesting swiftlets, their nests being an extremely valuable
commodity used in oriental delicacies (by weight more valuable than gold),
utilize limestone caves and karst overhangs as nesting sites. Other species are
equally important in an economic sense but in a less obvious way. Bats, for
example, are important pollinators of various commercial tree crops, and
major predators on damaging or dangerous insects. Losses of limestonerestricted species as the result of rapid economic development, have already
been recorded, and the status of other species is not good.
Certain limestone areas are also significant in that they harbour some
of the earliest evidence of human culture in Asia, and in some countries are
historically significant in having sheltered revolutionary movements.
Palaeontological remains in cave deposits have provided great insights into
prehistoric fauna. In the humid tropics, caves are among the very few sites
where ancient organic material is preserved. Geological remains provide
invaluable information about past environmental conditions. Also, many karst
areas are regarded as being exceptionally beautiful, and attract large numbers
of tourists. The impact of roads on this important ecosystem has rarely been
considered.
53
Coral reefs
Coral reefs are the production centers for most tropical fish, which are
vital for much of the human population living along the coasts of South
Asia. Coral reefs also provide important protection from monsoon-driven
coastal erosion, by dissipating much of the energy of waves before they reach
the coastline. Coral reefs survive within a narrow range of biophysical
conditions and parameters such as salinity, water temperature, turbidity,
sedimentation, nutrient enrichment, need only sustain minor changes in order
to destroy or degrade these important habitats.
Of South Asian countries, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh have coral
reef ecosystems. Since coral reefs are often not directly linked to the land,
and rarely get in the way of land-based transportation infrastructure, they
are often ignored when road development is being considered. Improperly
planned coastal roads can affect all the critical parameters identified above,
and can lead to serious long-term biological and social consequences. The
extent of damage done and the rate of recovery from change, are factors
only now being investigated. The proposed development of coastal roads and
ports along the state of Gujarats northwest coast and new road and port
construction in the Andaman Islands will be good case studies to monitor
in terms of what mitigative measures are put in place to avoid and reduce
serious road-related impacts on the coral and near shore marine ecosystems.
4.2 Impacts
4.2.1 Habitat Modifications
(i)
Fragmentation
Fragmentation of landscapes that include wildlife habitats is one of the

driving forces behind the current decline in biodiversity. Fragmentation is
defined as the breakup of the habitats of plant and animal populations into
smaller, more isolated units (Rikswaterstat 1993 and 1997). This definition
encompasses terrestrial and aquatic habitats, including both ground-dwelling
and arboreal species. Unfortunately, in many regions of India, South Asia
and indeed the world, fragmentation of precious wildlife habitats is growing.
This situation is particularly acute in India, given its high population density.
Transportation projects are now being considered as principal new causes of
habitat fragmentation (Reck and Kaule 1993; Langerelde and Jaasma 1997).
Fragmentation is a complex impact that is perhaps better described as a
set of interrelated processes that are set in motion when roads are built in
relatively undisturbed natural settings (Figure 4.1). These processes include
habitat loss and modification; habitat transformation and habitat isolation.
54
CAUSES/FACTORS
(ii) Loss
The actual amount of wildlife

habitat removed for road rights-ofway is in itself often insignificant2 in
relation to the total surrounding area.
However, road, rail and other linear
projects split up habitat by creating
PRIMARY EFFECTS
physical and psychological barriers
Habitat loss
for wildlife. They also encourage the
Habitat transformation
Habitat isolation
in-migration of people who further
alter and often eliminate wildlife
habitat. The impact usually starts
with a dirt track or forest access road
SECONDARY IMPACTS
with almost no effect on the
Habitat fragmentation
surrounding ecosystem. As it is
Reduction & degradation
widened to a single lane motorway,
problems escalate dramatically.
Sometimes expansion along existing
ECOLOGICAL
routes may not be possible, and a
CONSEQUENCES
new route has to be picked, causing
Ecological stress
additional loss and habitat changes
Loss of biodiversity
(see Box 4.5). Road-related reduction
in habitat areas may therefore have
Fig. 4.1 Fragmentation linkages
much more serious cumulative
implications for wildlife populations
than mere loss of living space (see Box 4.6). A knowledge of the ecology of
the existing system through which a road may pass is therefore a key
component of good wildlife impact prevention.
Vegetation clearing & trenching
Construction work
Traffic & road side
management
Box 4.5 Coral reefs: Roads and turtles in the Andamans

Great Nicobar Island is considered to be the second most important habitat in the island group,
for the olive ridley turtles. There are four nesting beaches. This island is also the favoured
nesting site in India for the leatherback turtle. Construction of the 51 km long E-W highway has
provided an easy access to these turtle nesting beaches. The N-S highway has also provided easy
access to the hawksbill turtle nesting beach. The mining of beach sand for road construction has
eliminated significant amounts of nesting habitat. Since the roads were constructed long before
the EIA notification came into force, no EIA was conducted. A failure to safeguard these highly
sensitive areas, simply because in the past, they were not subject to environmental controls, is
inviting serious losses and possibly extirpation of these species from Great Nicobar. Marine
turtles are important large predators of the reef that need to be protected.
Source: Bhaskar 1993.
2 An important caveat is that if the habitat supports rare and endangered organisms, or is relevant for
key life-cycle functions, any loss should be considered critical.
55
Box 4.6 Mumbai-Pune Expressway Project: An example of habitat modification

and loss
The existing Indian National Highway NH-4, which connects Mumbai (Bombay) with Pune
in Maharashtra State, is a two-lane divided highway with short undivided stretches. A new
expressway is planned to accommodate at least 60% of the NH-4 traffic. The six-lane
expressway will follow a new alignment parallel to the existing NH-4. By 2005, the projected
increase in traffic would require at least 10 lanes, and therefore would have to be replaced
or upgraded again. The proposed expressway alignment would thus not only result in the
loss of portions of highly specialized ecosystems, but would also increase the possibility of
further destruction/fragmentation of these ecosystems due to new impacts adding to the
existing ones. In other words, chronic degradation of an endangered ecosystem is likely to
develop. The expressway will pass through three landscape features: (i) the Coastal Plains;
(ii) the Western Ghats; and (iii) the Deccan Plateau. Of these, the multi-layered tropical
forests of the Western Ghats harbour one of the richest and most diverse ecosystems in the
world (WII, 1999). The Ghat forests support a diversity of flora and fauna with many
endemic species, and are specialised habitats for mouse deer and giant squirrel. Fragmentation
of these habitats will restrict wildlife movement, migration, feeding and socialization patterns
for most species (See Case Study No. 3).
(iii) Transformation
Literature from different parts of the world indicates that on an average
15-20% of the worlds land area has been negatively affected by roads.
Transformation involves changes in the biophysical conditions of a habitat,
e.g. increased temperature, noise, or air pollution, as well as drying out of
the habitat. When this occurs along roads, it is termed road effect or edge
effect. The edge effect zone typically extends 200-400m on either side of the
cleared road surface, including verges and ditches.
The edge effect zone is usually asymmetrical, with boundaries reflecting
local environmental variables (Figure 4.2) such as slope, winds, and habitat
suitability on both sides of the road (Forman et al. 1997). Knowledge of the
likely width of the edge effect zone allows informed estimation of the
proportion of the land area, beyond the physically disturbed right-of-way,
that needs to be included when estimating impacts.
Edge effects can be measured as changes in productivity, understorey
species numbers, overall species abundance and diversity, and micro-climatic
conditions (Thomas et al. 1979; Chen et al. 1992). Taylor et al. (1985)
conducted a mammal survey along roads in Tasmania and concluded that
roads increase the ease with which large carnivorous mammals can move
into roadside habitats and prey on the fauna living there. Edge habitats, typical
of roadsides, are also known to support a greater diversity of small mammals
and to attract generalist species (Adams and Geis 1983) with excellent dispersal
abilities, capable of invading and colonizing disturbed habitats (Ferris 1979
56
ROAD
>1000
2001000
100200
50100
<50
UPSLOPE
<50
50100
100200
2001000
> 1000 Distance from

| road (meters)
DOWNSLOPE
Hydrological effects
Salt, lead, etc. in
aquatic systems
Downstream sediments
UPWIND
DOWNWIND
Silt, sand, nutrients from
road dust
Salt damage to pines in
farmland
Grassland birds by quiet
road
Grassland birds by busy
highway
Forest interior birds
Large mammals in
woodland
LESS SUITABLE
SURROUNDING HABITAT
MORE SUITABLE
SURROUNDING HABITAT
Invasion by roadside
species
Human access affecting
wildlife, fire, and
sensitive habitats
Fig. 4.2 Road effect zone is defined by ecological effects extending variable distances
from road edges (Reproduced from Forman et al. 1997).
and Andrews 1990). Gibb (1991) demonstrated that recognized edge species
constituted 16% of the bird community found within 100m of a major
highway in the USA.
Both new and rehabilitation projects often significantly disturb vegetation
communities. The cutting of canopy trees leads to complete floristic transition
from shade-loving species to pioneering and sun-tolerant plants. Naturally,
these changes have profound effects on the local wildlife. While species richness
in fragmented areas sometimes exceeds pre-development levels, loss of native
communities often occurs, and is considered a serious negative ecological
impact. Unimproved roads may accommodate a considerable number of
species that would be severely threatened by improvements such as widening.
Only a small number of species or wildlife communities are associated with
paved road rights-of-way (Zwaenpoel 1997).
57
Fragmentation in wetlands can reduce water circulation and can limit

or prevent the movement of individuals within a previously contiguous
community of plants and animals. Small, isolated populations are much more
susceptible to natural and human-induced stresses and have more difficulty
recovering from such stresses than large contiguous populations.
Fragmentation may therefore be closely linked to reductions in biodiversity.
Development projects that occur near wetlands often affect their shorelines
(see Box 4.7). The loss of transition zone habitat results in the severing of
important ecological connections between the wetland and the surrounding
landscape. In addition, the drying of wetland shorelines limits their ability
to respond to both natural and anthropogenic alterations. Cumulatively, the
loss of transition zone habitat and the drying can result in major adverse
impacts such as impaired wetland resilience, rapid aging and transformation
of a wetland into a bog. Some coastal wetlands have been transformed into
freshwater lakes when their connection with the sea has been obstructed by
road projects (see Case Study No. 5).
Box 4.7 Rajasthan State Highway Project (RSHP)
The RSHP proposes to improve (including widening, upgrading geometric dimensions and
construction of additional crossings and bypasses) the network of state highways. Several
of the road links proposed for improvement would involve significant impacts on wetland
ecology as a result of alignments along or across important wetlands. The 20 km long Kota
bypass and 72 km long Kota-Indergarh, Rajgarh-Sikandra, Duasa, and SawaimadhopurIndergarh-Baran-Jhalawar-Pachpahar alignments would pass close to the National Gharial
Sanctuary. Apart from the mud flats, there are cliffs, ravines and forests which are all important
bird habitats located close to the proposed roads. These will likely be significantly disturbed
and will no longer be available to species dependent on them.
Source: World Bank 1998.
Often roads associated with politically motivated development lead to

large-scale unexpected impacts on entire regions (Forman 1995; Forman and
Collings 1997). In Rondonia, Brazil, construction of the highway was the
driving force for the areas development. Immediate in-migration pressures
led to the construction of a grid of secondary roads extending outward from
the highway. Small forest plots between these roads were quickly brought
under cultivation, depleted of nutrients and eventually converted to large
grazing areas and fields (Dale et al. 1994). Ironically, a road intended as a
major poverty alleviator and thought to be environmentally benign (few
environmental and social sector specialists were involved in its early planning)
fragmented and transformed the ecosystem of the entire State and left
thousands of families destitute.
58
(iv) Isolation
The most obvious manifestation of fragmentation is the division of large
habitat areas into smaller patches that become isolated from each other. As
the network of primary and secondary roads expands, the ratio of suitable
to unsuitable habitat declines, resulting in a mosaic of small habitat patches
surrounded by hostile conditions. The distance separating suitable habitat
grows, leading to eventual degradation of an entire wildlife ecosystem and
its ability to cope with negative impact. Normally, various populations live
in an area, interacting in many ways to achieve stability through their combined presence. Such assemblages are referred to as metapopulations. Isolating metapopulations into island-patches (Figure 4.3), can lead to serious destabilization across all groupings and eventually degrade an entire regions
wildlife ecosystem. The key to sensing when such a collapse is likely to
occur is to know
the characteristics
Individual
Metapopulations
of the keystone
Reproductive unit
species in the variGroup territory
ous affected comLocal population
munities. ConnecHabitat patch
tivity of patches
Long distance
is controlled by
dispersal
Local dispersal
the extent of blockages in terms of
landforms and
land use changes
created by a new
Long term
road. The greater
extinction
Road
the degree of connectivity, the more
likely the recovery
Fig. 4.3 Metapopulations and roads
from the destabilizing impacts of road development.
Isolation may also mean that sub-populations of individual species
become cut off from interaction and genetic exchange with other subpopulations of the same species. This eventually leads to in-breeding and
declines in fitness if there are not enough individuals (minimum viable
population size) to sustain genetic diversity over the long term. The impacts
of roads on habitat isolation and the viability of animal populations have
been studied on frogs by Reh and Seitz (1990), on deer species by Calvo
and Silvy (1996) and Vos (1997), and on grizzly bears and mountain lions
by Gibeau and Heure (1996). All studies stressed the need for careful study
59
and mitigation of fragmentation and isolation impacts of road alignment

planning, road construction and road operation.
4.2.2 Barrier Effect of Roads
Linear developments such as roads, railroads and even power
transmission lines become barriers when they are, or are perceived by wildlife
to be, impossible or dangerous to cross. In this sense, the barrier effect is both
a physical and psychological phenomenon (Table 4.1). The four most
important components of road corridors that can act as functional barriers
to wildlife movements are (i) the road verges (shoulders and ditches); (ii)
the road surface itself; (iii) poorly-designed crossing structures; and (iv) traffic
(see Box 4.8).
Table 4.1 Barrier effects of roads
Construction period
Design
period
Activity
Barrier effects
Alignment of route through contiguous

wildlife habitat
Creation of disjointed habitats split by

a physical barrier
Clearing of vegetation on road verges
Impaired movement of grounddwelling and sensorial mammals
Removal or thinning of canopy of trees

overhanging the carriageway or the
RoW
Transformation of vegetation
community to non-native grouping.
Discontinuity of movement of
arboreal species of mammals
(macaques, squirrels, flying foxes)
Ecological barrier to movement of
understorey bird species
Physical barrier for movement of small
burrowing mammals
Movement of workers and machinery

on construction sites
Inhibition of movements due to

human disturbances
Construction of trenches along sides of

roads for drainage of water
Physical barrier for reptiles and small

burrowing mammals
Land leveling for road surface and

development of inclines near verges
Creation of physical barriers where

road width may not offer significant
barrier but the inclined shoulders
inhibit movement of crawling animals
Impoundment of water
Restriction of movement of amphibians
Channelization of streams
Obstruction of movement of aquatic

species
Construction of overpasses,
underpasses, culverts, bridges and
causeways
Restriction of daily and migratory

movements
60
Activity
Barrier effects
Surfacing of carriageway
Behavioural disorders due to tunnel

syndrome
Operation
Period
Physical barrier inhibiting diurnal

movement and dispersal of animals
Movement of traffic
Collisions with vehicles, leading to

injury and mortality
Traffic noise
Psychological barrier and disrupts

diurnal patterns
Headlight glare
Temporary blinding and risk of collision
Emission of products of fuel

combustion and spillage of fuels and
other material transported by containers
Impairment of movement of sensitive

species in contaminated zones that pose
psychological barriers
Box 4.8 Kohalpur-Mahakali Highway, Nepal

Royal Bardia National Park (986 km2) encompasses the largest and finest tracts of grassland
in South Asia and harbours some highly endangered species (tiger, swamp deer, black buck,
gangetic dolphin, gharial and the Bengal florican). The area attained greater significance as a
PA after the successful reintroduction of the one-horned rhinoceros and the restocking of
gharial. This unique PA today stands bisected by the Kohalpur-Mahakali Highway, which
crosses the western half of the PA between Karnali and Amreni, restricting animal movements.
Appropriately located underpasses and overpasses, which could have been effective in
overcoming the impacts of fragmentation created by the construction of ditches, were not
included in the project design, even though they were defined in an EA. As a result, the
Highway is a 27 km long barrier across once contiguous habitat (see Case Study No. 2).
(i) Road verges

The construction and operation of a road or highway brings about
changes in the microclimatic conditions at the edge of the road. These roadinduced changes gradually decrease with distance from the edge of the road
surface (Mader 1984). Variables like temperature, humidity and evaporation
are affected by the presence of roads. This zone of altered microclimatic
conditions can become a barrier for different organisms ranging from
invertebrates such as ants, beetles, moths and butterflies (Somways et al. 1997)
to amphibians and reptiles (Ashley and Robinson 1996) to large herbivores
and carnivores (Ruediger 1998). Road verges are often inhospitable
environments for wildlife, since the vegetation is constantly being cut or
sprayed with chemicals. Also, the composition of roadside plant communities
tend to differ from more distant habitats and therefore does not offer the food
sources and level of shelter favoured by local wildlife species. Oxley et al.
(1974) reported that small forest mammals were reluctant to venture on to
road surfaces where the width of the verge exceeded 20 m. More recent studies
61
(Reijnen et al. 1995; Forman et al. 1997) suggest that such edge effects extend
from 200 to 400 m on either side of the pavement.
The physical characteristics of roadside areas may also play a large role
in determining the extent of the barrier effect. Deep ditches and steep
embankments are especially formidable barriers to smaller terrestrial species
such as amphibians and reptiles.
(ii) Road surfaces
Road surfaces are barriers to many species of wildlife because roads are
noisy, provide unfamiliar footing, and offer no cover. Most wildlife
instinctively avoids such features. For animals living in dense forests with low
mobility, the road represents an extreme contrast in habitat. In that regard,
roads with cleared widths exceeding 100 m have been shown to be significant
barriers to animal movement (Oxley et al. 1973).
(iii) Crossing structures
Culverts, underpasses, and bridges often do not incorporate features that
encourage their use by animals, thus ultimately functioning as physical barriers
to movements of both terrestrial and aquatic species (see Box 4.9). Factors
influencing the effectiveness of crossing structures have been evaluated by
several workers (Reed 1981; Litjens 1991; Keller and Pfister 1995; Yanes
et al. 1995; Putman 1997). They established that structure width, approach
area, length, height above ground, and visibility from the structure all had
Box 4.9 Rajaji National Park and elephant movement
The movement of elephants between Rajaji National Park and Corbett Tiger Reserve and
parts of the Lansdowne, Bijnor and Kalagarh forest divisions maintains a genetic exchange
critical to the long-term survival of the herd. Populations in this conservation unit are
threatened by at least two major linear developments. These are:
i.
the hydropower channel of Garhwal-Rishikesh-Chilla Hydel Project and the

construction of the bridge on the channel; and
ii.
the Haridwar-Rishikesh-Dehradun Road and Kotdwar-Lansdowne road
The existing design of cross-drainage structures, including bridges and aqueducts,

are not very conducive to animal movements. This is largely because of insufficient head
room for animals as large as elephants. The best example of poor design is the Duggada
stream culvert (siphon). Before its construction, Duggada was one of the main movement
routes of elephants from forest to river. Now this route is virtually abandoned. The diameter
of the culvert is sufficient to allow maximum water discharge during high-water periods, but
its tunnel-like appearance discourages elephants from using it. This could have been avoided
if a big arch-type structure, with piers in the torrent bed supporting the beams of the roadway,
had been constructed instead of the existing round culvert. There is also limited use of the
existing bridge across the channel and the eastern Ganges by wild elephants trying to retrace
their traditional movement route. A wider bridge with earth-filled pockets on the exposed
surface of the retaining walls, allowing vegetation, especially creepers, to grow along it,
would have encouraged its use by elephants (see Case Study No. 4).
62
to be tailored to the target species requirements or they would not use it.
An understanding of an animals life history and generally preferred habitat,
feeding activity and movement patterns are essential to successful design of
crossing structures. For aquatic animals, channelization of flowing water
where roads cross streams poses a formidable physical barrier, because it often
results in increased water velocity; many aquatic species may be unable to
move against newly strengthened currents. When watercourses are too small
for bridges, culverts are often built. Their configuration, diameter, length and
placement in the watercourse directly determine whether they will block or
permit passage of aquatic species. Roads passing through or beside wetlands
(e.g. marshes, swamps, and lakes) can inhibit or prevent aquatic animals from
moving between the wetland and adjacent habitats. If these animals are able
to cross the road barrier (e.g. amphibians and turtles), they then risk heavy
mortality from road traffic (Hodson 1960). If migratory populations exist, a
blockage can permanently eliminate local as well as regional populations.
(iii) Traffic movement and clearing width
Operation of vehicles may prevent animals from crossing roads because
of noise, movement, and emissions. Large traffic volumes can repel birds from
roadside areas; some species stay 500 to 600 m away from even quiet rural
roads and between 1600 and 1800 m from busy highways (Boer 1958). This
clearing width is a significant factor when assessing the total impact of roads.
The noise from the traffic affects vocal communication among birds, which
can result in life cycle disruptions (Reijnen et al. 1995).
The operation of vehicles results in emissions of various pollutants into
roadside airsheds and on soil and vegetation. This often results in the
avoidance of the zone by wildlife sensitive to these pollutants. Species that
depend on their sense of smell to detect predators are particularly vulnerable.
4.2.3 Animal Mortality
Estimates of road kills, based on measurement along short sections of
roads in The Netherlands, revealed that each year 159,000 mammals and
653,000 birds are killed. Seven million birds are killed in Bulgaria, and five
million frogs and reptiles are killed annually in Australia (van der Zande et
al. 1980; Bennet 1991; Forman 1995) through collision with vehicles. An
estimated one million vertebrates per day are killed on roads in the United
States (Forman and Deblinger 1998)3. Other studies ( Lode 2000) suggest
that traffic can severely affect wildife species demography through road kill
and isolation.
3 While these figures, in absolute terms are large, their relative importance in relation to species
success has not been well defined. For endangered animals even one vehicle death is large. One
measure of the magnitude of this form of animal mortality is the fact that in North America,
animal deaths by vehicle collision have surpassed hunting.
63
Factors leading to road mortalities relate largely to how conducive the

roadside and RoW conditions are to feeding, resting and nesting for local
fauna. Roadside vegetation, fruiting shrubs on median strips, and spilled
grains along roadsides are the chief attractants for small mammals and birds.
Grasses along the road edge attract large herbivores. The post-construction
treatment (planting and landscaping) of roads can significantly affect the
vehicle-animal collision rate, particularly the choice of plants used.
The wildlifes vulnerability varies with age and inherent behaviour and
activity patterns of affected species. Deer-automobile collisions account for
the highest number of mortalities on roads and highways (Bashore et al. 1985)
in North America. Deer tend to be active during dawn and dusk periods,
when traffic density is building or high and visibility is poor.
Gir National Park and Sanctuary (see Case Study No.1) in Gujarat State
of India is home to the last surviving population of Asiatic lions (Panthera
leo persica). Six highways pass through this Protected Area, of which three
are open to traffic all the time and
Table 4.2 Mortality of animals due to
therefore have a constant flow of
road kill in the year 1997
traffic comprised largely of heavy
vehicles. Lions, leopards, smaller
Animal
Name of
Date of
carnivores and large herbivores
species
village
accident
have been killed by vehicles (see
location
Table 4.2) on these highways.
Lion
Dalkhama
7-3-97
Mortality of wild animals on
Chital
Jhankia
23-3-97
highways within other national
parks has also been reported from
Nilgai
Jhankia
12-5-97
India (see Box 4.10). A large
Leopard
Himal
6-7-97
number of wild animals like tiger,
Lion
Talala
3-10-97
leopard, and gaur are occasionally
Hyaena
Khamba
6-10-97
run over while they attempt to
Porcupine
Jhankia
12-12-97
utilize habitats across the highway
for feeding and visiting water
Source : Gujarat Forest Department 1999
sources.
4.2.4 Human Use Problems
The influx of people, whether settlers or tourists, into wilderness areas
following road construction rapidly accelerates habitat degradation (Lyon
1983; Forman 1995) and the associated decline in resident species (Griffith
and Van Schaik 1993; Dale 1994). Planning of roads as a component of
carefully planned land use, as opposed to roads inducing development, is the
pivotal paradigm shift that needs to take place if people-road impacts are to
be avoided and mitigated.
64
Box 4.10 Road kills on NH-7 along the Pench Tiger Reserve
h
nc
Pe
The National Highway NH-7 is a transportation lifeline of India. It runs along a north
south axis connecting Varanasi (north India) with Nagpur (central India) and Hyderabad
and Bangalore (south India).
An approxi-mate 80 km
section of this highway runs
N
through the relatively
0
25
SEONI
undisturbed moist and dry
MADHYA PRADESH
deciduous forests in Central
India from Seoni in Madhya
Pradesh to Mansar in
Maharashtra (see figure in
this box). Set in this forest
stretch is an important tiger
habitat designated as Pench
Khawasa
Tiger Reser ve, Madhya
Mantor
Pradesh. Road
kills
Tiger Reserve
MAHARASHTRA
encountered
on
NH-7
Reserved Forest
bordering
Pench
Tiger
Reservoir
Reserve (PTR) during 1996
- 1999 are given below:
Pe
nc
h
Ri
NH
ve
r
r
ve
Ri
Road kill information on NH-7 bordering PTR

Species
Langur
Number
% of Kills
37
71
Rat snake
Rhesus macaque
Tiger
Nightjar
White-backed Vulture
Python
Red-Jungle Fowl
Ruddy Mongoose
Common Palm Civet
Total
52
100.00
Source: Areendran and Pasha 2000
Wildlife conservation through the creation of a network of protected

areas has only recently been initiated in India. As a result, pre-existing road
networks already cross many protected areas. Gir National Park and
Sanctuary and Sariska Tiger Reserve are prime examples. The Alwar-Jaipur
State Highway passes through the Sariska Tiger Reserve, and about 2000
65
vehicles use the road every day (1000 are trucks, travelling mainly at night).
Instances of tiger and deer being killed by speeding vehicles at night have
been reported (Johnsingh et al. 1997). Ongoing discussions about possibly
widening a nearby road, at a cost of Rs. 42 million (US$ 1.2 million) in
order to divert the traffic away from the Tiger Reserve, have not progressed.
In addition to cost, a likely reason for the inaction is that convincing data
on the implications of such mortalities have not been developed and presented
to officials in a way that highlights not just the science (Sharma and
Johnsingh 1996) but also cultural heritage and economic dimensions
(Narayan 1996). Along the Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road, which skirts
a wildlife sanctuary, planners agreed not to widen the carriageway or clear
verges, but simply strengthen the pavement (see Case Study No. 6).
4.2.5
Tourism
Improving road infrastructure encourages higher visitation, frequently

in excess of protected areas carrying capacities, leading to their eventual
destabilization. Wildlife areas that are directly linked to urban road networks
tend to suffer major and sustained habitat and wildlife degradation (see Box
4.11), since they are easily accessible to many and, in many countries
including India, have inadequate visitor controls in place. A large number
of Indias protected areas have shrines and temples located within their
administrative boundaries, further compounding the problem for managers
and administrators.
Box 4.11 Gir National Park: Tourists, roads and lions
The Gir forest was declared a national park in 1965 and has the only population of the
wild Asiatic lion in the world. The Park has a network of roads and a railway lines passing
through and around it. Pilgrims, tourists, daily commuters, traders and the Parks
management staff use these facilities. There are about 100 km of state highways and major
roads and 590 km of forest roads in the Gir forest. Of these, the six state highways and one
major district road between Sasan and Devaliya are most significant in terms of their impact
potential. The roads in the region are heavily used by pilgrims (>80,000/year) for visiting
the three main temples in the Gir - Kankai, Banej and Tulsishyam and also for the
transportation of industrial products from large mineral processing plants surrounding the
PA. The Parks Working Plan prepared for the 1976-85 period was updated after the
MoEF, in 1992, sanctioned new ecodevelopment activities around the Park. The Park
habitat continues to be stressed and the lion and other wildlife populations are growing,
leading to more wildlife-people interactions and loss of crops, etc. This cycle was initiated
by too many access roads.
Source: Case Study No. 1; Kothari, Singh and Suri 1996
Protected area managers must respect the interests of the tourists who
come to view Indian wildlife and permit pilgrims to visit the shrines and
temples, while at the same time supporting conservationists who are interested
66
in restricting access and maintaining a secure natural area for wildlife. The
more access roads there are, the greater is the management problem.
The Sariska-Kalighati-Pandupole road in Sariska Tiger Reserve in the
state of Rajasthan is a good example of a heavily used road inside a protected
area. Twice a week, pilgrims (100 to 200 vehicles per hour) visit the Pandupole
temple, located in the core of the Tiger Reserve. They must drive for 20 km
through Kalighati, the only uninhabited wildlife-rich valley of the PA to reach
the temple location. The vehicular traffic causes pollution and noise, which
results in enormous disturbance to the wildlife. Pilgrims litter the area,
particularly around the temple, with garbage, plastic bags and plastic
containers4. The impacts of this road access include disruption of wildlife
dynamics (garbage foraging); pollution of runoff water, resulting in
contamination of two perennial streams in the Reserve (Johnsingh et al. 1997);
and degradation of habitat and potential effects on the food chain. The
cumulative impact is chronic instability of the wildlife ecology in at least some
parts of the Reserve.
Human visitation is also associated with the introduction of exotic
species (McDonald et al. 1989), which is threatening the survival of some
native ecosystems. For example, the dispersal of seeds by tourist vehicles
entering Kakadu National Park in Australia has resulted in over 5% of flora
being alien plants (Lonsdale and Lane 1993). Through such introduction of
exotic competitors for native species, ecosystems are destabilized.
4.2.6Hunting
As visitation rates rise, illegal killing of animals for meat may also occur.
This has been found in a number of African parks, e.g. Mikuni National Park
in Tanzania (Drews 1995 and Richard et al. 1996). In India and most of
South Asia, the killing of animals for food is rare, since it is usually a strict
religious taboo, but this is not the case for most tribal people who inhabit
many of the more remote tracts in India. Similar situations exist in Sri Lanka
and Nepal. In Pakistan and Bangladesh, there is no such general restriction
on killing of animals for food. Community hunting5 is also an established
practice among some tribal populations in central India. When rare and
endangered species are involved, the tribal hunting becomes serious and can
significantly degrade populations. In the absence of good planning that takes
hunting pressure into account, roads stimulate abuse rather than sustainable
harvesting.
4 The fact that disposal facilities such as garbage cans and bins, or signs encouraging proper
disposal of garbage, are not provided, is likely a major reason for the extensive littering.
5 While tribal people do hunt, they do not do so commercially. The effects of their hunting for
personal use are minor compared to the killing associated with wildlife damage to crops.
67
4.2.7 Fires
As access into an area improves and population density increases, so
does the risk of fires, which can have serious impacts on wildlife (Bennet
1988; Pica et al. 1998). Intentional fires set in order to promote growth of
new grass and for clearing the forest floor to collect fallen fruits is a common
practice along roadsides in the tribal areas in India. These fires reduce
roadside habitat quality and eliminate any ecological gains made between
burns. On the other hand, such fires reduce the presence of preferred habitat
for many wildlife species to outside the RoW (the burn area). If the ecosystem
depends on fire as a stabilizing action, suppressing the fire will degrade the
ecosystem (Stevenson 1996). In some cases, roads can act as fire-prevention
belts, contributing significantly to reducing the frequency of catastrophic fires.
These conflicting costs and benefits of fire lines stress the importance of
involving both people with scientific environmental knowledge and those with
local knowledge of the ecosystem in road sighting and in mitigation planning.
4.2.8 Resource Exploitation
In India and elsewhere, new roads have led to large-scale deforestation
and opening of areas to strip-colonization and cultivation. Such experiences
have also been reported from Amazonian forests (Dale 1994; Reid and Bowles
1997) and in Nepal (see Case Study No. 2). New roads may become grounds
for the establishment of exploitative industries, often leading to the
fragmentation and destruction of critical habitats and the stressing of species
that ultimately may abandon their native habitats. For example, logging
promoted by road expansion in Russia became a major threat to the
conservation of the Amur Tiger (Miquelle et al. undated). During the
construction of 550 km of hill roads in Chamoli district of Uttaranchal,
forests were destroyed by construction crews collecting firewood, followed
by wholesale cutting of virgin forest stands (Bhatt 1980). Mineral extraction
industries have threatened the tiger in the Buxa Tiger Reserve (see Box 4.12)
and the lion in Gir National Park and Sanctuary.
4.2.9 Erosion and Sedimentation
For roads, the frequency of erosion and landslides is generally related
to the depth of the cuts, steepness of slopes, degree of vegetative cover, climatic
conditions, geological structure and lithology. The higher the road cut, the
greater the structural weakness that is created. The steeper the hill slope, the
more likely it is that the forces of instability, such as gravity and saturation,
will be greater than the forces for resistance, such as soil cohesion and root
anchoring. Failure to establish protective vegetation on newly-exposed slopes
promptly following construction, allows running water to exacerbate slope
68
Box 4.12 The Tala-Rydak Road Project and the Buxa Tiger Reserve
The Buxa Tiger Reserve (BTR), located in Alipurdwar subdivision of Jalpaiguri District of
West Bengal, is home to a wide variety of endangered wildlife species such as the clouded
leopard, gaur, giant squirrel, tiger, elephant and otter. An elaborate network of roads was
established in this region after the
Chinese aggression in 1962. This
led to the fragmentation of the
Villages
forest, which was once a single
BHUTAN
International Boundary
patch extending from West Bengal
Tala
State Boundary
Bhutan Ghat
Metalled Road
to Assam and Bhutan.
#
ASSAM
Raidak River
Proposed Road
ri
ba
ina#
Ma
Rydak#
River
Core Area/Proposed NP
Buffer Area
North
Rydak
N
W
Chikla
Jhara
JALPAIGURI
#
Samuktala
15
Kilometers
Proposed Tala Rydak Road Project through Buxa Tiger Reserve
The Tala - Rydak road will

link India and Bhutan. In order to
improve transportation and trade
between the two countries, the
Government of Bhutan wants to
extend the Samukotla- Mainabari
road through the core zone of the
Buxa Tiger Reserve near the
Bhutan Ghat Beat.
An existing dirt road between Mainabari and Bhutan Ghat would be widened and paved.
The total length of road from Mainabari to the Indian border at Bhutan Ghat is 12 km. The
proposed road will bisect the wildlife habitat near Mainabari and the Bhutanese border, and
create a major hindrance to the movements of elephant and gaur.
stability problems. Inadequate drainage of slopes has the same effect. Errors
during construction, including uncontrolled blasting, can create unstable road
cuts, leading eventually to landslides. Construction related activities during
road building can sometimes adversely affect local hydrology. Streams may
be altered for a considerable distances both upstream and downstream of road
due to run off from road surfaces before they are paved and also due to altered
bank characteristics if boulders and road building material is removed from
streams and river beds. All these effects reduce wildlife habitat, frequently
stressing wildlife populations.
Erosion from a road site can have far-reaching and long-term effects on
terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Continual downhill movement of soil buries
vegetation that provides food and habitat for many species. The transportation
of sediments to streams, lakes and wetland ecosystems that are not adapted
to high sediment levels buries spawning beds and may render aquatic habitat
areas unsuitable for their usual inhabitants.
4.3 Mitigative Measures and Best Practices

In Sections 4.2.1- 4.2.5 groups of impacts were described in relation to
how they affect wildlife and their habitat. The examination of these causeeffect relationships (see also Table 4.3) suggests that with careful pro-active
69
planning and sensitive construction, many of the negative effects can be

avoided or reduced to an acceptable level, before they actually occur. Skillful
application of mitigative measures during the construction and operational
periods can further reduce the negative effects of roads. In this section,
common and widely practiced mitigative measures, and useful approaches
to implementing them, are described.
Table 4.3 Summary of road development activities and ecological impacts on the natural
environment
Project activities
Design
Selection of route alignment
and design, including road
cross-section, vertical alignment,
culvert and underpass design
and enhancements
Ecological impacts
Impacts on wildlife
Loss of wildlife and habitat and

/or community welfare
Tradeoffs decided on in
the absence of up-to-date
technical information about
the wildlife resource(s) to
be traded undermines
conservation efforts
System of tradeoffs often invoked
Land consumption
Construction
Changes in vegetation and ecology
Habitat Loss, Fragmentation
Clearing of vegetation
Reduced plant cover
Habitat loss
Rehabilitation and resettlement

of property, resources, and local
people
Lowered plant diversity

Adverse changes in species
composition
Habitat disruption or
fragmentation
Establishment of associated
work, supporting infrastructure
and construction camps
Disruption of succession and nutrient

cycling. Invasion by exotic species
Habitat modification
Decline in species sensitive
to sedimentation
Resource harvesting by project

labourers (fuelwood and food)
Increased pressure on natural

resources due to resource competition
and exploitation
Decline in prosperity of
flow-dependent ecosystems
Changes in faunal number and

diversity
Water quality and hydrology
Barrier effect
Water impoundment
Modification of surface and ground

water flows
Obstruction of daily and

migratory movements
River and stream diversion and

channelization
Shifts in water balance due to

extraction of water for construction
Under-utilization of habitat
and resource competition
Reclamation of pools, ponds,

and other wetlands
Degradation in the quality of

receiving waters due to increased
sedimentation load and pollutants
in surface runoff
Extraction of water for construction

work
Soil characteristics and productivity
Induced threats
Transportation of raw materials,

pre-assembled components,
machinery and labour to project site
Compaction of soil
Loss of productive soil
Decline in porosity and
permeability to water
Increased accessibility to
pristine areas
Increase in hunting and
poaching incidences
Mining, quarrying or dredging for

obtaining raw material
Decline in productivity
Increase in probability of
induced fire
70
Project activities
Ecological impacts
Impacts on wildlife
Excavation and filling
Destabilization of slopes and

erosion
Increase in human-wildlife
conflicts
Blasting, rock cutting, drilling and

or tunneling
Mass movements of soil and rock in

mountainous terrain
Increase in resource
exploitation
Road surfacing and construction

of underpasses and culverts
Generation of tipped material due to

imbalance between volumes of earth
cut and filled
Restoration of exposed areas through

planting and land stabilization
Displacement of soil on dunes in

desert ecosystems
Transportation of waste generated

during construction
Loss of wet soils in riparian and

marshy lands during construction of
channels and under passes
Management of waste material

at dumping sites
Operation
Movement of vehicles
Safety hazards and health

impacts
Wildlife population depletion
Air quality
Transportation of goods, and

finished and raw industrial products
Pollution due to emission of

NOX, SOX, PM10, CO and HC
Vehicle-wildlife collisions
Decline in wildlife health
due to air, water and noise
pollution
Competition for dwindling
resources
Long-term impacts on
population/biodiversity
Road maintenance
Pollution due to generation of

particulates due to combustion of
fuels, re-entrainment of road dust
and material transformation
Increase in in-breeding and

decline in size and population
Reduction of genetic diversity
Local extinction of species
in isolated habitats
Noise pollution
Movement of traffic and the sound
of horns and signals at crossing
induce significant noise pollution
Changes in animal behavior
An environmentally acceptable road project should budget for the

mitigation of road induced impacts and, as a last resort, for compensation
of unavoidable losses. Mitigative measures are usually restricted to the road
corridor and seek to avoid or reduce ecological disturbances by means of
technological and ecological improvements. Compensation measures seek to
replace losses and degradation of natural systems by restoring lost wilderness
values or creating, replacing, at different locations, features damaged by a
project, or simply paying for the loss, without any restoration.
71
4.3.1 Mitigating Fragmentation and Isolation

Developing engineered and ecological landscape connectors can mitigate
fragmentation and isolation impacts. The key to designing such connectors
is an understanding of the processes that regulate the ecological functioning,
and maintain the stability of animal and plant communities. Connectors can
permit crossing of ground and surface water sources, animal dispersal and
migration, and pollination and seed dispersal.
(i) Engineered or engineering structures
Well designed culverts, underpasses and overpasses can be effective in
mitigating fragmentation impacts by allowing movement of wildlife species
to continue despite the imposition of roads on the landscape. To be effective,
crossing structures must be designed such that their width, height, length, and
approach area, as well as visibility from them, are conducive to use by the
intended wildlife species. For example, elephants will not use an underpass
that does not have adequate headroom, and prey species are unlikely to enter
a structure if the approach area is such that escape routes are severely limited.
Similarly, the configuration, diameter, length and placement in the
watercourse of crossing structures for aquatic species directly determine whether
they will block or permit passage of aquatic species. An understanding of
wildlife species needs is essential to successful design of crossing structures,
and wildlife experts should therefore be involved in the design process.
Another engineering option in mountainous areas is the construction
of road/rail tunnels that pass under sensitive wildlife areas. This can prevent
dissection of above-ground ecosystems and ensure the integrity of their values.
However, care must be taken so that the tunneling does not create further
ecological impacts, as was the case with a tunnel constructed several years
ago in Indias Maharashtra State (see Case Study No. 3). The tunnel debris,
disposed off down-slope during construction, still remains there as an
impervious cover on the soil, supporting no vegetation. As a result of this
permanent loss, the Maharashtra State Transport Department is now
considering adding waste disposal clauses to all its construction contracts.
(ii) Conservation buffer zones
A buffer zone is an area that surrounds the core of a protected area,
allowing a range of human activities to take place while protecting the core
area from undue negative impacts and providing connections to other less
disturbed habitat areas. The idea is to prevent isolation of discrete habitat
patches such as core of protected areas by maintaining enough habitat features
in the buffer areas to facilitate the movement of wildlife across them. Such
habitat features may include forested riparian zones, wide hedgerows between
72
cultivated plots, and continuously linked production forest areas. Although

such features may not provide optimal habitat for all species, they can
nevertheless allow animals to move between core habitat areas, thus helping
to mitigate the isolation of metapopulations (see Section 4.2.1.3 above).
Sensitive road planning should recognize the value of buffer zones by
adjusting route alignments and incorporating crossing structures accordingly.
Conservation buffer zones may also be designed to protect core habitat
areas from edge effects by lessening the contrast in habitat conditions between
the edges and the core areas. For example, maintaining a certain amount of
forest cover near the protected area boundary can soften the transition from
open roadside areas to interior forest habitat, helping to reduce micro-climatic
effects such as drying, and discouraging incursions by invasive species. These
are able to out-compete and displace the native populations. In this context,
it is important that during route selection for new roads, distances between
road alignments and protected area boundaries be carefully evaluated to allow
for the establishment of appropriate buffer zones.
The design of buffer zones relies heavily on an understanding of the
habits and habitat requirements of the wildlife found in the protected area in
question. For example, protected areas for herds of grazing animals need
different buffer zones than do those for large predators such as tigers. Wildlife
experts should therefore be involved from the earliest stages of route selection
when roads are expected to pass nearby protected areas.
(iii) Ecological networks
Ecological networking is based on four underlying concepts (Bennett
1991):
conservation of core areas that ensure the conservation of the main
habitat types;
creation of green corridors that allow species to disperse and migrate
between core habitat areas;
restoration of areas to provide more habitat; and
delineation of buffer zones that protect the network from potentially
damaging external influences, such as roads.
The ecological network approach recognizes the need to move away
from preserving a small number of especially valuable sites or populations
of endangered species, towards wildlife management that focuses on the needs
of people and development as well as wildlife conservation, at the scale of
an entire landscape. Ecological networks are a way of maintaining a relatively
high degree of connectivity between natural areas through the maintenance
of green corridors, without attempting to exclude human activities. Basic
ingredients for successful application of this approach are a) adequate political
73
and administrative support, demonstrated by the provision of legislation,

policy and funding; b) basic data on species composition and overall
abundance, and knowledge of the habits and habitat requirements of key
species; and c) trained people who understand, in general terms at least, the
wildlife dynamics taking place in the impact zone. Of these ingredient, (a) is
most important, since the rest often fall into place as soon as the action has
senior-level support.
4.3.2 Compensation for Habitat Fragmentation or Loss
Seldom can the mitigative measures adopted ensure the reduction of all
impacts to acceptable levels. Where mitigation cannot be entirely effective in
reducing ecological impacts, compensation should be attempted. The choices
for compensatory measures include:
Re-establishment of wildlife habitats;
Creation and restoration of habitat areas (for compensating
biologically impoverished landscapes);
Upgrading other suitable and similar habitats to protected area status
(creation of legally protected habitat units); and
Relocation of wildlife species displaced by road development to other
suitable habitat areas.
The choice of measures used depends on the type of habitat affected, its
land-use history, uniqueness, rarity, and conservation significance and the
availability of alternative habitat within the same or related landscapes. More
than this, it is the magnitude and nature of the impact and available funding
that may ultimately dictate whether restoration, replacement or protective
strategies are adopted.
The most common compensatory measure currently being applied is
habitat replacement. For example, to compensate for the losses to the Great
Indian Bustard habitat that occurred during the extension of a pipeline
through its habitat, new habitat contiguous with an existing protected area
was approved for designation as a wildlife sanctuary (WII 1993). Similarly,
three new protected areas will be designated to compensate for habitat losses
resulting from the proposed Narmadasagar Project (WII 1994). There have
also been instances where species of endangered plants or those that are
protected by law were transplanted outside the impact zone of road projects
(see Box 4.13).
The design, construction and maintenance of such mitigative and
compensatory measures demands a high degree of specialist knowledge, and
close cooperation between ecologists and road engineers during the road
planning, construction and operating stages.
74
Box 4.13 Relocation of an endangered species

The North Lantau Expressway in Hong Kong is a 12.5 km long dual three-lane expressway with
a driving speed limit of 100 km per hour connecting the urban areas of western Kowloon to the
new Chek Lap Kok Airport. The expressway takes the form of a linear structure along the
northern coast of the Lantau Island built on hillsides and partially on reclaimed land. The
construction involved excavation
of 6.3 million m3 of soil and rock
and the removal of 10 million m3
of dredged material from the
Chek Lap Kok
surrounding sea bed, and a further
Airport
Lantau fixed
crossing
14 million m3 of marine sand fill
and 4 million m3 of seawall rock to
North Lantau
form
the roadwork. This is the first
Expressway
highway on the island. During site
LANTAU
clearance of a slope in Tung
ISLAND
Chung, protected pitcher plants
(Nepenthes
mirabilis),
was
observed by the resident
environmental staff on routine site
inspection. Through liaison
meetings with concerned parties,
Source: Environmental Protection Department, Govt. of Hong
the pitcher plants were transplanted
away from damage.
Kong 1997
The bottom line in mitigation and compensation planning will always

be the involvement of local communities in conservation efforts. Awareness
of issues and knowledge of potential solutions will encourage local people
to strike up partnerships in developing conservation policies and acceptable
mitigative and compensatory measures. Their solicited inputs often lead to
effective conservation actions.
Finally, measures that compensate for the chronic degradation or loss
of wildlife ecosystems should be explicitly defined in all projects where such
losses are anticipated and unavoidable. Mitigation and compensation should
not be afterthoughts, but rather integral components of the overall project
activities. Costs associated with them should be explicitly included in the
project budget.
4.3.3 Mitigating the Barrier Effect
Some common measures used to mitigate barrier effects imposed by road
development are briefly outlined below.
(i) Preventive measures during the planning stage
z
Route selection should avoid critical habitats of rare and threatened

species, as well as areas of high biological diversity.
75
Carefully consider the option of widening, resurfacing and realigning existing roads rather than building new roads in and around
protected areas.
Design tunnels, bridges, culverts and other crossing structures such

that they are useable for transportation as well as wildlife movement
corridors. For example, make bridges over streams high enough to
accommodate the movement of large wildlife beneath them, and
make culverts large enough to accommodate not only peak flows
but also use by riparian wildlife species.
(ii) Wildlife crossing structures

z
Where bridges for use by large animals like elephants are constructed
over water channels, they should be at least 50 m wide, with high
railings (walls). Grasses and creepers should be planted in pockets
of soil kept on the bridge deck, in order to reduce the visibility of
height of the crossing structure.
Most large animals will not readily cross narrow bridges, particularly
over railways or busy road. Based on the experience of earlier studies
(e.g. Putman 1997), overpasses that are 30 m wide and have wider
funnel-shaped approaches are sometimes successful. Underpasses are
an option but their success depends heavily on the wildlife in
question. For example, the minimum suggested height and breadth
of a crossing tunnel for most deer species is at least 4 m x 4 m
(Reed et al. 1975). Wildlife specialists should be consulted in the
design of such structures.
Dark tunnels painted light grey or underpasses with a wooded

appearance at their exits and entrances increase the chances that they
will be used (Kruger and Wolfel 1991). To further promote the use
of tunnels, feeding areas and watering holes should be developed
near the entrances. This, however, must be very carefully evaluated
in relation to local human communities. Since feeding and watering
areas may become animal concentration areas, their establishment
near populated areas could increase the likelihood of poaching.
Consider building road tunnels under mountainous areas

particularly rich in biodiversity and with rare and endangered
species (as with stretches along the Mumbai-Pune Expressway).
In designing culverts, the angle at which the structure is placed into

the stream, in relation to the streams natural gradient, is critical to
fish movement and migration. A culvert installed at a slope other
than the stream gradient will result in a plunge pool or waterfall
effect at the downstream end of the culvert and increased flow rate
76
through the culvert, resulting in the blockage or retardation of the

passage of many aquatic species (Figure 4.4).
Culvert
Culvert
Hydraulic jump
Outlet
drop
a. Perched outlet
b. Hydraulic jump at inlet

(Source: Fitch 1997)
Fig. 4.4 Improper culvert placement and streambed slope

z
The length of culverts and their interior roughness are two other
important factors. Some smaller aquatic species will tire in long
smooth culverts, and in such cases baffles have to be designed into
the structures to provide eddies in which smaller aquatic species can
rest. Past experience suggests that for culverts 25 m long, their slope
should not exceed 0.01 m/m, and for those >25 m the slope should
be 0.005 m/m. With baffles slope for any size culvert can be up to
0.05 m/m.
(iii) Manipulating roadside habitat

Altering roadside habitat often discourages wildlife crossings. Most often
this means cutting away vegetation and reducing roadside cover and potential
food sources. On the other hand, canopy connectivity above a road should
be maintained wherever possible to provide potential crossing points for
arboreal mammals, birds and herptiles.
4.3.4 Preventing Vehicle-Wildlife Collisions
For various reasons, including daily and annual movement requirements,
feeding activity and territoriality, wildlife will choose to cross roads and will
get hit by vehicles. Many wildlife deaths can be prevented by careful
placement of the alignment and appropriate roadside plantings. Measures
used to discourage animals from moving onto the road surface are:
z
Flash mirrors or game reflectors on roads with moderate traffic.

These work best with larger ungulates such as deer.
Warning signs for drivers to slow down in areas where high-use

crossing points or wildlife corridors are known.

z
77
Regulating traffic during times when animals are most active, usually
at night (see Box 4.14)
Box 4.14 Existing and proposed regulations for road sections in Gir National Park
and Sanctuary
Jamwala-Sapnes-Dhari
Mendarda-Sasan-talala
Sasan-Visvadar
Talala- Jamwala
Sasan-Devaliya
Ban on use of private

vehicles
Una-Dhari
Road sections
Opening of road from

sunrise to sunset
Restriction of speed
limit to 20 km/hr
Opening of road between

sunset & sunrise
Proposed regulations
Restriction of movement
of heavy vehicle
Existing regulations
Source : Gujarat Forest Department (see also Case Study No. 1)
4.3.5
High fences (>3 m) in areas heavily used by large ungulates (e.g.

chital, sambar, nilgai, black buck), are deterrents to crossing, but not
absolute barriers. Their effectiveness can be enhanced by providing
alternate means of passage, thus reducing the probability of animals
intent on crossing being trapped. Fences must be constructed in close
consultation with wildlife ecologists, who can help to avoid fencing
designs that are likely to produce their own unwanted ecological
effects, such as new artificial barriers to movement.
Mitigating Human Use Problems
Practices that ensure mitigation of human use impacts, particularly those

associated with increased urbanization, poaching and other illegal forms of
resource extraction in wildlife-rich areas, need to be applied during the
planning phase of all projects.
When considering alternative alignments, the types of habitats to be
affected need to be compared, in order to protect the best areas from undue
78
human encroachment and land-use changes. Focusing on minimizing the

amount of land to be taken may not always be the best strategy, since forcing
a shorter route may mean cutting through the biologically richest part of the
habitat, such as nesting or rearing areas.
Sections of road within forest zones or other wildlife habitats can be
limited to a maximum width. This might not please road builders, but can
prevent the taking of excessive amounts of valuable habitat, and may also
be successful in diverting traffic onto other road corridors. The NandyalGiddalur-Thokapalli road in Andhra Pradesh is a good example (see WII
and CEC Ltd. 1998, and Case Study No. 6). Road widening and
maintenance restrictions were imposed to keep intrusions to a minimum,
while continuing to permit the movement of traffic.
Tourists and vehicles can be managed by providing parking areas outside
sensitive zones to reduce noise, disturbance, littering and loss of habitat to
parking areas.
During a roads operational period a number of mitigative measures can
be implemented to further protect wildlife resources. These include:
z
establishing and enforcing regulations that prevent off-road driving

within protected areas;
installation of speed bumps at frequent intervals along roads through

protected areas. The Park management of Gir National Park and
Sanctuary in Gujarat is using this approach (see Case Study No. 1);
establishing checkpoints at the entrance, midway and at the exit of

the protected areas, to monitor for illegal resource exploitation and
compliance with speed limits. Check posts equipped with radios have
been constructed in Royal Bardia National Park at both ends of the
highway within PA and also midway along the road to monitor
speed and other illegal activities (see Case study No. 2);
developing a system of road closures between dusk and dawn, the

period of highest wildlife activity;
developing ongoing environmental awareness programs, describing

the importance of wildlife conservation and its relationship to the
public, and how roads and wildlife can co-exist;
involving local people at all stages of a project to gain community

support. Wherever possible, employment of local people in
construction and other associated work, patrolling, and fire-watching
will enhance their stake in the conservation efforts;
79
including environmental clauses in maintenance contracts, which

make it illegal for workers, contractors, and any other road workers
to collect or utilize forest resource; and
assuring that road verges remain as undisturbed and unobstructed

to animal movements as possible (see Case Study No. 6).
Deciding which of these methods, or combination of them, to use will

depend on the species involved, the scale (in terms of geography and time)
of the problem and the available funding and technical expertise. Methods
dealing with traffic management and policing need little wildlife expertise.
Road closures require knowledge of species behaviour. All other approaches
should have wildlife or environmental specialists involved.
4.3.6Mitigating Erosion and Resulting Siltation and Sedimentation
Erosion can be minimized through ecological and engineering options.
The preferred are bioengineering approaches (Howell 1999, Howell 1999a)
using less intrusive methods such as plantings and fiber matts in favour of
concrete, steel and bulldozers. The following are some of the practices that
are recommended for implementation during the planning stage of projects:
z
preparation of an erosion hazard-zone sketch map, serving as a

guide to road planning;
locating roads on the sides of ridges to ensure proper drainage;
following topographical contours during road alignment with

grades between 0% and 10%, except where terrain requires short steep
grades; and
locating roads sufficiently far away from water bodies to avoid

transportation of eroded soil material to streams and other water
sources.
For protection of slope stability and soil erosion the following practices
should be adopted:
z
grading slopes appropriately to provide traps for eroding debris;
strengthening the bases of slopes through enlargement of the toe of

the land to be slid;
securing steep cut slopes by the use of reinforcing structures at their

bases;
construction of retention walls to prevent mass movements of soil;

and
80
z
netting exposed slopes with coir, jute or synthetic geotextiles, followed

promptly by revegetation.
Other preventive measures to limit project damage to road development

include:
z
re-routing any potential surface runoff discharges away from

spawning and rearing fish habitat or waterfowl and herptofauna
nesting areas to either settling basins or at least vegetated areas;
restricting, through contract clauses and associated fines, the removal

of aggregate materials from streams which are important habitats
of fish and wetland species. Riparian zones are critical to stream
health and can easily become the source of stream degradation if
development is permitted within them. Protect riparian areas by
establishing buffer zones, which if disturbed should be planted with
grasses and sedges to provide both a check and filter for discharge
of sediments directly into the stream channel.
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4.4.2 Habitat Modification, Fragmentation, Loss, Transformation,
Isolation and Barrier Effects
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5. METHODS AND TOOLS
he most widely applied (and also perhaps the most misused) method for
determining the impact of roads on wildlife and wildlife habitat is
Environmental Assessment (EA). EA has been in use since the mid 1970s,
and in India since the mid 1980s. Fortunately, the basic elements of the EA
process (Figure 5.1) are
PROJECT PROPOSAL
well documented and
reasonably well understood. The problem with
EA lies in the execution
SCREENING
Is an EIA required?
of the work, particularly
knowing how to identify,
focus in on and mitigate
unacceptable impacts
before they occur. Such
problems with EA
What are the key
SCOPING
issues?
execution usually arise
because many of the
people charged with
conducting EAs i)
encounter uncooperative
Baseline data collection
line agencies; ii) tend
IDENTIFY, COLLECT
Impact prediction
toward information
AND ANALYSE
INFORMATION
Assessment of impact significance
overkill (often the wrong
Identify mitigation measures and
information) because not
monitoring programme
enough time is provided
for early planning; iii)
tend to overstep their
technical under-standing
Prepare EIA report
and mis-interpret or overPRESENT
INFORMATION
simplify findings; iv) have
difficulty presenting the
Submit to Decision-makers
findings clearly and
convincingly; and iv) feel
Fig. 5.1 A generalized procedure for EA
a real lack of support
90
from the most senior ranks of the agency and government. In other words,
EA agencies in most countries, including India, are not considered a serious
force to be reckoned with by other agencies and the private sector, and
naturally the work suffers. This is a fact of life afflicting all environmental
agencies in South Asia.
Alarm sounded across India and South Asia over the regions fastdisappearing wildlands and wildlife, coupled with concern about the lack of
knowledge and skills displayed in conducting EAs and reporting on and doing
something about the reported impacts, was in part what prompted the
preparation of this Guide.
It has been designed to begin to deal with deficiencies (ii) through (iv)
identified above. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 identified and addressed the five main
building blocks of better wildlife-wildland-road conflict resolution,
environmental analyses and EAs, namely:
z
confidence that environmental efforts are being supported by senior

agency officials as well as a good knowledge of the laws and process
governing EAs and the institutional steps needed in order to obtain
an environmental approval;
a basic understanding of common wildlife ecosystems and their

sensitivity to road-development-related impacts;
a knowledge of the cause-effect relationships of the impacts likely

to occur with road development;
an appreciation for the mitigation options for avoiding, preventing

and reducing impacts stemming from road development; and,
the ability to effectively present environmental information such that

it will be applicable in decision-making.
In this chapter, these building blocks are combined and presented in terms
of:
z
the steps necessary in order to define impacts credibly;
an approach to defining realistic mitigative measures linked to an

implementation timetable; and
the process of preparing sound, clear EA documents and obtaining

environmental approval of the road project.
EAs focusing on road-wildlife issues need to address the potential impacts

from a broad perspective, i.e. in relation to the regional ecosystems baseline
conditions, etc. This approach is referred to as the Ecological Impact
Methods and Tools
91
Assessment (EA E), and is recommended for all investigations involving

wildlife and protected areas.
5.1 Environmental Assessment and Decision Making

The steps for conducting an ecological EA would generally be the same
as for any EA study (Figure 5.1). For the EAE, boundaries are based on a
combination of physical, administrative and ecological limits, i.e. related to
natural history, such as migration needs, feeding requirements, gene-pool
maintenance requirements, prey vulnerability, species interaction, etc.
Conventional EAs often ignore such ecological dimensions.
Clearly, EAE is better at incorporating ecological concerns in project
assessment.The gap between conventional EA and EAE has been eloquently
described by Beanlands and Duinker (1983). They said that the reality of
limited resources forces EA practitioners to be selective. They must be sensitive
to the key ecological factors, maximize the value of lessons learned, and
bind the work such that it is focused and problem-oriented, yet still ecologically
credible. In practice, the ecological part usually vanishes. A recent review
of EA examined the relative influence of art and science on EA decisionmaking (Morrison-Saunders and Bailey 1999), and found that well-articulated
discussions about environmental impacts, based on lessons learned and
science, seemed the most attractive for decision makers. Well-documented,
rigorous scientific evidence appeared to make little difference to the usefulness
of EA studies to decision-makers. Frequently this problem arises when authors
fail to present the results in a form applicable in development-related decision
making, or relevant to decision makers. The implementation of environmental actions defined in an EA seems to have a higher chance of success if
responsibility is assigned at the time the impacts are discussed. Further, having
a bit of scientific uncertainty surrounding an impact actually seemed to be
an advantage, since such uncertainty appeared to encourage an adaptive style
of EA management.
5.2 Screening and Scoping

Planning for an environmental assessment involves two key activities:
screening and scoping. 6 Screening refers to an early determination of the
potential magnitude of impacts and hence the depth of study required. This
should be the first stage in incorporating environmental considerations into
a road development project. Screening should:
6 Screening and scoping are most often used on specific projects (as opposed to higher order solutions)
to pinpoint environmentally acceptable designs.
92
z
provide a definition of the scale and type of project;
identify a long list of affected ecosystem components that are

sensitive and important to the overall ecology of the study area
(sometimes referred to as the Valued Ecosystem Components or
VECs);
establish the general nature and magnitude of the potential impacts;

and
suggest the most appropriate EA process (in terms of level of detail)

to apply to the project.
Scoping is a process used for defining what can and what cannot be
accomplished during a particular environmental study, and to determine to
what level of detail a study needs to cover. Scoping should include:
z
defining the geographic boundary of the study in relation to possible

impacts;
identifying the time constraints and time horizons of the study (i.e.
project time limits and how far into the future one should predict
project effects); and
identifying the skills and human resources needed to undertake the

project.
Screening and scoping can be completed by undertaking the following

tasks that incorporate the key activities listed above. These seven tasks are:
z
describing the need for a project;
describing the proposed project and alternatives (solutions);
identifying which VECs, defined in the long list, are most sensitive
to road-related impacts (using the six indicators of significance listed
in Section 5.6.2);
evaluating the potential impacts of project options on the VECs

within the study area (at this point based on existing knowledge,
past reports and consultation with communities within the study
area);
establishing existing institutional capacity and environmental lessons

learned in the study area;
selecting a preferred project option (concept); and finally
Methods and Tools

z
93
identifying the EA type7 to be applied to the preferred project

option.
It is only after completing these tasks that EA practitioners, road

managers and planners can legitimately say that they understand the proposed
project in the context of its environment and in relation to other engineering
solutions. Skipping screening and scoping (see Case Study No.3) often leads
to costly complications and delays
Box 5.1 Impact indicators: roads and wildlife
later in the project
Geology and Landscape
Cover quality
development.
Change in unique features
Ecotone pressure
On receiving
the engineering
description of the
project and sighting
details, the EA
practitioner
is
confronted with a
myriad of choices,
including which
indicators to use
(Box 5.1). Selecting
appropriate indicators that will be
used not only as the
basis for field
collections, but for
future monitoring
as well, is essential
to successful EA.
Remembering the
following indicator
criteria
when
selecting them will
help keep the list
relevant.
The
indicators should:
z
Landforms sensitivity
Presence of sedimentary and
metamorphic rock
Slope stability
Visual quality
Weathering
Soil
Erosion properties
Fertility
Nutrient cycle
Sedimentation
Soil microfauna
Soil microflora
Water
Ground water quantity &
quality
Nutrient cycle
Surface water quantity & quality
Air
Air quality: SO2, NOx, CO,
THC, Odor, RPM10 (ambient
and emitted)
Climatic changes
Micro climate
Wildlife habitat
Vegetal cover
Vegetation density
Alteration/degradation
Bank vegetation
Corridors
Food quality/quantity
Fragmentation
Habitat quality
Habitat size
Drying of shorelines
Mud flat area
Fauna and Flora
Breeding biology
Breeding sites
Canopy alterations
Dispersal
Emigration
Endemism
Faunal diversity
Floral diversity
Home range
Host species
Immigration
Introduced species
Rarity
Local extinction
Migration
Phenology
Population mortality
Population natality
Redundancy
Resilience
Resource competition
Territory size
Endangered species
Vulnerable species
be measurable and standardized;
7 Projects which are clearly site-specific and can be executed using a programmatic or class EA
approach that is initiated without the front-end planning, is acceptable. Projects which are clearly
beneficial, such as rehabilitation of eroded transportation corridors also do not require full blown
EAs, although rehabilitation in wildlife sanctuaries can be problematic ( as in the Rajiv Gandhi
Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh).
94
z
z
z
z
z
be focused on VEC or ecosystem components likely to be stressed

by project activities;
be appropriate for the scale of likely disturbance due to the project;
have a natural variability that is understood;
be part of an existing data series; and
be diagnostic, as opposed to descriptive (e.g. a value that related to
an unacceptable limit).
5.2.1 Checklists
The scoping activity, particularly if the Valued Ecosystem Component
approach8 is being used, can be enhanced through the preparation of checklists.
Checklists are intended to serve as reminders of the extent and depth of
information needed to complete the assessment. There are generally three well
recognized categories of checklists. These are:
z
Simple checklists: Straightforward lists of parameters to be measured;
Descriptive checklists: An identification of environmental parameters

and guidelines on how parameter data are to be measured; and,
Scaling checklists: Similar to descriptive checklists, but with the

addition of information basic to defining the significance of an
impact, e.g. the Threat Matrix (Cole, 1994).
The Threat Matrix (Figure 5.2) has a further advantage in that it can
be used to define the level of effort needed to address each impact by rating
etc.
in-m
igra
tion
tra
ffic
brid
ges
fore
ste
xtra
ctio
n
com
peti
ngs
pec
ies
roa
dw
ide
nin
g
live
sto
ck
Attribute of Threatened
Valued Ecosystem
Component ( VEC) or
wildlife ecosystem or
other
rec
rea
tion
Potential threat
feeding area
forest canopy
prey species
prey habitat
migration route
movement corridors
etc.
etc.
Each cell can contain a index rating, scale number, actual quantitative data, comments, cross reference
to other threats or attributes, etc.
Fig. 5.2 Adaptation of the threat matrix for wilderness area management to
wildlife and habitat impact planning for road projects (after Cole 1994).
8 Good sources for these are Beanlands and Duinker (1983), Lohani et al. and ADB (1997) and
The World Bank (1997).
Methods and Tools
95
how well the potential impact is understood. The clearer this matrix is, less
is the effort needed to define impacts and to develop a mitigation approach.
Good details on the design and use of checklists are presented in Gilpins
(1995) text on EIA. In India, checklists for road-wildlife EAs should address
all the parameters listed in the MoEFs questionnaire for environmental
appraisal for transportation projects (see www.wii.gov.in). In that way the
subsequent environmental analysis will at least be started in compliance with
the MoEFs specifications.
5.3 Collecting the Information

5.3.1 Baseline Studies
The baseline study is a cornerstone of EA, since it should define the
existing status of the ecosystem(s) potentially threatened by the road. Baseline
data serve as reference points against which potential or actual project-induced
changes can be measured. It is here that good scoping can save large amounts
of time and money, and avoid the frustration of discovering too late that
the wrong variables were measured.
Baseline studies usually consist of a combination of desk studies
(gathering existing documents, data sets, accumulating past lessons learned)
and field surveys to address key issues outlined during scoping.
The depth of desk studies is generally determined by the nature of
secondary information (Table 5.1) available and the extent to which spatial
and remotely sensed data sources are to be used. The utility of field-based
studies can be greatly enhanced by the use of appropriate sampling and
surveying techniques.
5.3.2 The Field Survey
During a field survey, basic data on the indicators, defined during the
scoping session, are collected and the project team is able to gain an overall
impression of habitat and communities that are likely to be affected. Historical
information, maps, aerial photographs, and satellite imagery can be helpful
in planning the timing and duration of the detailed surveys. A phased
approach is generally the best practice (if time and budget permit). A rapid
site visit as part of screening and scoping should be undertaken first, to get
an overview of the ecology of the area. These rapid surveys should reveal
the key issues to be examined, should also be helpful in adjusting the
boundaries of the study area and planning of a full-scale sampling
programme.
96
Table 5.1 Information sources for facilitating field surveys

To p i c s
Key references
Vegetation ecolog y
Ecological surveys
Vegetation classification
Wildlife surveys methods
Wildlife census techniques
Air, water and land pollution
Mueller Dombois and Ellenberg 1974

Misra 1973;
Champion and Seth 1968
Giles 1972; Sale and Berkumuller 1988
Rodgers 1991
Economopoulos 1993.
Identification guides
Animals
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Amphibian
Fishes
Insects
Butterflies
Prater 1980
Ali 1980
Daniel 1983
Dass 1985; Dutta 1997
Jhingran 1991
Mani & Gupta 1985
Blyth 1982; Evans 1985; Haribal 1992
Plants
Vascular plants
Pteridophytes
Gymnosperms
Bryophytes
Algae
Fungi
Hooker 1872-1897 (7 Vols.)

Beddome 1864; Khullar 1994
Sahni 1990
Bruhl 1931; Tiwari and Pant 1994
Carter 1926; Kargupta and Siddiqui 1996
Bilgrammi et al. 1991
Conservation status
Animals
IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (1996)
Plants
IUCN Red Data Book for Plants (Nayar and

Sastry 1987)
General EA guide for Asia
Lohani et al. 1997
Overview of EIA methods
World Bank 1997.
For any full-scale wildlife survey, the data to be collected should include
parameters that measure the following:
z
the changes in species or wildlife community conditions such as

distribution;
abundance;
rarity;
species diversity and critical habitat requirements;
migratory and travel route disruption;
predator-prey balance; and
habitat resilience.
Methods and Tools
97
The quality of field-based data greatly depends on the appropriateness

of sample sizes, sampling patterns, survey designs, species abundance measures,
other ambient environmental conditions and the methods of data collection
(Table 5.2). A handbook for India prepared by WII (Sale and Berkmuller
1988) provides excellent advice in these areas, and should be consulted.
Table 5.2 Summary of field techniques for establishing ecological baselines for EA
Parameters
Methods
Remarks
Simple checklists of plant names

and references of local and
regional flora can be useful. Plant
checklists are also the major data
sources for community description.
Use of classification systems of

forests provided by Champion
and Seth (1968) can be useful in
developing ecological understanding of plant communities in
the study area.
Estimation of ground
cover
Two step method and circular plot

and frame method
Method is suitable in situations

where one can walk conveniently and where vegetation is
sparse. For measurement in
dense vegetative cover, circular
plot or square frame method is
used for sampling.
Estimation of shrub and

tree layer
Point-Centered Quadrat (PCQ)

method
The PCQ is a transect-based

point sampling method for
investigating density and species
composition.
Estimation
cover
canopy
Gridded mirror (Densiometer)

method
Provides estimates as percentage

cover.
Vegetation & habitat

mapping
Remote sensing & GIS techniques
The degree of details of

information on the maps depends
upon the precise objective of
study
Floristic inventory
and description of
major plant
communities
Habitat
assessment
of
Estimation of animal
abundance
Direct methods
Large
and
bodied species
Direct methods include animal

sighting.
medium
Line transects (open width and belt

transects), road counts, silent drive
counts, block counts, waterhole
census
Fairly reliable and most

commonly used methods for
estimating
density
and
abundance.
Primates
Scan and focal sampling
The methods can be effective if

the population being studied is
not very disturbed by human
presence which might freeze
them.
Reptiles & amphibians
Spotlight counts and pitfall traps
Parameters such as time and

location of sighting, weather
condition, moon stage and water
level could influence the survey
results.
98
Parameters
Birds
Methods
Belt transects, mist nets and
territory mapping
Remarks
Location of transects (example
along roads and disturbed areas)
can influence sampling. Mist
nets are generally useful for
birds of the understorey (up to
3 meters above ground).
Territory mapping depends on
locating singing males in the
area and is therefore limited to
use during the breeding
seasons.
Indirect methods
Large and medium sized
species
Counts of pellets/scats, quills,

moults, pugmarks, hoof prints,
claw marks,
other surface
markings (scrape marks, debarking
signs) and dens, burrows and nests.
The method poses some

difficulties in using pellet
counts for estimating abundance
of species with closely
resembling pellet e.g. chital and
domestic goat pellet look alike
and pose problems of estimating
species abundance.
Birds
Calls
Fairly reliable method of

identification of species and
their abundance.
Sources : W.A. Rodgers (1991), Techniques for Wildlife Census in India - A Field Manual, Wildlife
Institute of India, Dehradun and Sale J.B. and K. Berkmuller (1988), Manual of Wildlife
Techniques for India, Field Document No. 11, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
Selecting the best field survey method requires the consideration of five
factors: i) existing data; ii) funds budgeted and time available; iii) likely
severity (including geographic reach) of the impacts; and iv) level of detail
required. A well thought-out scoping exercise can go a long way in mapping
out this step. A further guiding principle of fieldwork is to arrive in the field
with a sampling plan; one that can be adapted to site conditions. To assist
practitioners with deciding which method to apply, a summary of field
techniques has been provided (Table 5.2).
5.4 Defining Impacts: The Available Tools

5.4.1 Matrices
Matrices basically combine a list of project activities with a checklist of
environmental conditions and characteristics that might be affected. Aligning
these lists along horizontal and vertical axes in a matrix pattern allows the
identification of cause-effect relationships between the specific activities and
impacts (see Box 5.2). This matrix is simply a re-application of the matrix
approach defined in Section 5.2.1. Since the development of the Leopold
Methods and Tools
99
Matrix (Leopold et al. 1971), which promoted ranking of impacts, expert

judgements have shown an increasing tendency to incorporate some measure
of magnitude and importance of impact.
OPERATION
Movement of vehicles and traffic generation

Transportation of people and materials
Regulation of traffic and speed limits
Maintenance of roadway
Maintenance of right of way
Feeder road system from main artery
Land consumption
Clearing of vegetation
Construction camp waste disposal
River and stream diversion, and channelisation
Transportation of raw material
Construction of underpasses and culverts
Other
Shift in resident population
Noise and vibration
Air quality as applied to wildlife
Soils/land stability habitat
Ground water quantity & quality
Surface water; quantity & quality
Drainage and erosion
Wildlife population changes
B: Characteristics ( also valued ecosystem

components) of the environment which are
likely to be affected are identified (these will
alter from area to area). Where a
characteristic of the existing environment is
potentially affected by a characteristic of the
proposed development, the appropriate
matrix cell should be noted. This indicates
likely environmental interactions.
Exotic flora and fauna introduction
Note :
A: Actions which are part of the proposed
development are identified (these will alter
from project to project).
Modification of habitats
Fill placement
B. Likely change in the existing

environment
CONSTRUCTION
A. Characteristics of the proposed

development
Box 5.2 Example of an environmental interaction matrix
5.4.2 Networks
Networks are an extension of matrices that incorporate long-term impacts
of project activities. Environmental components are generally interconnected
and form webs or networks, and an ecological approach is often required to
identify the secondary and tertiary impacts (Figure 5.3). Cause-condition
networks are established from a list of project activities. Developing a network
requires answering a series of questions relative to each of the project activities,
such as:
z
What are the primary impact areas and what are the primary impacts
within these areas?
100
What
are
the
secondary impact
areas and what are
the
secondary
impacts within these
areas?
What are the tertiary
impact areas, if
relevant and feasible,
and so on.
PROJECT ACTIVITIES
IMPACT
Primary
Components of Activities
Secondary
Tertiary
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Networks can be
complementary
to
matrices, as their main
purpose is to illustrate
Fig. 5.3 An impact network (from Lohani et al. 1997).
higher order impacts that
are not indicated by matrices.
5.4.3 Overlays and Computerized Mapping
The extent of effects likely to occur when wildlife and wildlife habitats
are involved is often best visualized on maps, supported by numerical data.
McHarg (1968; 1969) originally applied overlay mapping to environmental
problem solving, stating that representations of the aggregate impact of a
project can be obtained by overlaying several color-coded transparencies onto
a base map, each overlay representing one or more features of the study area.
The major constraint of this methodology was that the severity of impacts
could not be determined accurately, and the number of overlays that could
be considered at any one time was limited to a few. This latter constraint,
stemming from the manual overlay approach, has now been largely eliminated
with Geographical Information Systems (GIS) software (in use since about
1988). GIS converts numerical and other quantitative data about specific study
area features, e.g. forest crown density, ground cover, or forest patch size, into
visual geographic objects for the purposes of spatial analysis (Figure 5.4).
Such mapping capability allows users to integrate information, visualize
scenarios, solve complicated competing-use problems, present powerful ideas,
and display likely outcomes of proposed mitigative actions. Remote sensing
(RS), which provides high resolution digital images of large landscapes, can
be used as the GIS data source. Project planners can now use RS and GIS
in conjunction to create spatial databases for planning and decision-making.
In other words, specific descriptive and quantitative data on affected ecosystems
can be taken from satellite imageries, then fed into a GIS programme which
reconverts the data into visual information; all keyed to a base map of the
study area. What makes this so powerful is that visual images of impacts
Methods and Tools
101
Thematic
layers
Road
te
da
Up
Update
Vegetation
Update
Slope
Update
Water
availability
Patch size
Update
Existing
roads
Wildlife
distribution
mno
pqs
ID# Cover H.Qu. Slope Veg. Soil

1
CODE SHEET
SEQUENCE
ATTRIBUTE
CODING
DIGITIZE

KEY ENTRY
FINAL MAP OUTPUTS
Road A
Road B
Fig.5.4 Schematic representation of map overlay procedures that enable delineation of

preferred road alignment (Road A) option against Road B option to avoid
sensitive habitats (core area of Tiger Reserve shown in dark scale) and sites of
animal distribution (represented by dots)
102
and/or of highly sensitive conditions can be displayed and modified in

response to proposed management options. Outcomes can be observed readily.
Answers to questions like What is the best route for the alignment of a
road through a sensitive environment? can be readily provided by creating
a spatial database (Figure 5.4) containing quantitative data on the distribution
and abundance of species and the various key habitat attributes and data
assembled during the field collection period. GIS-RS outputs are visually
clear and can instantly illustrate key findings, making them excellent and
powerful tools for shaping resource use decisions (Box 5.3). The downside
of the GIS/RS approach is that it requires large data sets and trained people
(Morgen and Nyborg 1994), who are in short supply. In addition, the
professional-level software, satellite images and computer equipment required
to actually perform a GIS-based analysis are expensive. One option for India
would be to concentrate wildlife-related GIS/RS analyses with the WII,
building up a GIS library there and, with time, expanding it to other centers
within India. In this way, GIS users and EA practitioners could obtain readyto-use GIS files and work with them in their home offices, on more affordable
equipment.
Box 5.3 The Arun Basin (Nepal) power project access road: An example of GIS
application.
The Arun Hydropower Project is being planned in the remote Arun River Basin of Nepal.
The project requires a long access road, the first road into the basin. The EA pointed out
standard issues of erosion, water crossing obstructions etc., but could not address the long
term secondary effects of the road, such as the impacts of in-migration and new resource
extraction pressures on sensitive social, environmental and cultural features found in this
diverse watershed. The study team determined through thorough scoping that the sensitive
features most likely to be affected would be wildlife habitat, the cultural integrity of the
area, religious sites, architectural relics and culturally significant landscapes. To analyse the
impacts, the GIS team assembled data on forest cover, wildlife distribution, religious sites,
demography and settlement data, topography, geomorphology (erosion factors), water
resources, climate and existing access routes into the basin (trails and tracks). The team then
developed several alignment options and estimated the extent of direct losses to valued
ecosystem components. In addition, based on demographic growth patterns, the scale and
location of road-related colonization of the previously inaccessible areas were projected,
and the indirect effects on the valued ecosystem components assessed. Powerful visual
images of predicted change, backed up by data tables, were prepared to permit planners to
select and design a road alignment that had the least possible direct impact. More importantly,
the GIS-based analysis highlighted future impact hotspots, describing not only the impacts
but their likely sources. While undisputedly powerful, this methodology requires highlytrained technicians to prepare the large data sets without which assessment is impossible,
and costly equipment is needed to analyze very large files and print out color overlay maps,
etc. The use of RS-GIS has often been successful in locations where the technology and
skills are first concentrated in a very limited number of locations but with wide access to
users (e.g. in Indonesia, Thailand, Laos). In India, on issues dealing with wildlife, WII is
adopting that approach.
Source: WII 1994; Morgen and Nyborg 1994; Lohani et al.[Vol II], 1997 and WB website
(www.worldbank.org).
Methods and Tools
103
5.4.4 Predictive Models

Quantitative predictive models have been used in environmental
assessment for many years now, such that there is a bewildering array to
choose from. The following descriptions illustrate the range of models
available to EA practitioners:
z
Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HEP), developed by the US

Department of Interior (1980), have been successfully applied to
ecological assessments. HEPs focus on the calculation of Habitat
Suitability Indices (HSI), which express the ratio between habitat
conditions provided by a study area for an evaluation species (which
may be a single species, group of species or an individual life stage)
and its optimum habitat conditions. The differences in values of
habitat units calculated for a pre-project scenario and those
calculated for post-project scenarios determine the impacts that a
project can have on wildlife habitats. These models have also been
successfully employed as tools in locating replacement habitat (see
Box 5.4).
Box 5.4 Example of application of HSI modeling approach in an EIA study in

India
In a recent EIA study conducted by the Wildlife Institute of India for the ecological assessment
of Narmada Sagar and Omkareshwar Project, Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) Models were
developed for the evaluation of habitat quality of the area that would be inundated, the
impact zone falling immediately outside the inundated zone that would receive the immediate
impacts of the project, and the contiguous forest areas outside the inundated zone.
Study zones/
Forest range
Inundated
Area
Chital
Sambar
(km )
HSI
HU
HSI
HU
91.19
32.27
74.89
86.19
39.77
0.26
0.10
0.50
0.36
0.29
24.00
3.22
37.44
31.03
11.66
0.15
0.10
0.40
0.40
0.16
13.67
3.22
29.95
34.47
6.56
78.46
11.31
0.56
0.40
43.93
4.53
0.37
0.25
29.42
2.83
142.14
157.98
0.42
0.70
59.69
110.58
0.27
0.50
39.08
78.99
zone
Balri
Handia
Chandgarh
Mundi
Satwas
Impact zone
Chandgarh
Mundi
Contiguous forest
zone (outside)
Chandgarh
Punasa
The delineation of good quality habitat for upgrading to a protected area could be
accomplished by the HSI modeling through the ability of the model to compare desirable
characteristics of the new and existing sites. (Source: WII 1994)
104
z
SOURCE, a hypertext database designed for task managers in the

Development Directorate of the European Commission for use in
preliminary impact assessments;
EIA-AID, for computer-aided environmental assessment of industrial

projects, developed by the National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur; and
EIA-TRACK, a knowledge-based system developed by the Wildlife

Institute of India (WII 1998) for evaluation of ecological impacts.
This is the first knowledge-based system for supporting EA in India.
This is a very useful tool for project planners, practitioners,
environmental managers and decision-makers, as it has taken into
account the technical and logistical framework of EA in India. For
details, see website www.wii.gov.in
5.4.5 Expert Systems

Knowledge-Based Systems (KBS) rely on a database of information
about a particular problem area (domain), an understanding of the problems
implicit within that domain, and skill at solving such problems. Knowledge
bases in expert systems are based on a collection of rules, constructed by
codifying the experience and knowledge of a group of experts. These rules
are often represented in the following form:
IF <a set of conditions is true>
THEN<certain conclusions can be drawn>(Lohani et al. 1997, pg.84).
An example of a wildlife-road issue might be:
IF a road is to be constructed through a particular wildlife sanctuary
AND
that area supports a tiger-prey community
AND
it is located in a humid-tropical setting
AND
construction would extend over 2 years
AND
key species endangered are .,, and
THEN the likelihood that the tiger population will be seriously degraded
is significant, AND
IF
such degradation continues unabated over a three year period
THEN irreparable damage to the population/community is almost

certain.
Methods and Tools
AND
105
the following possible effects should be investigated
.
.
.
The better expert systems are also able to provide explanations of why
certain answers were given.
Systems of note are the environmental assessments review software
(Schibuola and Byer 1991), ADBs Calyx-ADB system developed specifically
for ADB borrowers (ADB 1996), and a similar system known as ECOZONE
(Edwards-Jones and Gough 1994) developed by the UNs Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO). The latter is a rule-based programme with
many modules, making it easily adaptable to specific conditions in India.
Comprehensive review articles by Houshon (1990) and Beanlands (1994) listed
many expert systems developed exclusively for environmental applications.
Well-maintained expert systems (there are few) such as ADBs Calyx
system are updated regularly through the addition of new rules and facts,
obtained from recently completed projects and research. This feature is an
expert systems greatest benefit, in that it allows taking quick advantage of
lessons learned and passing this collective knowledge on to system users.
While expert systems bring specialized knowledge of environmental
problem-solving to locations where expertise is not available, there is a serious
downside. Expert systems can easily transform impact analysis into a sort of
black box exercise, particularly in locations where little environmental
expertise exists. Its application can short-circuit the capacity building involved
in researching and reasoning through wildlife-road issues. At worst,
practitioners ability to recognize problems and deduce impacts can be dulled;
use of expert systems will certainly not aid in the development of such skills
through practice. In the context of agencies that are building their technical
capacity and experience, expert systems should be used to supplement more
traditional investigation, until solid technical capacity is in place.
5.5 Summary
While not applicable in all cases, and a significant over-simplification
of the decisions required, the following sequence of application of the tools
defined in Section 5.3 and 5.4 are presented as a framework for optimizing
these project scoping, screening and field sampling methods.
106
For projects that involve new facilities and the removal and/or disturbance of
previously undisturbed land, the following sequence is suggested:
z
Define the Valued Ecosystem Components (VECs) by starting with

a long list, developed through an examination of past data, reports
and consultation with local officials and community members. Then
focus in on only those for which significant (see discussion of
significance Section 5.6) impacts are possible. This should be
accompanied by a reconnaissance survey of the project area, taking
no more than 5 days. Wherever, threatened or endangered
species or ecosystems are involved, ecologists and/or wildlife
specialists should always be involved.
Using either the matrix diagram or network diagram approach,

define the likely impact cause-effect relationships that are likely to
occur within or among the VECs.
If alternative alignments and sites are involved and the area involves
a number of ecosystems, availability of RS/GIS should be
determined, by contacting WII or similar bodies. If they are
available, collaboratively develop the RS/GIS databases, again with
a focus on the selected VECs.
If several ecosystems may be affected, such as an entire airshed or

stream basin, and unacceptable changes are possible, the application
of one or a number of predictive models may be warranted. Possible
constraints, though, are availability of data and whether existing
budget and time permits such analysis. The outputs of these models
could, if planned, be fed into the GIS system for the production of
thematic overlays.
As soon as the basic analysis plan has been agreed to and the VECs
and possible impacts are defined, a field sampling programme should
be initiated. Its level of detail, time and geographic scale should be
based on the types of ecosystem(s) and their species assemblages
affected. It is here that trained wildlife specialists are essential, since
they can provide highly relevant guidance in formulating the
sampling programme.
For projects that involve rehabilitation or upgrading of existing facilities,

the following sequence is suggested:
z
Define the VECs by starting with a long list, developed through an

examination of past data, reports and consultation with local officials
and community members. Then focus in only on those for which
significant (see discussion of significance in Section 5.6) impacts are
Methods and Tools
107
possible. This should be accompanied by a reconnaissance survey

of the project area, taking no more than 5 days. Whenever
threatened or endangered species or ecosystems are involved
ecologists and/or wildlife specialists should always be
involved.
z
Apply a matrix or network diagram approach to define impacts and,

if a complex web of issues emerges, use an expert system like CalyxADB to help in boiling down the issues and deciding which ones
are most important to investigate (if expertise is not readily available).
If the project affects no ecologically sensitive areas, neither RS/GIS

nor an expert system should be necessary and a field sampling
programme, based on the preparation of an indicator checklist, can
proceed. However, the level of intensity of the analysis will be
dictated by the envisioned effect.
In circumstances where the ecosystems are already significantly

affected by development, specific computer models may be useful in
defining existing impacts versus those likely resulting from the
proposed project. Again, data requirements, time and budget will
dictate the level of effort. The decision to use models should be
made, if possible before the field sampling begins, in order that the
data collected can be tailored for use in the model(s).
5.6 Significance
Determining the significance of impacts on wildlife and their habitat is
rarely addressed, and yet it is important information to be used in determining
the type and urgency of mitigative actions. It is shaped by two overarching
characteristics: impact magnitude and duration of the effect.
5.6.1 Magnitude of Impacts
It is relatively easy to quantify the magnitude of impacts for physical
effects, such as land cleared, trees removed, and homes affected. It is more
difficult to quantify effects on the biological environment (e.g. type of habitat
lost); and it is very complex as far as the effects on people are concerned. For
the latter, simple indicators could include the number of people affected and
estimated economic losses, but wider effects on social and economic welfare
should also be analyzed. For some impacts, only a qualitative description of
the effect is possible.
108
5.6.2
Duration of Impacts
Allowance should be made for both short and long term impacts. The
loss of agricultural areas along the alignment of a road is an immediate
impact, whereas the retreat of a mangrove swamp following modification to
the water flow, or the modification of the saline threshold in an estuary, both
of which may become apparent only several years after construction, would
be long term effects. This characteristic is termed the temporal extent or
duration of an impact. Impacts that are sudden, such as hazardous waste
spills, or cumulative, such as contamination build-up in roadside soils and
crops, should also be considered.
Significance, if it is expressed properly, needs to provide data on the
following six indicators:
z
predicted deviation from established criteria or standards;
duration of the deviation in relation to key species life cycles and

requirements for population maintenance;
geographic extent of an effect;
resilience (i.e. capacity for self repair as with tidal flushing) of the
ecosystem(s) where the predicted effect is to occur;
cumulative nature of the impact; and
community tolerance of the impacts, and preferences in relation to

the costs and benefits of the project.
These six factors can be considered good indicators of significance when

they are used with competent ecological and sociological appreciation of the
affected environmental component. Armed with data on these six conditions,
practitioners should be able to establish the importance of the effect and thus
the urgency of the mitigative action.
In addition to the above consideration, the conservation significance of
the ecological/biogeographic region, wildlife habitats and species are important
in establishing impact severity or significance. Criteria for establishing
conservation significance are fairly well developed (Ratcliffe 1977; Margules
and Usher 1981; Treweek 1999) and have been successfully adopted in the
appraisal of wildlife impacts of linear projects like pipelines (Rajvanshi 1995)
and can be also adopted for road projects.
Methods and Tools
109
5.7 Remedial Measures

5.7.1 Avoidance, Mitigation and Enhancement
Mitigative measures fall into three main categories: (i) those that seek
to avoid impacts; (ii) those that focus on reducing impacts to a level acceptable
in relation to regulations and ecological limits; and (iii) those that are used
to enhance conditions and add value to mitigative actions being undertaken.
It is important that mitigative measures be tied closely to an understanding
of ecosystem function and to defined performance standards, so that it is
possible to evaluate their effectiveness. A rule of thumb to remember when
thinking of mitigative measures is to always design mitigation action to
counter the predicted (or in some cases already existing) effects such that
conditions after mitigation are at least no worse than before, and at best
improved beyond the existing level. This is also referred to as the no net
loss approach. Some of the suggested approaches for mitigation are:
During project planning
z
avoid sites with a high ecological value; and
include wildlife corridors across sites to link adjacent habitats where

this is needed.
During the operational period

z
restrict construction activities to defined areas which are ecologically

less sensitive;
schedule operations to take account of animal breeding seasons;
control illegal resource harvesting by construction workers;
remove rare/endangered plants from the site (as seed collections, cut
turf, or rooted specimens) and transplant (temporarily or
permanently);
remove rare/endangered animal and plant species from site or

promote the use of suitable alternate locations;
manage site activities (e.g. use of machinery, transport, waste/

overburden removal) to maintain acceptable soil, water, and
vegetation quality;
restore vegetation and other habitat features;
maintain viable population of animal species through consultation

with wildlife specialists; and
110
z
create habitat to compensate for damage caused ( based on the HEP

or related method).
A large number of suggested mitigative measures are described in Roads

and the Environment: A Handbook, Chapters 7-18 (World Bank 1997). A
further excellent source of suggestions for mitigative measures (including many
illustrations) for wildlife issues is found in Roads in the Wet Tropics: Best
Practice Manual 1997, State Roads Department, Queensland, Australia.
5.7.2 Compensation
Although the easiest type of mitigative measure to provide, compensation
should only be used as a last resort, since its use means that serious impacts
will take place and unavoidable losses will occur. Compensation is made either
through outright payment and/or replacement of lost area such as habitat
or commercial space.
5.8 Public Consultation as Part of Mitigation Planning

The development and execution of an effective public consultation
programme is essential in defining relevant mitigative measures. This is so
because:
z
Road projects often require some local input, such as employment,

maintenance, or policing functions. In order for the project to be
accepted by the local people, and for them to cooperate in its
execution, they need to be informed about. They need to be
encouraged to provide input to mitigation design, and be made to
feel that their contribution will be valued.
There is a very real danger that a project implemented without

concerted public involvement will put serious pressures on the quality
of life of the local population (and frequently reduce it). There are
many examples of this around the world. Proper consultation helps
to keep negative impacts to a minimum and compensation costs
down.
In developing countries, large historical databases on background

conditions in a potential impact zone are rarely available. At best,
information is patchy, collected for very specific reasons, and
generally of little use to the EA. In contrast, local residents are often
walking historical databases on past conditions (see Box 5.5) and
can often provide excellent qualitative information on likely future
environmental trends and community dynamics. This resource can
Methods and Tools
111
be tapped through thoughtful (and often inexpensive) community

consultation, and can add immeasurably to the planning of practical
mitigative measures, as well as to the building of goodwill and a
collaborative atmosphere.
Box. 5.5 Large-scale habitat alterations and involvement of the public: Bangladesh
Third Road Rehabilitation Feasibility Project
Surface drainage, critical in Bangladesh, is always seriously affected by road development.
The Third Road Rehabilitation Project involved the proposed construction and
reconstruction of over 600 kilometers of roads throughout the country. Bangladesh has
unique fisheries, created when flood waters rush into fields and low areas creating
impoundments and feeding areas for fish who seek these areas out but that normally live in
the rivers, or have migrated from the Bay of Bengal. In the north these areas also serve as
extensive migratory bird resting areas. All these conditions depend on unimpeded seasonal
flooding, Roadways can damage these cycles permanently, interfering with this intricately
balanced aquatic wildlife system, by simply blocking or altering the timing and distribution
of flood waters. Roads must be located on large berms, involving the placement of millions
of m3 of materials, acting like long check-dams. During the dry season these areas cannot be
distinguished from any other low lying plots. It was the critically important consultation
with local communities and farmers, supplemented with technical field observations, that
prevented road planners from placing alignments directly over these sites.
Source: Govt. of Bangladesh (GOB) 1998.
The most effective approach to involving local people is the slow building
of confidence and trust. However, time constraints in EA often require an
alternative which Chambers (1983) coined as the Rapid Rural Appraisal
(RRA) technique.9 Rapid rural appraisal involves seeking information from
a variety of scientists and knowledgeable community members over a short
time period, and combining the results in a multidisciplinary assessment report.
Chambers has described it as a middle zone between the anthropological
survey and the development cost-benefit matrix analysis. He suggests heeding
two basic precepts for staying in the middle zone, namely optimal ignorance
(knowing which facts are not worth knowing) and appropriate uncertainty
(aiming for the minimum level of accuracy to get the order of magnitude
and direction of change right).
RRA is particularly relevant for wildlife issues, which often cannot be
investigated with scientific rigor alone due to time and budget constraints.
RRA is also very well suited to understanding which ecosystem components
and wildlife values are most important to local people. Through consultation,
9 This approach is not limited in any way to rural settings. In urban areas it is just more difficult to
identify those individuals who are long-time residents with valuable historical knowledge. Since
Chambers work, RRA has been reinvented several times, including name changes and a
movement toward better information sharing and project planning with project affected people.
112
proposed remedial measures can be tested for acceptance, modified according

to local needs, and eventually turned into a solution crafted by the proponent
in collaboration with the stakeholders.
5.9 Follow-up
Implementation of mitigative measures is often the weakest link in the
environmental management process and requires special attention from
managers. The environmental assessment study should identify plans for works
supervision, future environmental monitoring, and evaluation studies. This
assures continuity between design and construction and helps ensure full
implementation of the environmental management plan. The implementation
of mitigative measures should involve skilled and responsible staff in both
the environmental (biophysical and social) and engineering fields, including
those concerned with work supervision during the construction phase.
Responsibility for undertaking monitoring, as well as the reporting,
should be specified in the environmental management plan.
Contractors must not be left out of the learning and capacity-building
cycle, since they undertake much of the environmental follow-up work.
5.9.1 Compliance Monitoring
During construction phase, all mitigative measures designed to reduce
the impact of the construction activities should be monitored and enforced
by the environmental monitoring authorities. This requires:
z
defining the proposed mitigative and compensatory measures;
specifying who is responsible for the monitoring activity;
specifying mitigative measures and their implementation in contract

specifications;
making environmental competence one of the selection criteria for

contractors; and
briefing, educating, and training contractors in environmental

protection methods.
Compliance monitoring, particularly in EAEs, should not be confined

to the road right-of-way, but should cover all sites affected by the project,
including borrow pits, quarries, disposal sites, waterway diversions, materials
treatment areas, access roads, and work camps, as well as the surrounding
area within the affected ecosystem.
Methods and Tools
113
After the construction phase, environmental monitoring must be

continued. Some mitigative measures, such as drainage systems, erosionpreventive plantings and compensatory afforestation, require regular
maintenance for correct operation, and monitoring is necessary to ensure their
continued effectiveness. Compliance monitoring is usually defined in the
Environmental Management Plan and refined in a work programme.
5.9.2 Effects Monitoring (Evaluation)
After mitigative measures are implemented, effects monitoring or
evaluation can test the validity of hypotheses (e.g. that certain impacts will
stem from specific actions) formulated in the environmental impact study.
Effects monitoring can also determine if the mitigative measures have achieved
their expected results.10 In most countries, such evaluation is not required by
law, and is therefore often not done.
Evaluation is necessary not only for individual projects, but also to
advance methodologies, assist in designing future studies, and, through
lessons learned, to improve the relevance and cost-effectiveness of
environmental protection measures. Governmental support is usually weak
in this area, but needs to be encouraged. Without effects monitoring, mistakes
are often repeated again and again.
Effects monitoring should be the responsibility of the proponent, who
can contract others to undertake the work. It should target impacts predicted
to be serious as well as costly mitigative measures.
5.9.3 The Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP)
From planning, through the operating period of a project, mitigative
monitoring, consultation and compensatory measures need to be applied
according to a work schedule and by specific people at specific locations.
EAs often provide these base data, scattered throughout the documentation.
The EMAP, actually best prepared as a matrix table, pulls all mitigation
actions and commitments together in a time-sensitive form that can become
a contractual requirement, is implementable and can be used as a compliance
monitoring tool (see example in Annexure II). It also should define and
schedule key social mitigation and any technical capacity building, should
that be a part of the mitigation agreement. Wildlife and sensitive area
protection issues lends themselves well to the EMAP, and practitioners are
encouraged to spend ample time learning to develop and use this tool.
1 0 Effects monitoring presents the primary opportunity for accumulating a lessons learned database
vis--vis mitigation planning, and for adapting overly ambitious mitigation.
114
5.10 Suggested Practice

The following step-by-step instructions should guide users in applying a
technically acceptable approach to identifying what the wildlife-road problems
might be, how to examine them, and how to design ways to overcome them.
Users not familiar with ecology or environmental impact analysis should seek
advice, at least during the planning stage (World Bank 1997; Lohani et al.
1997) of a project. These steps, discussed in detail in Chapters 3-5 are:
z
Assemble the key engineering data on the project, including corridor

location, optional RoW locations, typical road cross-sections, cut and
fill requirements, workforce statistics and plans for construction camps,
etc.
Identify and describe the Valued Ecosystem Components by:

z
identifying the major (keystone) species in the study area
identifying unique habitats;
z
z
z
z
z
reviewing any existing information, reports on the baseline

environmental conditions in the area, and recording on a map
any sensitive areas, species, landscapes, and habitats;
listing key environmental conditions within VECs which, if

degraded, could lead to serious problems
roughly define the likely impacts on the wildlife and its habitat;
finalize the available budget and time for the study;
Decide on the methods to be applied, given the various boundaries

defined in the preceding steps, and design a field programme;
Initiate a consultation/information exchange process with the local
communities likely to be affected, informing them as to what you
plan to do, and asking them explicitly for their input and help;
Conduct field survey(s); based on the knowledge of the wildlife
community, design necessar y sur veys to match a wildlife
communitys characteristics;
Complete the data analysis, determining as quantitatively as possible,
the extent of the impact and the sorts of mitigative measures that
need to be applied;
Present findings to the local community and ask them for advice
and critical inputs on proposed impacts and mitigative measures;
Combine the impacts and mitigative measures into an Environmental
Management Plan , which can be presented as a table; and
Write the EA report according to a format prescribed by the relevant
laws and regulations.
Methods and Tools
115
5.11 Useful Websites Concerning EA, Wildlife Methods, and

Models
In Table 5.3 a selection of websites is presented, encompassing relevant
aspects of wildlife-road environmental analysis. The WII website is highly
relevant for India and should be consulted.
Table 5.3 Selected websites dealing with environmental and wildlife matters
To p i c
We bsite
Website
administrator
Comments
Air quality
modeling
www.epa.gov/scram001
US EPA
Modeling software,
documentation
Biodiversity
www.erin.gov.au/life/general_info/
Govt. of Australia
Methods for assessing

biodiversity
Ecological risk
Analysis
www.hsrd.ornl.gov/ecorisk/ecorisk.html
U.S. Govt.
Ecological risk
analysis
www.epa.gov/dics/airs/airs.html
U.S. EPA and

Purdue Univ. USA
Exposure assessment
models
ftp.epa.gov/epa_ceam/wwwhtml/
software.htm
US EPA
Effluent exposure
(water,air,noise),
fauna, flora, humans
Groundwater
quantity and
quality-impacts
www.mines.edu.igwmc
Colorado School of
Mines, USA
Groundwater quantity
and quality
impact models
Habitat impact
evaluation
www.mesc.usgs.gov/hep/hep.htm/
www.mesc.usgs.goc/swprod/html
US Geological
Service
Habitat
evaluation techniques
Large environmental
bibliographic sources
www.ceac.gc.ca
http://envirolink.org/
Govt. of Canada
Envirolink
World Bank
Reference list of
environment related
sites NA, LA and
ASIA
http://iaia.nodak.edu/iaia/eailist/
Univ. of North
Dakota for IAIA
A list of over 140

environment websites,
updated regularly
Surface water
quality modeling
www.wes.army.mil/el/models/
index.html
US Army Corp of
Engineers
Sofware-based water
quality impact
predictions
Water quality
assessment
(infrastructure
projects)
www.ncl.ac.uk/~nxc/eia.html
Wildlife Institute
of India
www.wii.gov.in.
On-line water quality

modeling-worldwiderivers
WII, Dehra Dun

India
Large selection of
relevant information
pertaining to
wildlife in India
116
Topic
Website
Website
administrator
Comments
Ministry of
Environment &
Forests, Govt.
of India
http://envfor.nic.in/
National
Informatics Centre
Provides key
information on
clearance
process, legislations,
environmental
database,advisory
bodies and links
to other institutions
that stipulate national
standards for air,
water and noise.
Worldwide virtual
library
http://conbio.rice.edu/vl/
Rice Univ., USA
Biodiversity, biology
and environment
Endangered species
information
http://www.wcmc.org.uk/CITES/eng/
index.shtml
CITES (Trade in
Switzerland
species), endangered
Wildlife and
agriculture
information
http://www.fao.org
FAO (Agricultural
biodiversity), Rome
Many documents on
line
General wildlife
ecology
http://www.iucn.org
IUCN, Switzerland
Many reports on line
Wildlife ecology
research
http://www.iisc.ernet.in/
Indian Institute of
Science, Centre of
Ecological Sciences,
Bangalore, India
Important
biodiversity
institution in India
A guide to
biodiversity and
wildlife
http://www.biodiv.org/chmBiodiversity
Clearing House
Mechanism (CHM)
Worldwide
information database
http://www.biodiversity.org
Conservation
Information
System (BCIS)
Biodiversity and
wildlife network
http://www.bdt.org.br/bin21/
bin21.html
Biodiversity
Information
Network
21 (BIN21)
Useful for consulting

on wildlife and
biodiversity issues
General
environmental
management and
wildlife-broad- based
http://www.wri.org/wri/biodiv/
biodiv.html
World Resources
Institute
Biodiversity
Large information
and on-line
documentation
facility
Biodiversity and
people
http://www.wbln0018.worldbank.org/
essd/essd.nsf/
The World Bank

Group
Many hyperlinks to
additional
information
Sources: Internet search engines, www.worldbank.org , IAIA website, Lohani et al. (1997).
Methods and Tools
117
5.12 References
Ali, Salim (1980). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Oxford
University Press. Oxford, U.K.
Asian Development Bank (1996). Development of A Computerized EIA
System, RETA No. 5544; ESSA Technologies Ltd.
Beanlands, Gordon and P. Duinker (1983). An Ecological Framework for
Environmental Impact Assessment. Federal Environmental Assessment
Review Office (now the Canadian Environmental Impact Assessment
Agency), Government of Canada, Ottawa.
Beanlands, Gordon (1994). The Application of Expert Systems to
Environmental Impact Assessment. Annotated Bibliography. GEBEC
Consultants, Halifax, Canada.
Beddome, R.H. (1864). The Ferns of Southern India and Ceylon. Today and
Tomorrow Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.
Bilgrammi, K.S., S. Jamakuddin and M.A. Rizvi (1991). Fungi of India.
Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.
Blyth, Wynter (1982). Butterflies of the Indian Region, New Delhi.
Bruhl, P.A. (1931 and reproduced in 1982).
Rec. Bot. Surv. India XIII (1&2).
A census of Indian mosses.
Carter, N. (1926). Fresh water algae from India. Rec. Bot. Surv. India. 9,
263 - 302.
Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Types
of India. Government of India, New Delhi.
Chambers, R. (1983). Rural Development: Putting the Last First. Longman,
London.
Cole, David N. (1994). The Wilderness Threat Index: A Framework for
Assessing Impact. Res. Paper INT 475. US Department of Agriculture
and Forest Service Research Station. Ogden, Utah,USA. [www.fs.fed.us].
Daniel, J.C. (1983). The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay Natural History
Society Publication.
Dass, Inderneil. (1985). Indian Turtles: A Field Guide. World Wide Fund
for Nature (WWF) Publication.
Dutta, S.K. (1997). Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka. Odyssey Publishing
House, Bhubneshwar.
118
Economopoulos, Alexander P. (1993). Assessment of Sources of Air, Water and

Land Pollution Part I (of Two): Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental
Pollution. No. WHO/PEP/89. WHO, Geneva
Edwards-Jones, Gareth and M. Gough (1994). ECOZONE - A Knowledgebased Computer System for Training in Environmental Impacts of
Agricultural Projects. Food and Agricultural Organization.
Evans, Brigadeir W.H. (1985). The Identification of Indian Butterflies. Bombay
Natural History Society Publication.
Giles, Robert H. (1972). Wildlife Management Techniques. The Wildlife
Society, Washington, D.C.
Gilpin, A. (1995). Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Cutting Edge
for the Twenty-first Century. Press Syndicate of the University of
Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K.
Government of Bangladesh (GOB) (1998). Project Initial Environmental
Examination Report. Bangladesh-Third Road Rehabilitation and
Maintenance Project (RRMP-III), Bangladesh.
Haribal, Meena. (1992). The Butterflies of Sikkim Himalayas and their
Natural History. Sikkim Nature Conservation Foundation (SNCF),
Gangtok, Sikkim.
Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897). The Flora of British India. Vols. I-VII. L. Reeve,
London.
Houshon, J.M. (1990). Expert Systems for Environmental Applications. ACS
Symposium Series 431. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
IUCN (1996). IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. The IUCN Species
Survival Commission, IUCN, Gland.
Kargupta A.N.and E.N. Siddiqui. (1996). Algal Ecology: An Overview.
Vedams Books Pvt. Ltd.
Khullar, S.P. (1994). An Illustrated Fern Flora of Western Himalaya.
International Book Distributors, Dehradun.
Leopold, L., et al. (1971). A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact.
US Geological Survey Circular 645. US Geological Survey, Washington,
DC.
Lohani, B.N. et al. (1997). Environmental Impact Assessment for Developing
Countries in Asia: Overview (Volume I). Asian Development Bank,
Manila.
Methods and Tools
119
Lohani, B.N. et al. (1997). Environmental Impact Assessment for Developing

Countries in Asia: Case Studies (Volume II). Asian Development Bank,
Manila.
Mani, M.S. and V.K. Gupta (1985). Oriental Insects: Association for the
Study of Oriental Insects. Composite Book Publication.
Margules, C. and M.B. Usher (1981). Criteria used in assessing wildlife
conservation potential: A review. Biological Conservation 21, 79 - 109.
McHarg, I. (1968). A Comprehensive Highway Route-selection Method.
Highway Research Record No. 246. Highway Research Board,
Washington, DC.
McHarg, I.L. (1969). Design with Nature, Natural History Press. New York,
USA.
Misra, R. (1973). Ecology Workbook. Oxford and IBH Publication, New
Delhi.
Morgen, Glen and Petter Nyborg (1994). Using GIS to Support Watershed
Management: Case Studies for Nepal and China. ITLAB Technical
Paper-GIS Series No.1. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Morrison-Saunders, A and J. Bailey (1999). Exploring the EIA/Environmental Management Relationship. Environmental Management 24 (3),
281-295.
Mueller-Dombois, D. and H. Ellenberg (1974). Aims and Methods of
Vegetation Ecology. John Wiley, Chichester.
Nayar, M. P. and A.R.K. Sastry (1987). Red Data Book of Indian Plants,
Vol. I, II & III. Botanical Survey of India Publication, Calcutta.
Prater, S.H. (1980). The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History
Society. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.
Queensland Department of Roads (1997). Roads in the Wet Tropics: Best
Practice Manual. Queensland Department of Roads, Brisbane, Australia.
Rajvanshi, A. (1995). Environmental assessment of linear developments. In:
Manual for 11th Intensive Course on Environmental Assessment and
Management. Centre for Environmental Management and Planning,
Aberdeen University, Aberdeen.
Ratcliffe, D.A. (1977). A Nature Conservation Review. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, U.K.
120
Rodgers, W.A. (1991). Techniques for Wildlife Census in India, A Field Manual.
Technical Manual: TM 2. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
Sahni, K.C. (1990). Gymnosperms of India and Adjacent Countries. Shiva Offset
Press, Dehradun.
Sale, J.B. and K. Berkmuller (1988). Manual of Wildlife Techniques for India.
FAO, United Nations India Establishment of the Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehradun.
Tiwari, S.D. and G. B. Pant. (1994). Bryophytes of Kumaun Himalaya.
Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.
Treweek, J. (1999). Ecological Impact Assessment. Blackwell Science
Limited, Oxford, U.K.
United States Department of the Interior (USDI) (1980). Habitat Evaluation
Procedure. Ecological Service Manual. Division of Ecological Service,
Fish and Wildlife Service, 102, Washington, DC.
WII (1994). Impact Assessment Studies of Narmada Sagar and Omkareshwar
Projects on Flora and Fauna with Attendant Human Aspects. WII EIA Technical Report 9. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
WII (1998). EIA~TRACK (Environmental Impact Assessment, Training,
Research, Advisory and Consultancy Kit) Computer-based Integrated
Decision Support System. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun.
World Bank (1997). Roads and the Environment: A Handbook. World Bank
Technical Paper No. 376. World Bank, Washington, DC.
6. ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION
uring the last few decades, studies conducted in a variety of terrestrial

and aquatic ecosystems have demonstrated that many of the most
pervasive threats to biological diversity - habitat destruction and
fragmentation, edge effects, exotic species invasion, pollution and over-hunting
are exacerbated by roads. Nonetheless, more roads continue to be built and
road densities are increasing throughout South Asia. Each day there are more
studies undertaken to assess the potential impacts of roads, examine the nature
of direct impacts of roads on ecosystems and wildlife populations, and develop
mitigative strategies for road projects. Access to pertinent literature and
information is critical for environmental engineers, road planners and
biologists for ensuring the success of the road design programme and the
conservation plan for biodiversity resources, based on scientific data and
principles established by sound research efforts.
An effort has been made here to assemble some key references that will
be of use to those interested in learning about the road impacts on the
ecological environment and for those involved in the design and application
of mitigative measures for road projects.
6.1 References
Adams, C.E. (1983). Road-killed animals as resources for ecological studies.
Amer. Biol. Teach. 45, 256-261.
Adams, L.W. and L.E. Dove (1989). Wildlife Reserves and Corridors in the
Urban Environment: A Guide to Ecological Landscape Planning and
Resource Conservation. National Institute for Urban Wildlife, Columbia,
Maryland.
Adams, L.W. and A.D. Geis (1983). Effects of roads on small mammals. J.
Appl. Ecol. 20, 403-415.
122
Anon. (1997). Proceedings of International Conference on Wildlife Ecology and

Transportation. 10-12 February 1997, Ft. Meyers, Florida.
Anon. (1975). A Design Guide for Wildlife Protection and Conservation for
Transportation Facilities. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials.
Anon. (1982). Wildlife Mortality in Transportation Corridors in Canadas
National Parks- Impact and Mitigation. 2 Volumes. Parks Canada.
Bain, M.B., J.S. Irving, R.D. Olsen, E.A. Stull and G.W. Witmer (1986).
Cumulative Impact Assessment: Evaluating the Environment Effects of
Multiple Human Developments. US Department of Energy, Washington,
DC.
Baker, R.H. (1997). Are man-made barriers influencing mammalian
speciation? Journal of Mammalogy 79, 370-371.
Bennett, A.F. (1990). Habitat corridors and the conservation of small
mammals in a fragmented forested environment. Landscape Ecology 4,
109-122.
Bisset, R. (1984). Methods for assessing direct impacts. In: Perspectives on
Environmental Impact Assessment (eds. B.D. Clark, A. Gilad, R. Bisset
and P. Tomlinson), 195 - 212. Reidel, Dordrecht.
Box, J.D. and J.E. Forbes (1992). Ecological consideration in the
environmental assessment of road proposals. Journal of the Institution
of Highway and Transportation 39, 16-22.
Bratton, J. H. (1990). Seasonal pools an overlooked invertebrate habitat.
British Wildlife 2, 22-31.
Bruinderink, G.W., T.A. Groot and E. Hazebroek (1996). Ungulate traffic
collisions in Europe. Conservation Biology 10(4), 1059-1067.
Brookes, A & K.R. Hills (in press). The impact of road developments on
river corridors: lessons learnt from south-central England. In: Nature
Conservation and the Management of Drainage System Habitat (ed. D.
Harper). John Wiley, Chichester.
Buckley, G.P. (ed.) (1989). Biological Habitat Reconstruction. Pinter
(Belhaven), London.
Burnett, S.E. (1992). Effects of a rainforest road on movements of small
mammals: mechanisms and implications. Wildl. Res. 19, 95-104.
Additional Sources of Information
123
Canters, K., Annette Piepers and Dineke Hendriks-Heersma (eds.) (1997).

Habitat Proceedings of the International Conference on Habitat
Fragmentation, Infrastructure and the Role of Ecological Engineering.
Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Delft &
Case, R.M. (1978). Interstate highway road-killed animals: a data source
for biologists. Wildlife Society Bulletin 6, 8-13.
CIRIA (1992). Environmental Assessment: A Guide to the Identification,
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PART II
CASE STUDIES
1
ROAD AND RAIL NETWORK DEVELOPMENT
AND GIR NATIONAL PARK AND SANCTUARY
This case study describes how long-term management
of roads passing through habitat for rare animals has had
serious long-term negative effects and how rehabilitative
actions can help.
1. Key Project Statistics

Gir forest is the largest, biologically intact and contiguous tract of forest
in the Saurashtra penninsula of Gujarat, totalling 1,882 km2 of forest, of
which 1412.1 km2 are designated as the Protected Area (PA). In this PA, the
National Park, covering an area of 258.7 km2, is surrounded by 1153.4 km2
of Wildlife Sanctuary. The remaining area of the Gir forest has been declared
as the Reserved Forest (Figure 1).
The Gir PA comprising the Gir National Park and the Gir Wildlife
Sanctuary has a network of fair weather roads and a railway line, used by
pilgrims, tourists, daily commuters, traders and the PA staff (Figure 1). There
are about 100 km of state highway/major roads and 590 km of forest roads
in the Gir PA. Of these, the 6 state highways and one major district road
between Sasan and Devaliya are most significant in terms of their impact
potential.
The railway line runs through the Sanctuary for a length of 15 km,
connecting Visvadar and Talala (Figure 1). Six passenger trains run on this
route every day. A speed limit of 20 km per hour has been imposed by the
railway authorities for locomotives (mainly steam-powered) running on this
line while passing through the PA.
The roads in the region are heavily used by pilgrims for visiting the three
main temples: Kankai, Banej and Tulsishyam (Figure 2). The roads are also
used for transportation of raw and finished products from large mineral
processing units located in the surrounds of the PA. This PA also has a high
influx of tourists who visit this area to see the only population of wild Asiatic
lions in the world.
132
Fig. 1 Gir Protected Area and transportation network.
Over the years, there has been a significant rise in the number of vehicles
and the pilgrims on the roads in the PA (Figure 2). The number of tourist
both Indian and foreign have also grown steadily (Figure 3) in the past decade
(Kamboj et al. 1997).
Case Studies : Road and Rail Network in Gir National Park
133
Fig. 2 Total number of vehicles and

pilgrims visiting Gir Protected Area
56753
75388
2493
823
853
1995-96
1994-95
47232
41429
1993-94
44990
978
36262
822
28258
33334
997
988
1992-93
1991-92
1990-91
1989-90
17591
1985-86
1994-95
1993-94
1992-93
1991-92
1990-91
1989-90
1988-89
0
1987-88
854
10000
5000
392
20000
414
4474
4251
2700
2081
1611
1008
2836
10000
30338
16888
30000
15000
262
20000
40000
3715
9740
25000
11291
15924
30000
38833
50000
25117
35000
1988-89
40000
Foreigners
60000
1987-88
Total no. of pilgrims
Indian
70000
1986-87
45000
37611
Total no. of vehicles
38707
42526
80000
Fig. 3 Number of tourists visiting Gir

Protected Area
2. Significant Wildlife Values

Gir Sanctuary and National Park is home to the only wild Asiatic lion
(Panthera leo persica), population in the world. This unique ecosystem,
characterized by dry deciduous scrub forest supports 400 species of flowering
plants, 32 species of mammals, 26 species of reptiles, 300 species of bird and
more than 2000 species of insects (Kamboj et al. 1997). It also has the highest
concentration of lions, leopards, and possibly the single largest population
of marsh crocodile in the country. Main herbivores of the PA are spotted
deer, sambar, nilgai, four horned antelope, chinkara, wild pig and porcupines.
The main birds found in the tract are peafowl, quails, partridges, nightjar,
heron, ibis and vultures. The predator birds are represented by owl, shikra
and brahmini kite. The area forms the catchment of seven perennial rivers
and thus provides the ecological security and environmental amelioration for
the drought prone region of Saurashtra.
3. Impacts Observed and Mitigative Measures Proposed

3.1 Impacts Observed
Impacts of roads and growing traffic intensity on these roads have been
recently documented by the park management (Kamboj et. al. 1997 and
Srivastava 1998).
3.1.1 Mortality of wild animals
The most significant negative impact that has serious implications for
the conservation of the PAs wildlife is wild animals being killed by collisions
134
with speeding vehicles. Of the six state highways passing through the PA,
three (SH23, SH98 and SH111) are open to traffic for 24 hours a day and
therefore have a constant flow of traffic comprising largely of heavy vehicles.
Animals, such as lions, leopards and spotted deer, prefer to move along the
road specially during the summer months, when the roads act as cool tunnels
(due to shade trees), or during the mating season, and thus become more
vulnerable to heavy traffic induced injury/mortality. Other smaller animals
that are generally not recorded but are more often hit by vehicles include
snakes, lizards, mongoose and
porcupine. Birds that prefer open Table 1 Mortality of animals due to road
habitats, like nightjars and lapwings, kill in the year 1997
tend to live along the roads and are
Animal
Name of village Date of
species
location
accident
run over frequently. Information
obtained from the records of
Lion
Dalkhama
7-3-97
Gujarat Forest Department on the
Chital
Jhankia
23-3-97
mortality of animals on the roads
Nilgai
Jhankia
12-5-97
is inconclusive since total counts
Leopard
Himal
6-7-97
were not recorded. Sample data for
Lion
Talala
3-10-97
1997 shows that many wild species
Hyaena
Khamba
6-10-97
including a lion and leopard were
Porcupine Jhankia
12-12-97
killed (Table 1).
3.1.2 Barrier effect
All the major highways that pass through the PA create a barrier due
to steady traffic that has increased in recent years. These roads have also
become psychological barriers for most animals. Bright headlights, noise and
the air emissions from these vehicles are strong deterrents for animals wanting
to cross the road. The problem of habitat reduction is further compounded
since, within the fringe of the sanctuary, there are about 14 human settlements
with a total human population of 4500 and an almost equal number of
livestock that deter use of fringe habitats by wild animals.
3.1.3 Habitat loss and illegal activities
With the rise in vehicular traffic and tourists, the amount of fires, theft
of timber and fuel wood and illegal removal of forest produce has also
increased. These developments have added to the pressures arising from the
influx of people into the PA who illegally harvest fuel wood, grass, timber
and animals (for food). Population densities as a whole are rising, and thus
increasing the intensity of man-wildlife conflict around the PA boundaries.
135
Unfortunately, industrial interests outside the PA are lobbying to get some

of the forest roads upgraded to secondary asphalt roads. These interests reason
that, with the restriction of traffic on the state highway to daylight hours,
vehicles transporting raw and finished products will need to use forest roads
to move the goods. Therefore, these roads need to be surfaced with asphalt.
Until this conflict is resolved, the mitigative measures proposed may not be
effective in reducing the threats to the PA.
3.1.4 Railway operations, fire and animal collisions
The steam locomotives using these tracks between Talala and Visvadar
pose a big hazard, since sparks from the coal-fired boilers cause forest fires.
Wild animals can also get hit and killed by passing trains; as many as 12
lions/lionesses were reported killed on this track between 1984 and 1995
(Singh and Kamboj 1996). The lions know that they should retreat when
they smell, see or hear people, but they do not respond in the same way to
trains since trains do not exhibit any clues that danger is approaching.
3.2 Mitigative Measures Proposed

Park management has developed options to mitigate these impacts,
largely by trying to reduce the traffic on the roads within the PA. A number
Table 2. Management regulations on different road sections in Gir PA
Existing regulation
Mendarda-Sasan-Talala
Sasan-Visvadar
Talala-Jamwala
Sasan-Devaliya
Ban on use of private

vehicles
Opening of road between

sunset and sunrise
Jamwala-Sapnes-Dhari
Unregulated (24 hr use)
Una-Dhari
Opening of road from

sunrise to sunset
Restriction of speed limit

to 20 km/hr
Proposed regulation
Restriction of movement of
heavy vehicle
Road sections
136
of changes regulating the movement of heavy vehicles through the park have
recently been proposed by park management (Table 2).
Additional mitigative options proposed under another study conducted
by the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA 1994) to reduce traffic
include the following:
z
Use of electric vans for transporting people between the core areas
and the roads outside PA;
Provision of electric buses that take pilgrims from the point on the
boundary of the PA to the temples within the PA along specified
routes.
For the mitigation of the impacts of the railway line, the only feasible
option is to discontinue the steam locomotive and to enforce speed
regulations. The other condition that can be imposed is to have only two
dead stops between Kansia and Sasan Gir section of the railway route.
4. Management Actions, Successes and Failures

The benefits of the mitigative measures proposed to reduce the major
impacts of the road and rail network will take some time to develop. Traffic
movement has been restricted from sunset to dawn on the Sasan-Visvadar
road, and strict use of park travel permits has been implemented. This has
reduced the traffic on the section of the road that covers a major stretch
through the PA. Travel through the PA now requires a permit and entry and
exit is carefully monitored. All of these actions are being strongly supported
by the park management.
Fire hazards from steam locomotives will be reduced if diesel
locomotives replace the old steam engines; a proposal already accepted by
the railway authorities. The realignment of the railway line may not be feasible
as this is linked to other sections of railway line outside the PA. The use of
battery operated vans/buses is not a feasible solution because of the hilly
nature of terrain in the PA.
5. Lessons Learned and Best Practices

5.1 Lessons Learned
Though the expansion of road and rail networks in Gujarat is inevitable,
their alignment through sensitive areas has led to irreversible impacts on a
unique ecosystem. The vehicular traffic on the six highways and a major
137
district road between Sasan and Devaliya that run through the Gir PA pose
the greatest risk to many animal species including endangered ones.
Mitigation planning for reducing the impacts associated with these roads
and rail lines passing through the PA is limited by two factors: (i) the present
alignment of roads and rail line through the area existed prior to the
declaration of the area as a PA; and (ii) the PAs use as a local revenue
generator, thus inviting large numbers of people to pass through the area.
For now, PA managers are not willing to cut off this access.
The pressure by pilgrims visiting the temples located within the PA and
tourists has resulted in an exponential increase in the vehicular traffic on the
highways in and around Gir. Poverty, scarcity of land, short sighted landuse
planning and infrastructure sighting have all contributed to the continuing
degradation of this unique area.
5.2 Best Practices
The best practices for reducing impacts would involve regulating the traffic
both in terms of volume and frequency on all roads passing through Gir.
This would include restricting transit during the period of the day when the
animal activities along the different sections of road is expected to be
maximum.
Strict compliance with the regulations would require regular monitoring
and to that end, a monitoring plan should be prepared by the PA management,
with the full support of senior officials.
Also, signages can be suitably located along the road to increase the
awareness of people about the dangers of collisions with wildlife along these
roads. Signs at the entrance and exit of every road showing the mortality
and existing population of important wildlife species would also be a good
way to increase the awareness of the value of the Girs resources. Speed
breakers and the restriction of food and other vendors along the road would
also help reduce user volumes. Gravel roads within the PA should not be
upgraded and repaired minimally, in order to discourage speeding and deter
regular use of the roads within the PA.
The Gir habitat needs to be patrolled and a ceiling placed on the the
total number of visitors per year. Ceilings should be based on the park
ecosystems regenerative capacity and resilience. Heavily used PAs around the
world have adopted this approach as the best practice in the face of serious
losses due to unrestricted recreational use. A long-term program to reroute
or consolidate all roads passing through the GPA will add enormously to
the conservation of this unique world heritage.
138
6. Sources of information
6.1 Contact
Conservator of Forests, (Wildlife Circle)
Gujarat Forest Department,
Sadar Baug,
Junagadh,
Gujarat - 362 001.
Tel. : 0285-631678, 630051
Fax : 0285-632900
6.2 Documentation Used

IIPA (1994). Biodiversity Conservation through Eco-development. A
Prelimenary Indicative Plan for Gir National Park, Gujarat. Indian
Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi.
Kamboj, R.D., Mahesh Singh and B.R. Raval (1997). Analysis of Threats
to Gir Ecosystem. Indian Forester, October. 964-972.
Singh, H.S. and R.D. Kamboj (1996). Biodiversity Conservation Plan for
Gir. Gujarat Forest Department, Gujarat.
Srivastava, A. (1998). Saga of Human Apathy in Gir. Technical Note. Gujarat
Forest Division, Gujarat.
2
KOHALPUR-MAHAKALI HIGHWAY
PROJECT, NEPAL
This case describes what happens when well thought-out mitigative
measures are ignored, leading to human intrusion into highly sensitive
areas. The importance of having laws and regulations supported by
compliance monitoring is highlighted. Poor construction practices have
resulted in stress on wildlife and the deterioration of an entire mitigation
programme has taken place due to administrative disinterest and a lack
of funds.
The Kohalpur-Mahakali Highway Project (KMHP), also referred to as

the Third Highway Project is a 204 km long road segment of the East-West
Highway Project (EWHP) in Nepal.
1.
Key Project Statistics
Nearly 27 km of the Kohalpur-Mahakali highway ( in two sections)

runs through the Royal Bardia National Park (RBNP) (Figure 1). The
alignments for the two sections were chosen, based on engineering
considerations. The first (western section) was chosen because of an obligatory
bridge site on the Karnali river near its mouth and the second (eastern section)
because of the appropriateness of the site for an irrigation weir on the Babai
River.
The highway is 7.5 m wide and has a right-of-way (RoW) of 20 m from
the centerline of road on the north side and 10 m on the south. The 27-km
alignment through the RBNP has a number of box culverts, three bridges (one
each on Babai river, Theni khola (stream) and Budhu khola and two floodways
of 195 m and 75 m on the Aurai and the Gumna rivers, respectively.

Royal Bardia National Parks 968 km2 area encompassing the largest and
finest agglomeration of woodland and grassland in Asia harbours a unique
community of terrestrial, avian, and aquatic life forms. The area was made a
Protected Area (PA) in 1989 since it has the highest biodiversity levels in the
Indian subcontinent. The PA is unique as it is the largest protected area in
140
Nepal with the highest biomass of ungulates reported from anywhere in Asia
(Studsrod and Wegge 1995). The rare and endangered species of fauna in this
PA include tiger, swamp deer, black buck, gangetic dolphin, gharial and the
Bengal florican. The successful reintroduction of the rhino and the restocking
of the gharial in this area have further enhanced the conservation values of
Royal Bardia National Park.
3. Impacts and Mitigative Measures Proposed

The project appraisal conducted in 1984 highlighted the following potential
impacts of the East-West highway through the Park:
(i)
Bisection of the western half of the Park between Karnali and

Amreni, by the highway, which could alter, restrict or block animal
movements.
(ii) Acceleration of the pressures on the PA by placing the highway

alignment within 50 m of the entire southern and eastern boundary
of the Park (Figure 1).
Fig. 1. Alignment of Kohalpur-Mahakali highway through Royal Bardia National Park
Case Studies : Kohalpur-Mahakali Hiighway Project, Nepal
141
(iii) Increased possibility of commercial poaching due to easy access for

poachers and traffickers of contraband along the entire perimeter of
the Park.
(iv) Fragmentation of the area which has been a contiguous forest tract
and which formed the migratory route of rhinos between the highway
and the Babai canal of the Babai irrigation project.
(v) Increased economic opportunities due to reduced travel time from
India and resultant increase in pressure on all the Park resources.
Recognizing the potential impacts of the proposed road alignment through
the conservation area, IDA and the Govt. of Nepal agreed on the specific
mitigative measures to be implemented by the Department of Roads (DOR)
and the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC)
during and after construction. The following are some of the specific protection
measures that were proposed by DNPWC and made part of the resolution
agreed to in 1983 by the Ministry of Works and Transport:
(i)
Right-of-way (ROW) to be kept to a minimum.
(ii) Tree cutting to be kept to a minimum.

(iii) Earth for embankment fillings to be transported from outside the
wildlife area and the construction work to be limited between dawn
and dusk.
(iv) No camps for labour or offices to be permitted within the Reserve
area.
(v) No underpasses to be built since free movement of animals on the
highway will be allowed.
(vi) Restrict, and in some locations, ban night traffic, and also reduce
and enforce speed limits.
(vii) Relocate Amreni village by paying compensation, thereby reducing
the chances of future illegal colonization within Reserve boundaries.
(viii)No fencing required except east of the Babai river to prevent livestock
from grazing in the PA, where the road alignment meets with the
boundary of the Reserve (Figure 1).
(ix) Radio communication amongst all entry and exit points of Reserve
area to be maintained.
4.
Management Actions Successes and Failures
Periodic assessment of the progress in the implementation of mitigative

measures and the overall adequacy and efficacy of the measures proposed is
142
very critical for almost all developmental projects, but this is seldom achieved.
This project was unique in that the compliance monitoring became a specific
exercise under a separate World Bank funded project.
4.1 Misguided Mitigation
Most of the mitigative measures suggested at the time of clearing the
project were based on rapid appraisal since EIAs were not commonly done at
that time in Nepal. The mitigative measures were largely simplistic and
inadequate for ensuring the conservation of PA values. Royal Bardia National
Park has always been a difficult Park to manage even without the East-West
highway because of the severity of pressures on the land and its resources,
encroachments, illegal hunting, rampant fires and poaching. A greater level of
protection was needed to face the challenges linked to the East-West Highway
Project. To that end, the following mitigative measures should have been
considered:
z
The mitigative actions should not have been developed without overall
knowledge and understanding of the ecological conditions which
are critical for the maintenance of the ecological balance of RBNP.
Thoughtfully constructed underpasses could have provided a plausible

alternative to having animals crossing the highway, dodging traffic.
By placing time restrictions on travel, without other controls, animal

crossings would still face a great risk of collision with a vehicle. Even
in the morning, when wildlife movement is decreasing, the release of
accumulated traffic stopped at the ends during the night would
increase the chances of accidents. Similarly during the afternoon, the
speeding traffic trying to traverse through the Park before dusk would
also endanger animals which begin to move and cross the road in
the late afternoon hours.
4.2 Modifying Mitigative Measures without Technical Justification

Earth for construction of the embankment for the road portion inside the
Protected Area was to be obtained from sources outside the PA so as not to
create additional barriers (deep ditches) to animal movement (World Bank
1992). This was later relaxed when the transportation of earth from outside
the PA became too costly. As a result, deep, wide ditches were left from the
side-borrow activity, forming formidable barrier to animal movement.
To some extent, underpasses could have been effective in mitigating these
barriers, but these were not visualised or planned for. In the 14-km section
from Chispani (west) to Amreni, a large number of box culverts were builtnone large enough to be used as animal crossing sites.
143
Two floodways/crossings on Ghumna and Aurai rivers have been

planned. They could have been developed to serve as animal crossings,
but this option was not considered.
The ban on night driving and the enforcement of the speed limit has
not been implemented satisfactorily. The restriction on night transit
existed for the first year only. A speed limit of 40 km per hour for
covering the stretch
11
11
12
of highway within
9
10
the
PA
was
8
imposed but could
6
not be enforced
4
during
the
2
2
1
operational phase.
2
The failure to
0
1992- 1993- 1994- 1995- 1996- 1997enforce these two
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
measures resulted
Highway open between
Highway open for 24 hrs
in a dramatic rise in
0600 hrs - 2100 hrs
Source: Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation
animal mortality
(Figure 2).
animal mortality.
Fencing over the 9
km section east of
Babai was proposed to prevent livestock grazing in the PA, but was
not implemented until several years later when a review of the
compliance monitoring and evaluation of mitigative measures was
undertaken in 1992 (Panwar 1992).
No labour camps or offices were to be permitted within the PA, yet

Chispani (west) became a major site for setting up labour camps,
engineers facilities and construction offices.
It was also agreed that the portion of Amreni village where the
engineers facilities and labour camps are situated would be shifted
outside the PA by acquiring land. This has not happened. Instead,
Amreni village has grown and has become a potential source of
ecological disruption for the PA.
Total no. of animals killed
Fig. 2. East-West highway operating hours and
4.3 Correcting Past Errors

4.3.1 Mitigative measures at the macro-level
In 1992, three years after the original mitigative measure were supposed
to be implemented, the following specific recommendations were proposed
144
(Panwar 1992) as a holistic package of measures to be implemented prior to

the operation of the highway. These were:
z
The expansion of PA on the eastern and southern boundaries and

the allotment of a 5 km belt along these boundaries as a buffer zone
to safeguard wildlife in the PA.
The fencing of over 9 km in the section east of Babai.
The development of a conservation society (a form of participatory

conservation by the local communities) that would act as an entity
for transferring benefits to local people for subsistence and economic
development and at the same time ensuring the scientific management
of the PA.
4.3.2 Design modifications as environmental safeguards

The following are the design features and specific additional environmental
safeguards that were recommended in order to correct past mistakes:
5.
Building underpasses for the Aurai and Gumna rivers by converting

the existing floodway into bridges with features to promote their use
by wild animals.
Construction of additional large diameter and short underpass

midway on Patalchuli khola by the conversion of box culvert into a
bridge/underpass or by constructing a new underpass in the proximity
of the Patalchuli khola crossing.
Prohibiting night transit through the Park and further restricting

vehicle travel periods between 0500 hrs to 0800 hrs and from 1700 hrs
to 2100 hrs to facilitate animal crossing.
Construction of check posts (equipped with radio communication)

at both ends of the section of highway within the PA and also
midway along the road, in order to monitor excessive vehicle speed
and other illegal activities within the PA.
Lessons Learned and Best Practices
5.1 Lessons Learned

The project is running in the tenth year of its implementation now. Many
mitigative measures were proposed without any prioritization. Not much
headway could be made due to a lack of funds. To date, only the following
two mitigative actions have been implemented:
145
Four check posts were constructed in the section of the highway

between Chispani west and Ramuwapur; their staffing and actual
operation remaining uncertain; and,
10 km of fencing was erected between Babai and Ramuwapur.
The more critical modifications in design features, including the

construction of underpasses, were not undertaken. The embargo on night transit
has been lifted completely, even with clear evidence of the value of the
restriction. Vehicle-animal collisions have risen.
Due to weak administration, scarce funds and a failure to convince key
officials of the merits of the measures, it is unlikely that any additional mitigative
measures will be implemented at this time.
While the rapid appraisal approach was the best available at the time,
careful consideration of the scale, cost of mitigative actions, as well as their
prioritization, was not done. As a result the mitigation plan collapsed.
In the absence of statutory requirements, commitments were systematically
abandoned. Even simple measures like the regulation of traffic by restricting
night transit through the Park and the ban on the taking of earth from along
the roadsides in the PA were not honoured.
5.2 Best Practices

Best practices for ensuring the development of highway projects without
jeopardizing the wildlife would obviously necessitate the technical assessment
of the project in the initial stages of project planning.
Based on the results of technical assessment, a concrete mitigation plan
should have been developed. An inter-departmental committee should have
ensured the implementation and maintenance of such a plan. Such a committee
could have had representatives from DOR, DNPWC, project authorities of
KMHP and the Director of RBNP.
The funds for the project should have been made available in different
phases. Their release for subsequent phases of the project should have been
contingent on the successful implementation of mitigative measures.
Given the international significance of RBNP, a decree should have been
passed, legally binding the proponent and contractors to a specific mitigation
plan.
Donors should have demanded more rigorous compliance monitoring,
reporting and a system of penalties.
146
6.
Sources of Information
6.1 Contact
Chief Warden
Royal Bardiya National Park,
Thakurdwara, Bardiya,
Nepal
Tel./Fax: 084-29712; 084-29719
Email: bicp@rbnp.mos.com.np

Panwar, H.S. (1992). Assessment of Direct and Indirect Impacts on Bio-habitat and
Wildlife of Royal Bardia National Park due to Construction of Kohalpur - Karnali
Segment of the East - West Highway and Evaluation of Mitigation Measures
Adopted hereto with Suggestions for Measures now Required. Consultancy Report
for World Bank.
Official Communications (1999) Department of National Park and Wildlife
Conservation, Nepal.
Studsrod, Jan Erik., & Per Wegge (1995). Park-people relationships: the case
of damage caused by park animals around the Royal Bardia National
Park, Nepal. Environmental Conservation 22(2). 130 - 141.
World Bank (1992). Arun III Access Road Project. Report No. 7461 - NEP.
Staff Appraisal Report
3
MUMBAI - PUNE EXPRESSWAY PROJECT
This case describes habitat loss, fragmentation, migration restrictions,
ecosystem modification, erosion and sedimentation impacts. It also
underscores the need to get environmental specialists involved early
in the planning process, thereby saving costs and time. Finally, it
highlights how environmental safeguards through carefully developed
mitigative measures for integrating biodiversity concer ns have been
grossly violated during the implementation phase of a major
expressway project.
National Highway NH-4 connects Mumbai with Pune, the location of

Maharashtra States major government facilities. Ever-increasing demand on
this major road link has resulted into a pressing need for the development of
a new 86.4 km-long expressway. The existing highway (NH4) is a 2-lane
divided highway, with small stretches of undivided road.
The expressway, following a new alignment, has been designed to divert
60% of the total existing traffic (13748 PCU) and a total of 43414 PCU of
the projected traffic for the year 2020. Work on the expressway was initiated
in 1998. The expressway was open to traffic in April 2000.
1.
The alignment alternatives were evaluated in terms of gradient,

construction cost, operational feasibility and environmental acceptability. The
recommended alignment starts from the proposed Panvel bypass in Mumbai
and runs parallel to the existing NH-4 before it terminates at Dehu Road at
the proposed Pune westerly bypass (Figure 1). The expressway is designed to
have three lanes in each direction with a 7m wide divider. The salient design
features of the expressway are given in Table 1. The expressway passes over
the Western Ghats, traversing steep rainforest topography as well as coastal
lowlands.
1.1 Design Considerations Tabled by the MOEF in 1997
Subsequent to the 1996 EA, the MoEF prepared its first evaluation of
the project and turned it down, citing the need to fill a number of key gaps
as a prerequisite to reconsideration. MoEFs conditions were:
148
Fig. 1 Location of Mumbai-Pune Expressway Project

z
Possibility of widening of the existing National Highway (NH-4)

between Mumbai and Pune, including bypass provisions where
appropriate for traffic/route diversion in lieu of the new expressway,
in order to reduce habitat loss.
Exclusion of proposed and existing sanctuaries and other

ecologically sensitive areas from the route corridor of the expressway.
Feasibility of the realignment of the route, to circumvent the Western

Ghat section and the diversion of the traffic through the tunnels.
Design a four-lane highway, instead of the six-lane option.
All of these recommendations were more or less adopted by the

Government of Maharashtra.
Case Studies : Mumbai - Pune Expressway Project
149
Table 1. Salient design features of Mumbai Pune - Expressway

Design
elements
Terrain type
Rolling
topography
Design speed (km/h)

- Desirable
- Minimum
Right of way (m)
Lane width (m)
Mountain
120
85
70
60
90
75
3.75
3.75
11.25
11.25
Hard shoulder (m)
2.50
2.00
Verge/earthen shoulder (m)
1.50
1.00
Central median (m)
6.00
4.00
Edge strip (m)

- Median side
- Shoulder side
0.70
0.50
0.70
0.50
Cross-slopes/camber (%)
- Carriageway
- Hard shoulder
- Verge
2.50
3.50
4.00
2.50
3.50
4.00
Longitudinal gradient (%)

- Ruling
- Absolute maximum
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
Carriageway width (m)
Source: RITES & SWK 1995

Significant wildlife features within the road corridor are: (i) the coastal
ecosystems consisting of a mosaic of mudflats, mangroves and coastal marshes
in the intertidal zone and the chain of wetlands in the Panvel-Khopoli section;
(ii) the Western Ghats in the Borghat region between Sanjgaon and
Kurwanda, comprising hill forests, riverine forests along the water courses
and the valley forests of Amba, Ulhas, and Rajmachi; and, (iii) the Deccan
Plateau, between Lonavale and Dehu Road, that supports grassland and
scrubland ecosystems.
The most important ecological unit crossed by the alignment is the
Borghat, which has received international recognition as one of the worlds
18 hot spots of biological diversity.
The crestline forests, consisting of rare subtropical evergreen broad-leaved
forests, semi-evergreen moist deciduous forests, and the high elevation dry
deciduous communities on the gentle slopes, support a very diverse assemblage
of plant species. Nearly 9% of the 4500 species of flowering plants known
from the Western Ghats are represented in the Borghat region. The flowering
150
plants of the Khandala sub-region alone include 150 trees, 77 shrubs, 95

climbers and 434 herbs (Santapau, 1967). Several of the species are endemic
(Nayar and Sastry 1987; Sanjappa 1991).
The project area is home to a larger number of mammals such as
leopard, wild dog, gaur, Malabar giant squirrel, bonnet macaque, common
langur and palm civet which have been reported from the Western Ghat
region. In addition, the smaller mammals like the barking deer, mouse deer,
common mongoose, black-naped hare and pangolin also occur in the area.
Many of the species recorded from this region are highly endangered and
are listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act (MoEF 1983). Two
species that demand greater conservation are the Malabar giant squirrel and
the mouse deer, which inhabit specialized habitats in the forested pockets of
Borghat. From the survey reports that are available (Borges 1992) the
distribution of Malabar giant squirrel has been established in this expressway
corridor.
The riverine forests along the watercourses and the hill forests have a
diverse avifauna and herpetofauna.
A part of the study area also supports a variety of indigenous grasses
and is home to several species of reptiles, scrubland birds and smaller mammals
(RITES and SWK 1995).
3. Predicted Impacts and Proposed Mitigative Measures

3.1 Predicted Impacts
Given the controversial nature of this project, impacts and mitigative
measures were recorded between 1996 and groundbreaking in late 1998. The
1996 EA, and subsequent appraisals in 1997 by the MoEF, listed the following
impacts (presented in an abbreviated form):
z
Stress on the ecologically significant landscape features would affect

biodiversity;
Lonavale lake, a major water body in Lonavale township might be

degraded due to increased silt load.
The proposed expressway route is likely to bisect the proposed Father

Santapau Sanctuary, which lies within the loop of the expressway
southwest of Khandala township.
Land take, clear felling and deforestation activities may have direct
bearing on wildlife habitat size and characteristics.
151
The project might seriously degrade the habitats and disrupt

migratory routes for a variety of birds such as thrushes, fly catchers,
woodpeckers, and bulbuls.
The loss of critically important tall trees would result in the

destruction of nesting sites for a large number of birds of prey.
The expressway is expected to completely cut off the local people

from the resource areas on the opposite side of the carriageway.
After the initial rejection of the EA, the Wildlife Institute of India
(WII) was requested in September, 1997 to further evaluate the issues.
The expert committee confirmed MoEFs findings and added that:
The Amba valley, along with some pockets of the Rajmachi valley,
is a repository of rich and diverse floral species, many of which are
endemic to this region. The road, if cut through the hillside along
the proposed alignment, would inevitably destroy the unique plant
resources of the valley, especially in the area designated as the
proposed Father Santapau Sanctuary.
The grasslands and scrublands of the plateau region through which

the alignment would pass are ecosystems unique to Maharashtra
(Rodgers and Panwar 1988).
In other words, the Amba valley is a repository of Indian biodiversity

that has undiscovered economic wealth, as well as being an important part
of Indias ecological heritage. Permitting the expressway alignment to traverse
the valley and the forest areas would result in very significant and permanent
ecological damage.
3.2 Proposed Mitigative Measures
Predicted impacts were examined and two key actions were taken. First,
the Ghat section of the alignment, which would have passed through the
Amba valley and the Borghat forest, was redesigned, such that the existing
NH4 would be improved through that area, and construction would be
restricted to the existing RoW. Secondly, the road was further realigned
through the Lonavala lake area; where it was originally designed to pass over
the lake on piers, it would skirt around it. Specific mitigative actions dealing
with the adjustment of alignments, tunnels were also proposed by the
committee.
152
4.
Management Actions, Successes and Failures
4.1 Management Actions: The MoEFs Response

4.1.1 EA
Based on WIIs study (WII 1998), the proponent revised the design and
resubmitted the EA. The MoEF gave a conditional clearance listing 20 new
conditions (some quite onerous).
4.1.2 Forest Conservation Act
Given the large amount of tree removal proposed, the project required
clearance under the Forest Conservation Act. This approval was obtained
from the Maharashtra Forest Department, but again came with a number of
conditions.
No other known restrictions were placed on the project. The mitigative
measures regarding construction materials handling, work camp operation,
and similar measures were defined as contract terms and conditions or
specifications. A single monitoring period six months after the start of
construction was to be the compliance check assuring the MoEF that its
conditions were in fact being implemented.
4.2 Monitoring
The series of environmental safeguards proposed by the team of scientists
and considered by the MoEF and the State Government of Maharashtra at
the time of granting the environmental clearance were not adhered to during
the implementation phase of the project. The mitigative measures for handling
of construction materials and excavated debris; work camp and operation,
design features including tunnelling were not followed in practice and no
compliance monitoring by the government agency responsible for it was
carried out. Thus, the provisions of the Environmental Management Plan
never got implemented.
5.
Lessons Learned
1. Projects, where the terrain is complex and environmental and social
conditions vary a great deal, mandate that a well-developed and
comprehensive Terms of Reference be prepared, involving not only
engineers but also environmental planners and social scientists. The
additional expense (small in relative terms) could have saved millions
of rupees, needed for follow-up studies.
153
2. Having to make changes after the road had been designed meant
the sub-optimal road and traffic movement features more or less had
to be accepted. For example, the realignment of the Ghat section
of the expressway onto the NH4 alignment means that traffic lanes
will be restricted and both the NH4 and expressway traffic will
somehow have to be accommodated along that stretch. The added
danger is that this congestion could lead to additional bypasses,
involving unforeseen impacts. Early identification of this
environmental bottleneck could have led to a more sensitive design
that would not have compromised traffic flow.
3. Projects of this sensitivity need to have mitigative measures proposed
for the construction and operational periods integrated into contract
terms and conditions and contract specifications. This is doubly
important in the case of a Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) facility
where the operator will be a private entity, having a somewhat
distant relationship with the regulatory agencies.
4. In order to monitor the adherence of environmental safeguards and
mitigative measures, compliance monitoring has to be effectively
carried out during the implementation phase of the project. A
provision of certification needs to be incorporated in the monitoring
protocol to prevent deviation from and violation of the stipulated
conditions in environmental clearance of the project.
5. This case study is a clear example of the utter disregard to the laid
down EA process. Environmental safeguards suggested through
carefully developed mitigative measures for integrating biodiversity
concerns have been grossly violated during the implementation phase.
6.
6.1 Contact
Vice Chairman & Managing Director
Maharashtra State Road Development Corporation (MSRDC)
Nepean Sea Road, Priyadarshini Park,
Mumbai - 400 036
Maharashtra
Tel.:369-6109/10, 368-5910/6112
Fax: 368-4943
Website: http://www.msrdc.org/
154

Borges, Renee M. (1992). The Status, Ecology and Conservation of the Indian
Giant Squirrel (Ratufa Indica). Draft Technical Report No. 1. INDO US Project. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Wildlife Institute of India.
Ministry of Environment and Forests. (1983). Revised list of Schedules to
the Wildlife Protection Act Consequent on Amendments to the
Schedules (The Gazette of India, New Delhi, Wednesday, April 13,
1983)., Government of India, New Delhi.
Nayar, M.P, and A.R.K. Sastry (1987). Red Data Book of Indian Plants
(Vol. I, II, & III). Botanical Survey of India Publication, Calcutta.
RITES & Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick, Consulting Engineers. (1995). Feasibility
Study for Bombay - Pune Expressway. Government of Maharashtra,
Public Works Department. Final Report, (Four volumes).
Rodgers, W.A. and H.S. Panwar (1988). Planning a Wildlife Protected Area
Network in India. (Vol. I & II). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
Sanjappa, M. (1991). Endemic legumes of Western Ghats. In : Proceedings
of the Symposium on Rare/Endagered/Endemic Plants of Western
Ghats. Kerala Forest Department Publication. No. 3, 30-43.
Santapau, H. (1967). The Flora of Khandala on the Western Ghats of India,
Vol. XVI(1). Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.
WII, (1998). Ecological Assessment of the Proposed Mumbai - Pune
Expressway. WII - EIA Technical Report 22. Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun.
4
LINEAR DEVELOPMENTS AND ELEPHANT
MOVEMENT IN RAJAJI - CORBETT
CONSERVATION AREA
This case example highlights the impacts of linear barriers, including
roads, on the movement of elephant in their largest conservation unit
in the state of Uttaranchal. The options of suitable modifications in
the design of existing structures that reflect faulty engineering
planning of the roads and cross drainage structures in the conservation
area are discussed.
1.
The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population is presently distributed

throughout India in relatively isolated locations. The north-western elephant
population of nearly 750 in the state of Uttaranchal is presently fragmented
into 6 units. The Rajaji National Park - Corbett Tiger Reserve conservation
area and parts of Lansdowne - Bijnor and Kalagarh forest division are three
of these units which harbour 90% of the total elephant population of the
State (Figure 1).
Fig. 1 Rajaji National Park - Corbett Tiger Reserve conservation area
The movement of elephant in these three units has maintained the genetic
exchange, vital for the long-term survival of the elephant. The population in
this larger conservation unit are threatened by at least four major linear
developments. These are:
156
z
Hydropower channel of Garhwal-Rishikesh-Chilla Hydel Project and

the construction of the bridge on the channel
Haridwar - Rishikesh - Dehradun road which runs across the narrow

Chilla - Motichur corridor.
Kotdwar - Lansdowne road which runs across the narrow Rajaji Corbett corridor.
A railway track passing through a section of the Rajaji National

Park.
2. Wildlife Values
Rajaji National Park is divided by the river Ganges into two unequal
parts and has a core area of 820 km2. The larger western portion occupies
571 km2 and the smaller eastern portion covers 249 km2.
The National Park has significant conservation values and includes a
large area of the fragile Siwalik ecosystem. The flora and fauna of this
ecosystem resemble that of the Himalayan and the Gangetic Plains
Biogeographic Zones (2 & 7 respectively) (Rodgers & Panwar, 1988). The
PA is a home to the most northwestern population of the Asiatic elephant
(Elephas maximus).
The area is largely Moist Deciduous Forests (Champion and Seth, 1968)
with the subtypes viz. Moist Siwalik Sal (Shorea robusta), Moist Bhabar Dun
Sal and Dry Siwalik Sal covering about 75% of the Park area. The remaining
area is under mixed forests along the rau (dry river bed) and on the hills.
Riparian forests occur along the Ganges. The sal forests mostly occur in the
plains and have mainly sal in the upper-canopy.
Elephant (Elephas maximus) is the most important herbivore species of
conservation significance found in this PA. There are approximately 500
elephants in the Park (Kumar, 1995). Among the common herbivores are
sambar (Cervus unicolor), chital (Axis axis), barking deer (Muntiacus
muntjak), goral (Nemorhaedus goral) and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus).
The carnivores present are tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard (Panthera pardus),
wild dog (Cuon alpinus), jackal (Canis aureus) and hyaena (Hyaena
hyaena). There are some 315 bird species in the PA, which include resident
and migratory terrestrial and water birds.
Rajaji National Park, together with Corbett Tiger Reserve covering an
area of 1320 km2 (with 520 km2 of national park area forming its core) and
the tracts of reserved forests of Siwalik Reserved Forests and Lansdowne Forest
Division form the largest conservation unit for elephant population of the
state of Uttaranchal.
Case Studies : Linear Developments and Elephant Movement
157
3. Predicted Impacts
z
z
z
4.
The 14 km long Rishikesh - Chilla Hydropower Channel constructed

early in the 1970s and which runs parallel to the left bank of the
river Ganges has drastically reduced the access of elephants from
Chilla to the Ganges.
Nearly 15 km2 of habitat (including at least 8 km2 of grasslands)
has also become inaccessible to elephants.
This power channel offers the greatest threat to the viability of the
Chilla - Motichur corridor that is already under tremendous biotic
pressures induced by mushrooming developments on the western
bank of the Ganges. There is also an existing army ammunition
dump, drug factory, the settlement of Tehri dam evacuees and the
expansion of townships of Raiwala and Haridwar. It is feared that
if, the existing biotic pressure continues to dominate, the movement
of bull elephants across the Chilla - Motichur corridor would also
eventually cease.
The alignment of Haridwar - Rishikesh-Dehradun road between the
natural habitats of elephants and the river Ganges poses significant
obstacles to the movement of elephants to the Ganges (Johnsingh
1992).
Habitat fragmentation and the resultant loss of genetic continuity
between isolated animal population are two of the many significant
consequences of linear development of power channel and the
alignment of roads. This impact is threatening the survival of major
proportion of the northwestern elephant population.
Mitigative Measures
Considering the conservation implications of a blocked elephant

movement route between Rajaji National Park and the Corbett Tiger Reserve
conservation area, there is an urgent need to:
z
z
develop a sound conservation plan for areas identified as movement

routes/corridors.
visualize modifications in engineering structures to avoid repetition
of past blunders in the design of engineering structures associated
with developmental projects of such nature in future.
4.1 Measures for Improved Conservation Planning

Considering that not much damage resulting from linear development
of roads, and canals can be undone, restorative strategies should be adopted
for the improved conservation planning of the area. Restoration of degraded
158
habitats and attempts to arrest ecological impacts resulting from resource

extraction and incompatible landuse practices and fast progressing
development activities in the corridors is perhaps the only possible means to
restore some levels of lost contiguity between the adjacent elephants habitats.
Johnsingh et al. (1990) made four recommendations for conservation action:
(i) acquisition of land from the Tehri dam evacuees and the army and its
protection by electric fencing for serving as a corridor link (ii) imposition of
ban on cattle grazing (iii) promotion of ecodevelopment strategies to reduce
biotic pressure on forest in the corridor area (iv) reduction of human
disturbances in movement paths.
Reduction in the competition for resources between the elephants and
the resident human population, by carefully planning the locations of water
sources and promoting regeneration of fodder species, would eliminate most
of the stress existing there today.
4.2 Design Alternatives for Engineering Structures
A careful blend of ecological considerations in the planning of canal
and other cross drainage structures viz. bridges, underpasses and aqueducts
can prevent major impacts on movements of wild denizens in the wildlife
areas.
The existing design of cross drainage structures including bridges and
aqueducts in Rajaji National Park are not very conducive to animal
movements. This is largely because of insufficient headroom for animals as
large as elephants. The most critical example of this type of structure is
Duggada siphon construction for crossing the power channel over Duggada
stream. Before the construction of this structure, Duggada was one of the
main movement track of elephants from forest to river but now this is almost
an abandoned track. The size of the siphon barrel is sufficient to allow
maximum water discharge in the torrent yet the tunnel like appearance of
siphon barrel discourages elephants from using these structures. This could
have been avoided if a big arch type structure could have been constructed
instead of the existing siphon barrel with piers in the stream (Fig. 2).
Road
Road
Pier and beam type bridge
Big arch type bridge

Source: Singh 1999
Fig. 2 Design option for bridges and other cross drainage structures
159
5.0 Lessons Learned

Rajaji National Park is a typical example of conservation pursuit in
which the ecological considerations had to be compromised at the time of
its declaration as a PA since major developments were already in place. Not
much can be done to mitigate the nearly permanent damage caused by the
power channel and the roads that were constructed in 1983, prior to the area
being declared a protected area.
In future, while designing the roads, bridges and other structures for river
crossing through PA and other wildlife habitats the following considerations
should be kept in mind to reduce their barrier effect and visual impacts.
(i) The slope of the path for wildlife movement should not be steeper
than 1:8 (H:V).
(ii) A guided path to engineering structures and construction of water
tanks can be carefully designed and planned near the proposed
structures to facilitate attraction of animals near them. Their
habituation to the presence of such structures would thus increase
the probability of animals crossing them (Figure 3).
EXISTING LAYOUT PLAN OF WATER TANK
SUGGESTED LAYOUT PLAN OF WATER TANK
Defects in the existing system
Suggestion for purposed system
1.
No water circulation in the tank because it

is fed from one side only and there is no
out let.
1.
There should be at least one outlet in the tank so that there should be circulation
of water
2.
Regular cleaning of tank to clean the silt & elephant dropping from the tanks
2.
No vegetation cover between tank &

inspection road of canal
3.
Sufficient forest cover should be available between the tank & the canal road so
that the bathing elephants should not be visible from canal inspection road.
3.
Side of tank is not sufficient to

accommodate large herd of elephants
4.
All the three sides of forest should have flat slopes so that elephants can enter
in the tank easily.
Fig. 3 Existing layout of artificial water tank fed by the Chilla Power Canal and
suggested modifications for improved use by elephants (Source: Singh, 1999)
160
(iii) Sufficient pockets for retaining the earth should be made on the
exposed surface of bridges across the channels and river so that some
creepers/vegetation can be grown in them. This would reduce the
view of water column flowing below and would not instill the fear
of drowning in animals while using such structures.
(iv) The exposed surface of structures for river crossing should be
appropriately painted to blend with natural environment.
6.
6.1 Contact
(i) Director,
Rajaji National Park,
5/1 Ansari Marg,
Dehradun (Uttaranchal)
Tel.:91-135-621669, 744225
Email: info@rajajinationalpark.com
Website: <http://www.rajajinationalpark.com>
(ii) Shri A.P. Singh,

IV/50, Peerbaba Colony
U.P. Irrigation Department
Roorkee, Dist. Haridwar
Uttaranchal
Email: apsingh1957@yahoo.com

Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth. (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of
India. Govt. of India Press, New Delhi.
Johnsingh, A.J.T., S. Narendra Prasad and S.P. Goyal, (1990). Conservation
status of the Chilla - Motichur corridor for elephant movement in Rajaji
- Corbett National Parks area, India. Biological Conservation 51 125138.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1992). Elephant corridors in Uttar Pradesh. In:
Proceedings of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group, 20 -22 May, 1992.
Bogor, Indonesia.
161
Kumar, Diwakar (1995). Management Plan of Rajaji National Park. (1995

- 1996 to 2005 - 2006) U.P. Forest Department, Uttar Pradesh (Now
Uttaranchal).
Rodgers, W.A. and H.S. Panwar, (1988). Planning a Wildlife Protected Area
Network in India. (Vol. II and I). A Report Prepared for Department
of Environment, Forest and Wildlife, Government of India. Wildlife
Institute of India.
Singh, A.P. (1999). Planning Engineering Structures for Better Wildlife
Conservation Prospects : A Case Study on the Problems of Elephant
from Linear Developments in Rajaji National Park. Paper presented at
the 7th International Symposium on Environmental Concerns in Right
of Way Management. 9-13 September, 2000, Alberta, Calgary, Canada.
5
COLOMBO - KATUNAYAKE EXPRESSWAY
PROJECT: INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN PROJECT PLANNING
This case describes habitat fragmentation, ecosystem modification and
movement restrictions in a biologically significant coastal wetland
habitat due to construction of an expressway. It exemplifies how
availability and integration of good scientific information on
ecosystem dynamics, during the planning and design phase can help
to mitigate ecological impacts.
1.
The proposed Colombo-Katunayake Expressway (CKE) aims to provide

a high-speed road link between the capital Colombo and the Bandaranayake
International Airport (BIA) at Katunayake (Anon. 1997). The six-lane,
controlled-access expressway would be 24.6 km in length (Figure 1). It is
designed for a speed of 100 km per hr and has 3.5 m travel lanes with three
grade-separated interchanges. The CKE would be constructed on an
embankment 1-1.5 m above the surrounding land, and all existing lateral roads
would be taken above the CKE as overpasses. Once completed, the CKE is
expected to attract at least 25% of the through traffic on the existing roadway,
which in 1995 was carrying a mixed load of approximately 44,000 vehicles
per day. The total project cost including roadway construction cost,
engineering fees, land acquisition and compensation has been estimated at
Rs.5 billion (US$ 86 million).
A comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of CKE was
conducted to evaluate five alignment options. The Western Trace option
was found to be the most acceptable since it was found to have the least social
impact, be visually less obtrusive, and have a higher expected economic rate
of return than other options.
2. Significant Conservation Values

The alignment would also pass through the Mathurajawela marsh and
along the edge of the Negombo lagoon (Figure 1).
164
Fig. 1 Route alignment of the Colombo-Katunayaka-Expressway (CKE) Western

Trace
Case Studies : Colombo- Katunayake Expressway Project
165
The 6232 ha Mathurajawela Marsh-Negombo Lagoon coastal wetland

is located north of Colombo. The lagoon (3164 ha) is connected by a single
narrow opening with the sea; the marsh (3068 ha) extends southward from
the lagoon. The marsh segment has been declared as the Mathurajawela
Wildlife Sanctuary under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance of the
Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka.
The MMNL wetland system is very important from the standpoint of
conservation of biological diversity as it provides important habitat for a wide
variety of birds and aquatic species, some of which are rare, endangered or
commercially important. The species diversity of the MMNL is illustrated in
Table 1 (Anon. 1994).
The MMNL is an important fish habitat because of the presence of a
diverse series of interconnected biotopes such as canals, streams and the
lagoon. Many of the aquatic species harvested from the MMNL actually
reproduce in the open sea. Their early, floating larval stages are carried into
the lagoon by the tidal currents. Thus the linkage between the lagoon and
the sea is essential for sustainable fishery production.
The Negombo lagoon has seven species of seagrass, which play an
important role in the functioning of the lagoon. Seagrass binds the sediments
in the lagoon, and is an important primary producer. They also provide
microhabitats for many species of euryhaline fauna such as shrimps and
polychaete worms and contribute significantly to the high biodiversity of the
habitat.
Table 1. Species diversity recorded in the Muthurajawela-Marsh-Negombo Lagoon
Category
Sri Lanka
Number
Total
Mammals
of species recorded
Endemic
Threatened
86
34
02
Resident birds
221
85
04
Migratory birds
169
40
02
Reptiles
162
37
05
14
39
15
05
05
176
133
04
01
Amphibians
Fishes
Butterflies
242
67
09
Dragonflies
113
34
08
06
Source: Anon. 1994
The brackish water swamps present in the area are ecologically as well
as economically important, as they maintain high productivity, act as a silt
166
trap, remove pollutants, provide nursery and feeding grounds for fish and
shrimp species, and supply the lagoon with nutrients.
The mangrove forests form a narrow belt along certain segments of the
shoreline of the lagoon, and serve as important nursery habitats to young
fish and crustaceans. The CKE will pass through a small area of the brackish
water swamp and a patch of mangrove forest.
3. Predicted Impacts
The wetlands affected by the CKE are the Muthurajawela marsh, the
network of canals, ponds, brackish water swamps, streams and the Negombo
lagoon. The projected area of wetland habitats lost is shown in Table 2.
Although the actual planned width of the roadway is 30 m, a corridor
of 100 m is likely to be directly affected, since fauna and flora within this
corridor will be subjected to many of the major impacts of the construction
and operational phases of the project.
It is evident from Table 2 that 2.7% of marshland and 1.4% of mangrove
forests will be impacted. Since the expressway runs a distance of 1.4 km
through the lagoon off Liyanagemulla, close to the eastern shore, sea grasses
growing along this stretch can also be expected to be destroyed.
Table 2. Extent of wetlands habitats affected by the CKE (Western Trace)
Type of
Habitat
Existing
area (ha)
*
Extent affected (ha)

**
Physically
***
Ecologically
Extent as percentage
**
***
Physically
Ecologically
Marsh
2906
79.8
133
2.7
4.5
Mangroves
(Brackish water
swamp)
350
4.8
08
1.38
2.3
Lagoon
3200
9.6
16
0.3
0.5
Seagrasses
704
9.6
16
1.38
2.3
Sources : 1) Land use map 1996

2 ) Profile of Muthurajawela Marsh-Negombo Lagoon 1991
*
After reclamation of the Kerawalapitiya marsh
**
The embankment width (60 m) is considered in the computation of the extent affected
physically
*** A corridor of 100 m is considered in the computation of the extent affected ecologically
167
Since the expressway is to be constructed on an embankment (1.5 m

high), it will interfere with the normal dispersal of storm water. Impeded
dispersal is likely to cause the eastern side of the embankment to be flooded,
which could have adverse impacts on some terrestrial fauna. Although the
embankment will not act as an obstruction to the free movement of terrestrial
animals such as birds, bats and insects that can fly, it will act as a barrier for
small mammals, reptiles, amphibians and some invertebrates such as land
snails. These animals may have great difficulty or be completely unable to
climb the embankment to cross the expressway, and will face a high probability
of being run over by vehicles if they do. Long-term ecological changes may
come about as a result of the restriction of such species movements.
During the construction phase, oil from machinery and materials such
as asphalt and cement may spill into the marsh, streams and lagoon, causing
harm to the aquatic flora and fauna. Excessive noise generated by the
machinery can scare away waterfowl and other fauna, sensitive to high noise
levels. Similarly, polluted runoff from the expressway surface during the
operation period may be a source of contamination, and traffic noise and
lighting could affect habitat use in wetland areas near the road.
Sand dredging for building material could have several adverse impacts.
Offshore dredging can alter nearshore sediment movement and the stability
of the coastline. During the dredging operation, there is a possibility of
subsidence of adjacent areas, subsoil failure, alteration of soil characteristics
and hydraulic and geotechnical problems. Increased turbidity is another
dredging-related impact that could affect the well being of submerged plants
and fish by reducing the availability of light. Sand mining from the sea bottom
would result in the destruction of part of the benthic habitat as well as the
organisms living therein. Oil leaks from the dredger and mechanical impacts
of the pipeline on the reefs can harm marine life. Transportation and
stockpiling of freshly dredged sand can result in extreme alteration of soil
and surface water salinity levels in the vicinity of the construction site.
4.
Proposed Mitigative Measures
The following measures are proposed to avoid, mitigate or compensate

for negative impacts that can be expected to arise as a result of the expressway
project:
z
In order to prevent depletion of the marsh area, no new roads should

be planned for transporting materials; only existing ones should be
used.
To minimise the barrier effect of the CKE embankment for small

mammals, reptiles, amphibians, land snails and arthropods, culverts
168
should be constructed at appropriate intervals and suitably vegetated

to serve as effective movement corridors for these animals.
z
Fast-growing trees such as Cerbera manghas and Pandanus

odorotissimus should be grown on either side of the embankment
to serve as noise and dust barriers, and also to provide cover and
nesting sites for birds and other animals.
An undercrossing is recommended where the proposed road will

cross the canal, to maintain uninterrupted flows and tidal mixing,
vital for the wetland ecosystem.
To compensate for the loss of 80 ha of mangroves by the CKE (2.3%

of the existing total extent around the lagoon) mangrove species
Dolichandrone spathacea, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Sonneratia
caseolaris and Exocoecaria agallocha should be established on either
side of the road embankment, where the CKE traverses the swamp.
The portion of lagoon that would be isolated by the CKE should

be connected to the main body of the lagoon by way of passages
built beneath the roadway, large enough for fishing boats to pass.
These passages will serve as access points for juvenile fish and
crustacean larvae that use the seagrass beds for feeding and shelter.
This measure should also ensure tidal mixing.
Street lamps should be designed so as to illuminate only the

expressway and avoid straying of light upwards and sideways. This
should minimize any adverse impacts of illumination on fauna at
night.
To minimise impacts on the shoreline and benthic ecosystems,

dredging should be strictly confined to the designated areas, which
will be located at least 3 km offshore from the shoreline and at depths
between 15-30 m.
To avoid hydraulic and geotechnical problems, the depth of dredging

should be limited to 1.5-2 m below the existing seabed. Dredging
pits should conform to uniform linear channels along the seabed
within the borrow area, rather than forming scattered deep holes.
For transport of dredged material, the existing gaps in the reef should
be used to avoid any undue damage to reef communities, or later
impacts on the shoreline due to erosion.
Floating pipelines should be used to avoid direct physical damage

to reefs, and should be anchored to withstand wave action under
all conditions (Box 1).
169
Box 1. Mooring of floating pipelines is a good practice to minimise coral

destruction
FLOATING PIPELINE WITH MOORING FACILITY
A system of pipelines with floating, submerged and onshore sections will be used in this
project for pumping sand from the seabed. The floating pipeline, consisting of flexible
elements, will be connected to the onshore pipeline. The pipeline will be laid through a
gap in the coral reef to prevent destruction of the reef by pipeline movements. Mooring
of the pipeline will also prevent coral damage and will help to minimize turbidity increases.
These sound coastal engineering techniques will help to minimize ecological impacts.
4.
To prevent water logging and extremes of salinity, the seawater

should be pumped out of the sand-water slurry back to the sea as
soon as de-watering begins to occur
To minimize impacts associated with dispersion of dust into the

atmosphere, gravel, sand and other material in dump trucks must
be covered with tarpaulins during transportation.
All emissions from the equipment used in construction must comply

with the emission standards specified by the Central Environmental
Authority (CEA) regulations. Mufflers should be installed and
maintained on all machinery and equipment.
Monitoring Plan
A monitoring committee appointed by the CEA should administer a

monitoring programme. The monitoring committee should include experts
and representatives from various line agencies and NGOs, and should be
chaired by the CEA. The CEA should consult relevant specialists for advice
as required for specific issues. The project proponent should bear all the costs
of surveys, measurements, reporting and other costs associated with
monitoring.
170
5.
This case study illustrates the often-complex nature of the impacts

associated with road development in wetland areas. Some of the major lessons
learned were that:
6.
The availability of good ecological information leads to better impact

prediction and development of sound practices for impact mitigation.
The importance of factors such as seasonal or life-cycle migrations
and salinity variations (themselves a function of tidal cycles and
rainfall fluctuations) demonstrates the need to consider baseline
conditions for multiple monitoring periods.
The consideration of possible impacts often needs to take account

of far-removed locations linked to the project site by complex
interactions. Salt marshes are a good example of this; localized
changes in tidal flushing, salinity, access and shelter for aquatic
species may have far-reaching, long-term effects on open-sea fisheries.
Appropriate design provisions and siting of cross drainage structures

below the raised embankments should be used to facilitate movement
of small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, land snails, and arthropods,
thereby helping to reduce the barrier effect.
Constructing underpasses to interconnect portions of coastal wetland

habitats that have been severed by new roads is a good practice to
maintain tidal mixing and navigation and reduce salinity-related
ecological damage.
The activities related to road construction, such as sand dredging,

may be just as destructive, or more so, than the road itself, and
consideration of the potential impacts of such activities should be a
central part of the overall environmental exercise.
6.1 Contact
Director
Central Environmental Authority
Parisara Mavata
Maligawatte New Town
Sri Lanka
Tel.: +94-1-43-9073
Fax:+94-1-439076
Website: http://www.eco-web.com/register/02593.html
171

Anon. (1994). Conservation Management Plan: Muthurajawela Marsh and
Negombo Lagoon. Wetland Conser vation Project. Central
Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Euroconsult, Netherlands.
Anon. (1997). Environmental Impact Assessment Report: ColomboKatunayake-Expressway. Road Development Authority, Ministry of
Transport and Highways, Sri Lanka.
CEA and Euroconsult (1991). Wetlands are no Wastelands. Wetland
Conservation Project. Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and
Euroconsult, Netherlands.
GCEC/Euroconsult (1991). Master Plan of Mathurajawela and Negombo
Lagoon. Colombo.
6
ANDHRA PRADESH STATE HIGHWAY
REHABILITATION AND MAINTENANCE
PROJECT: THE NANDYAL-GIDDALURTHOKAPALLI ROAD
This case describes how simple errors in initial baseline data can lead
to significant future economic losses, requiring a large cooperative
effort to correct. This case underscores that sharing information with
other stakeholders as it is obtained will often prevent such costly
mistakes. Finally, it also illustrates that examination of a project in
the context of what is taking place in the region, may help in
identifying more regional and cumulative effects, and place the
projects total impact in perspective.
1.
In March 1997, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)

granted environmental clearance to the above project but imposed a set of
strict conditions. Generally, the conditions addressed the entire 1400 km of
road in the state-wide study, but focused on the ecological and socio-economic
impacts of the proposed widening of the project road section which passed
through protected areas and reserved forests.
An expert sub-committee constituted by the MoEF for environmental
appraisal of the projects visited the project sites in June 1997 and placed
additional conditions on the project. This second set of conditions were much
more detailed and wide-ranging, and included requirements for the
completion of a techno-feasibility study as well as an environmental analysis
of the NandyalGiddalur-Thokapalli road section. The existing mapping
showed this road as passing along the southern boundary of the Gundla
Bramheswaram Wildlife Sanctuary (GBM) as well as the Pacherla Reserved
Forest to the south. As a result, the sub-committee re-emphasized the analysis
of impacts on wildlife. The environmental analysis, as specified by the subcommittee, was undertaken, specifically addressing the Nandyal-GiddalurThokapalli (NGT) road section.
174

For the 24 km that the NGT road passes through the reserved forests, it
does not traverse through any PA area (i.e. national park or sanctuary). The
road does not traverse through any part of the GBM Sanctuary, although it
does skirt its southern boundary for approximately 1.5 km (Figure 1). The
NGT road also skirts the boundary of Chelma Reserved Forests just outside
the GBM Sanctuary. The alignment of the NGT road (Figure 1) does not
intersect or pass by any designated PAs.
N
G.B.M Sanctuary
NH 18
ram
Basavapu
Forest
To Nandyal
Gajulapalli
1 km
Kambham R.F.
Chelama R.F.
To Thokapalli
Nandya
l R.F.
%Diguvametta
Pacherla Forest
%
%
#
Giddalur
Uyyalavada R.F.
Pedakamalur
Forest
Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road
Old Railway Meter Gauge Track
New Broad GaugeTrack
GBM Sanctuary Boundary (Part)
GIS Cell, 2001
Fig. 1. The Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road Project area in relation to sensitive habitat
However, the areas skirted are home to a number of Indias endangered

species including the tiger, leopard, hyena, jungle cat, sloth bear, mouse deer,
pangolin, giant squirrel, python and marsh crocodile.
Case Study : The Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road
175
3. Impacts Predicted and Mitigative Measures Proposed

During the field visit to the GBM Wildlife Sanctuary and the adjacent
reserved forests, the presence of chital, monitor lizard and giant squirrels could
be confirmed by direct sightings. As per the records of the census conducted
by the Forest Department, 17 tigers and 7 leopards were reported in the
Nandyal Forest Division (which includes the entire study area) in 1997.
Indirect evidence of sambar, nilgai and hyena could also be observed during
the reconnaissance survey of the area.
3.1 Impacts Observed
The existing NGT road, established more than 50 years ago, is not a
barrier to movement of animals. The contiguity of the habitat on both sides
of the road has been largely maintained, as is evident from observations and
reported movements of animals in the larger conservation area, which includes
the GBM Sanctuary and Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Reserve (RGTR) 8 km north
of the road, as well as the reserved forests of the Pacherla Beat of the Chelama
Range to the south. During the field visit chital were observed freely crossing
the road and evidence of sambar was found on both sides of the road.
It became clear that the main reason for the MoEFs concern was that
in the report submitted to the agency, the NGT road was shown as skirting
the southern boundary of the RGTR. The field investigation quickly
determind that the RGTR was at least 8 km away and in fact the road skirted
the southern boundary of the GBM, far less sensitive an area then the Reserve.
No other impacts were predicted.
3.1.1 Mortality of wild animals
The efforts to collect information on road kills or poaching incidences
on the NGT road was not successful. Useful anecdotal recollections were
obtained from the local people who estimated the numbers of large animalroad kills to be about five per year. No data were available on kills of smaller
mammals, birds and reptiles. None of the recollections involved tigers.
3.1.2 Barrier effect
The NGT road has a mere 5m wide carriageway with grassed shoulders
(verges). Trees now are allowed to hang over the road and in fact form a
closed canopy in some locations. Animals like giant squirrel were observed
crossing the road and evidence of presence of the same animals on both sides
of the road was common. Therefore the NGT road was not considered a
barrier.
176
3.1.3 Habitat loss and illegal activities

In the outer areas of the GBM Sanctuary, local residents collected wood
and NTFP from the area near the boundary of the buffer zone and extending
well inside the zone into the core of the Reserve. Habitat for wildlife
preferring closed-canopy areas was being lost at a rapid rate to local
community activities for at least one km on both sides of the road. Local
game wardens reported that poaching was taking place. The concern was
expressed that with an improved road the trafficking in illegally obtained
wildlife could be accelerated.
3.1.4 Special impact: railway operations
The old narrow gauge railway line alignment abutting the southern
boundary of the GBM Sanctuary (Figure 1) was converted to a broad gauge
railway line and partially realigned in 1996, without an EIA. This line
connects Vijayawada to Guntakal, and runs almost parallel and to the north
of the road, inside the buffer zone and directly through the Chelma Reserved
Forest to the north-west. The impact of this development was far more
significant than the improvement of the existing NGT road in terms of its
visible impact upon the conservation values of the GBM Sanctuary and the
adjoining reserved forests. The ecological degradation resulting from this rail
project is still evident. There are large clear-felled areas, un-reclaimed and
unsafe burrow pits and deposits, eroding and unprotected hill slopes and
deposits of impervious overburden all along the slopes of the track. The
impact of NGT road is insignificant in comparison to what occurred with
the railway project.
3.2 Mitigative Measures Proposed

The road improvement project, confined to within the existing limits of
the RoW, would likely result in modest impacts. Nevertheless, the importance
of wildlife conservation advocated the need to develop a set of mitigative
actions that would avoid or minimize the likelihood of serious impacts
during the detailed design, construction and operation of the road.
3.2.1 Traffic
The mitigation of impacts associated with increased traffic on the
improved road is possible by a applying any one of a variety of measures
such as road tolls to discourage/divert non-essential traffic, speed limits along
the forested section of the road, or reducing the headlight intensity at night
by using headlight hoods; something that is already being done in India by
painting the upper halves of headlight surfaces black.
177
3.2.2 Road kills

Regular, known wildlife crossing points and migratory corridors need
to be well sign-posted, requiring drivers to use extra caution. Along the section
where the NGT road abuts the GBM Sanctuary fencing at particularly active
crossing sites (as identified by the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department) could
effectively reduce the possibility of road hit. However, wildlife fencing can
have the opposite effect by trapping animals attempting to cross making them
easy targets for their predators. Therefore, fencing should be applied only
when absolutely necessary. Speed breakers just before important crossing points
might also reduce the risk of road kills of large animals.
3.2.3 Illegal exploitation of resources
Organized vehicle checkpoints at the entry and exit of the forested section
of the NGT road would help to control the illegal exploitation of resources.
Keeping the existing rugged alignment will not assure that average speeds
remain slow, giving no advantage to the poachers. Contract clauses and
temporary fencing should be helpful in limiting the spread of support facilities
into the forested areas along the road during construction, and would
discourage workers from exploiting the forest resources.
3.2.4 Blocking or delaying animal migration
The design and location of existing bridges and underpasses in the forest
and Ghat (hilly) section of the NGT, completed decades ago, has already
ensured that animal crossings in the forested area remain unhindered. In
other areas along the road that are established animal crossing points, fencing
during construction was proposed, in order to keep large mammals from direct
contact with hazardous substances and also from being on the road during
construction. Subsequently, signage can be put up at these points to indicate
animal crossing points.
3.2.5 Construction activities
In order to prevent the impacts of soil erosion and water pollution, the
timing of road operations outside the monsoon season was proposed.
It was suggested that the APRBD incorporate the mitigative measures
defined above into a revised IEE, which would form that basis of the EMAP.
Success would depend on close coordination among the APRBD, the
Nandyal and Giddalur Divisions of Andhra Pradesh Forest Department, as
well as the district administration. It was further suggested that once the
contractor arrived on site, the APRBDs environmental officer organize a
178
meeting with the Nandyal and Giddalur Forest Divisions of the APFD every
two months, to brief them on events and to seek assistance with all aspects
of road planning and let them examine any designs that may impinge on
wildlife management.
4.
Management Actions, Successes and Failures
Based on the findings of this survey, the list of MoEF conditions were
transferred onto the rows of a table and for each row, the following
information was provided:
z
Actions proposed/completed by the APRBD to fulfill the MoEF

conditions
Clarification and comments needed from the APRBD and added

to file
Cross-references to actions defined in other documents.
Agency responsible
Proposed time frame
The exact numbering of all conditions were also listed on the table,
permitting easy cross referencing. This table formed the key output of the
work and served as a checklist for the APRBD and MoEF, and was designed
for inclusion as an environmental clause in construction bid documents.
Discovering that a simple mapping error drove this project into having
a very costly extra study completed, illustrated the importance of careful project
scoping and base data assembly. At the same time it identified what actions
were possible if sensitive areas are examined by specialist, even if only for a
short duration, as was the case for this project.
Since the MoEF works strictly on the honour system, no compliance
monitoring report or even the confirmation that the conditions imposed were
met, was required. Under such conditions the mitigation activity could easily
fall between the cracks, particularly given the MoEFs heavy work load and
rare follow-up compliance monitoring action. A more visible and traceable
method for recording compliance is needed.
5.1 Lessons Learned

This project brought to light three key lessons:
i.
the early discussion of environmental findings with other informed

stakeholders may avoid costly delays and surveys;
179
ii. specialists in the field, even for a few hours is vastly superior to having
none at all, and also is highly cost effective; and,
iii. the examination of a project in the context of what is going on
around it ( this obvious action is not taken very often) might cast a
very different light on its impact.
5.2 Best Practices
1. Share information with stakeholders from the earliest part of an
environmental study and consult the local community;
2. if at all possible ask specialists to look over sensitive problems in
the field, even if for only a few hours; and,
3. allocate time for people undertaking environmental studies to
examine regional activities in the event that far greater and/or
cumulative impact might be taking place.
6.
6.1 Contact
(i) Engineer in Chief,
Andhra Pradesh Roads and Buildings Department (APRBD)
Hyderabad, India
Tel.: 040-339-1155, 332-3536
(ii) Chief Conservator of Forests & Chief Wildlife Warden,

Govt. of Andhra Pradesh,
Saifabad, Hyderabad-500 004
Tel.: 040-3230561, 3232668 (O)

Andhra Pradesh Forest Department 1997. Tiger/Panther Census Report.
Nandyal Forest Division, Nandyal.
Andhra Pradesh Roads and Buildings Department 1997. Environmental
Management Plan of Andhra Pradesh State Highways Project- Version
1.1.
Kirloskar Consultants Ltd. 1997. Techno-Economic Feasibility Study of
Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road, Volumes 1 & 2. Secunderabad.
180
MoEF 1994. The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, (as amended on

4-5-94) Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt., of India, New
Delhi.
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India. 1972. The Indian Wildlife
(Protection) Act. New Delhi.
Andhra Pradesh Forest Department (Undated) Notification of the Gundla
Brahmeswaram Wildlife (G.B.M.) Sanctuary Range: Nandyal Division,
Nandyal.
Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation (Australia) Ltd. 1996.
Environmental Analysis Report for Andhra Pradesh State Highways
Project. Prepared under supervision of Environmental Service Pvt. Ltd.
Supplemental Report on Environment Aspects of Andhra Pradesh State
Highways Project (1997). A Report Prepared for the meeting of the
Expert Committee for Infrastructural Development and Miscellaneous
Projects, APRBD.
Technical Specifications for Tender Documents, Andhra Pradesh State
Highways Project Contract No. APSH 3 (Under World Bank Loan
Assistance).
Wildlife Institute of India and Canadian Environmental Collaborative (CEC)
Ltd. (1998). The Andhra Pradesh State Highway Rehabilitation and
Maintenance Project: The Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road.
Technical Report. Submitted to the World Bank.
World Wildlife Fund, Andhra Pradesh (Undated). A Rapid Assessment of
the Impacts of the Proposed Widening of the Guntur-Kurnool Road
on the Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve.
Glossary of terms
181
Annexure 1
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
-AAlternatives
Options for a particular project, in terms of locations, methods, and techniques
to be used, including the option of not proceeding with the project.
Applicant
The proponent or developer seeking approval or consent for a proposed project,
or seeking the issue of a permit or license.
Assessment (versus Analysis)
The combination of analysis with policy-related activities such as identification
of issues and comparison of risks and benefits (as in risk assessment and impact
assessment).
-BBackground pollution
Degree of pollution of areas not directly affected by point sources of pollution.
According to their extent global, continental, regional and local background
pollution can be distinguished.
Background concentration
The concentration of a chemical in a medium prior to the action under
consideration or the concentration that would have occurred in the absence of
a prior action.
Barrier
A topographic feature or a physical or biological condition that restricts or
prevents migration of organisms or prevent establishment of organisms that
have immigrated or a condition that prevents or appreciably reduces crossbreeding of organisms.
Benefit-Cost analysis
A method of comparing alternative actions according to the relative costs
incurred (technical, environmental and economic) and the relative benefits
182
gained. The analysis can incorporate discounting calculations to take into

account the time value of money.
Biological diversity/Biodiversity
An umbrella term to describe collectively the variety and variability of nature;
it encompasses three basic levels of organization in living systems: the genetic,
species, and ecosystem levels. Plant and animal species are the most commonly
recognized units of biological diversity.
Biotic community
An association of plants, animals, and other organisms (e.g. woodland).
Buffer zone
Vegetal strips of land to screen ecosystems from impacts such as pollution or
disturbance, and/or to reduce the area restrictions of protected sites. It can be
located (a) adjacent to developments or components of these, usually with the
aim of filtering out pollutants, (b) around protected areas, with aims such as
providing additional habitat for some animals, protecting the site from pollutants
and disturbance, and perhaps encouraging expansion through species dispersal,
or (c) within sites, usually with the aim of permitting their use for both amenity
purposes and conservation.
-CCoastal wetland
Land along a coastline that remains flooded with salt water permanently or
for a part of the year.
Compliance monitoring
Periodic sampling and/or continuous measurements of levels of waste discharge,
noise or similar emission to ensure that conditions are observed and standards
met.
Conservation
Wise use and careful management of resources, so as to maintain the maximum
possible ecological and social benefits from them for present and future
generations. Methods include preservation, balanced multiple use, reduced waste
generation, recycling, reuse, and limited resource use.
Cumulative effects
Progressive environmental degradation over time arising from a range of
activities throughout an area or region, each activity considered in isolation
Glossary of terms
183
being possibly not a significant contributor. Such effects might arise from growing
vehicles, multiple source of power generation or incineration, or increasing
application of chemicals to the land.
Conservation biology
A branch of the biological sciences that studies biodiversity, species abundance,
scarcity, and extinction, and the relationships of these to natural processes,
habitat conditions, and population changes in response to human-induced
disturbances.
-DDisturbance
An episodic but intense environmental influence, usually physical, that causes
a substantial ecological change. It can act at the larger, stand or landscape
level, or more locally as microdisturbance.
-EEcosystem
The plants and animals of an ecological community, and their environment,
forming an interacting system of activities and functions regarded as a unit.
There are innumerable ecosystems: for example, marine, freshwater, terrestrial,
forest, and grassland. All ecosystems together comprise the biosphere.
Ecotone
Mixed communities formed by an overlap of adjoining communities in the
transition areas. Actual transition areas on the ground between two
communities, regardless of whether the latter are climax or seral.
Edge effect
The influence of two communities upon their adjoining margins or fringes,
affecting the composition and density of the population in these bordering
areas e.g. a forest edge bordering a grassland.
Endangered species
Faunal and floral species likely to become extinct as a result of direct exploitation
by humans, intrusion into highly specialized habitats, threats from other species,
interruption of the food chain, pollution, or in combination with other
destructive factors.
184
Environment
A concept which includes all aspects of the surroundings of humanity, affecting
individuals and social groupings. The European Commission has defined the
environment as the combination of elements whose complex interrelationships
make up the settings, the surroundings and the conditions of life of the individual
and of society, as they are or as they are felt. The environment may be regarded
as a parcel of things which render a stream of beneficial services to people,
though largely unpriced, and which take their place alongside the stream of
goods and services rendered by real income, houses, infrastructure, transport,
and other people.
Environmental guidelines
A set of norms to guide the environmental evaluation of projects and the
environmental management plans and actions to promote sustainable
development. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has
set up guidelines to assist the project authorities in planning and carrying out
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of projects in different sectors infrastructure, communication, transport, power (nuclear, thermal & hydro),
industry and mining, etc. The guidelines are prepared with the basic assumption
that the EIA is to be used as planning tool and the environmental considerations
should be incorporated in initial stages of project planning and the cost of
environmental protection measures should be treated as integral component of
the total project cost. The guidelines are applicable to all new projects as well as
projects involving significant changes (modernisation or upgradation) in existing
facilities.
Environmental management
A concept of care applied to localities, regions, catchments, natural resources,
areas of high conservation value, waste handling and disposal, cleaner processing
and recycling systems, with the purpose of protecting the environment in the
broadest sense. It involves the identification of objectives, the adoption of
appropriate mitigation measures, the protection of ecosystems, the enhancement
of the quality of life for those affected, and the minimization of environmental
costs.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Procedure which provides the opportunity for identifying, mitigating or
enhancing the potential environmental health and social consequences of a
proposed activity and for generating alternatives or additional options to that
activity. Also referred to as Environmental Assessment (EA).
Glossary of terms
185
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

A document, prepared by a proponent that contains description of a proposed
activity or development and the possible, probable, or certain effects of the
proposal on the environment, examination of the alternatives to the proposal;
the mitigation measures to be adopted; formulation of the program of
environmental management; monitoring, PPA or auditing; and plans for
decommissioning and rehabilitation. EIS is a key document in the EIA process.
Environmental indicator
It is an environmental element or parameter that provides a measure of an
impact, on at least some qualitative scale.
Environmental standards
These are criteria designed to contain certain environmental conditions within
specified limits believed to be requisite to achieve social objectives (usually healthrelated). Example includes - limits on effluent discharge concentrations; clean
air and water quality standards, policies or plans; and plans or policies that
protect areas or limit the use of natural resources.
Environmental inventory
A complete description of the environment as it exists in an area where a
particular proposed action is being considered.
Extinct species
Species not definitely seen in the wild during the past 50 years (criterion as used
by CITES).
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
The act promulgated as an umbrella legislation setting forth the general power
of the Central Government for the protection and improvement of environment
and for the matters connected therewith in India.
-FFauna
The total animal life of an area; usually the total number of animal species in
a specified period, geological stratum, geographical region, ecosystem, habitat
or community.
Forest cover
All trees and other woody plant (under brush) covering the ground in a forest.
Includes (a) trees and tall shrubs (b) herbs and shrubs growing thereunder or in
186
openings in forest (c) litter or fallen leaves, branches, fallen trees, and other
vegetative material on the forest floor (d) the rich humus of partly decayed
vegetable matter at the surface and top layer of soil.
Forest
A community of trees and associated organisms covering a considerable area,
utilizing oxygen, water and soil nutrients to attain maturity and reproduce
itself.
Fragility/Sensitivity
It is strictly an indication of need for protection rather than a criterion of value.
It refers to ecosystems that are particularly sensitive to environmental change.
Because of their sensitivity to previous impacts, fragile ecosystems also tend to
be rare.
-GGIS
Geographic Information System, an information technology tool that stores,
retrieves, integrates, manipulates, analyses and displays both spatial and nonspatial information.
-HHabitat
Environment in which an organism lives and which provides for all or most of
its needs.
Habitat assessment
Assessment that determines the suitability of ecosystems as habitat for a species.
-IImpact
An impact has both spatial and temporal components and can be described as
the change in any parameter, over a specified period and within a defined area,
resulting from a particular activity compared with the situation which would
have occurred had the activity not been initiated.
Impact significance
The importance attached to a particular impact (or impacts) in altering the
state of environment by virtue of nature, size and location. Determining impact
Glossary of terms
187
significance will involve discussions with experts and members of the public
and is based on value judgement.
J-K-L
Keystone species
A species whose loss from ecosystem would cause a greater than average change
in other species populations or ecosystems process; species that have a
disproportionately large effect on other species in community.
Limiting factor
Factor such as temperature, light, water, or a chemical that limits the existence,
growth, abundance, or distribution of an organism.
-MMonitoring
Intermittent (regular or irregular) surveillance carried out in order to ascertain
the extent of compliance with a predetermined standard or the degree of
deviation from an expected norm.
-NNational park
An area of ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological or zoological
importance declared by the State Government for the purpose of protecting,
propagating or developing its wildlife and its environment under the provisions
of the clauses of sections 19 to 26 of Wildlife Protection Act, (1972), Govt. of
India.
Natural resource
Anything obtained from physical environment to meet human needs.
Networks
Networks illustrates the multiple links between project activities and
environmental characteristics and are therefore useful in identifying and depicting
second-order impacts (indirect, synergistic etc.).
-O-PPolicy
A general course of action or proposed overall direction that a government is
or will be, pursuing and which guides ongoing decision making.
188
Potential impacts
Impacts which could occur in the absence of appropriate design, modifications
or preventive measures.
Program
A coherent, organized agenda or schedule of communications, proposals,
instruments and/or activities that elaborates and implements policy e.g. energy
program or transport program.
Project
A proposed capital undertaking, typically involving the planning, design and
construction of a large-scale plant, facility or structure (e.g. mining, construction
of airport, highway or installation of a cement plant).
Proponent
The proposer (or applicant) of an activity, policy, plan, program, or project in
the private and public sectors.
Protected forest
It is a legal term for an area subject to limited degree of protection, and
constituted as such under the provisions of the Indian Forest Act.
-Q-RReserved forests
Forests constituted under the Indian Forest Act (I.F.A.), or other forest laws
(e.g., U.P. Forest Act), are the exclusive property of Government and are subject
to complete protection. Villagers or adjacent people have no rights whatsoever
in these forests; however, they may sometimes be granted certain concessions,
e.g. such as grazing of their cattle, collection of dry and fallen firewood by
head-loads for their bonafide domestic use, etc., in consideration of their cooperation and assistance in forest protection.
Reviewer
The person, agency or board-with responsibility for reviewing an environmental
impact assessment and ensuring compliance with published guidelines.
Right-of-Way (RoW)
The corridor through which a powerline, pipeline, or rail/road passes after the
rights have been acquired for such alignments by the project authorities.
Riparian
An area located at the bank of a water course, such as a river or stream.
Glossary of terms
189
Risk management
Term used to indicate the decision-making process which combines the risk
assessment results with the socio-economic, technical, political and other
considerations to reach to a conclusion on how to control and manage exposure
to suspected hazardous agents.
Risk
The probability of a prescribed undesired effect. If the level of effect is treated as
an integer variable, risk is the product of the probability and frequency of effect
(e.g. probability of an accident). Risks result from the existence of a hazard
and uncertainty about its expression.
River corridor
A river corridor consist of a stretch of river, its bank and the adjacent land
(about 50m wide). River Corridor Survey (RCS) is a standard approach used
in ecological surveys to highlight important features when rehabilitating and
enhancing degraded riparian habitats.
Rare
Taxa with small populations that are not at present endangered and vulnerable,
but are at risk. These taxa are usually localised within restricted geographical
areas or habitats or are thinly scattered over a more extensive range.
-SSanctuary
An area designated by the State Government for its adequate ecological, faunal,
floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance, for the purpose
of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment, under the
provisions of section 18 of Wildlife Protection Act, (1972), Govt. of India.
Species diversity
Number of different species and their relative abundance in a given area.
Species
A population of animals or plants whose members have substantially the same
structure, habits and range, normally interbreed, and are identified by a systematic
biologist under the same binomial name.
Synergistic impacts
The some of total impacts that exceed the sum of their individual impacts. For
190
instance, in the presence of sunlight, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons may

combine to form photochemical oxidants, which have impacts over and above
those of only nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.
Social benefits
The non-monetary and not easily calculated returns to society arising from
creation of recreational areas, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries etc.
-TTerms of Reference (ToR)
Written requirements governing EIA implementation, consultation to be held,
data to be produced and form/contents of the EIA report often produced as an
output from scoping.
Threatened species
A wild species that is still abundant in its natural range but is likely to become
endangered within the foreseeable future because of a decline in numbers.
U-VVulnerable species
Taxa likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the
causal factors continue operating. Included are taxa of which most or all the
population are decreasing because of over-exploitation, extensive destruction
of habitat or other environmental disturbance; taxa with populations that have
been seriously depleted and whose ultimate security has not yet been assured;
and taxa with populations that are still abundant but are under threat from
serious adverse factors throughout their range.
-WWetland
Temporarily or permanently inundated terrestrial systems bordering on aquatic
systems and including shallow systems such as estuaries, salt marshes, bogs,
sponges, mires, swamps,floodplain and many coastal lakes and lagoons.
Wildlife
All free, uncultivated/undomesticated species of plants and animals. According
to the Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972(amended in 1991), it includes any
animal, bees, butterflies, crustacea, fish and moths; and aquatic or land vegetation
which forms part of any habitat.
Glossary of terms
191
Wildlife management
Management of populations of wild species and their habitats for the welfare
of human beings and other species, and for the preservation of threatened and
endangered wildlife species.
Wildlife corridors
Linear vegetated features, such as a hedgerows or roadside verges, that are
linked to other wildlife areas and may act as interconnecting routes for the
movement of animals between different areas needed during life, or facilitate
dispersal of animals and plants by providing access to new or replacement
sites.
Wild animal
It means any animal found wild in nature and includes any animal specified
in Schedule I, Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV or Schedule V of Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
An Act to provide for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants and for
matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto.
Sample Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP)

(This is an operational EMAP)
EXAMPLE only: Please see NOTE at the end of the table
Environmental
impact
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
DESIGN PHASE
Increased
visual intrusion
from clearance
of alignment
1.
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
Trees along the roadside in Siem Reap (SR) are under

the management of APSARA (since the entire
province is a cultural conservation zone).
Carriageway widths have been modified to prevent
and significantly reduce the need to cut trees. All tree
cutting in the urban section of NR6 will be cleared by
APSARA and the Provincial Town Planning
Department. In rural sections tree removal will be
based on a plan in which the trees interfering with
safe traffic movement will be marked for removal.
This plan will be checked by the PIU and approved
Location
Entire
NR6 area
Time frame
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
During
design phase
Project
Implementat
-ion Unit
(PIU),
MPWT*
and
APSARA**
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Included in
the contract
document
capital costs
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
Sample Environmental Management Action Plan
Annexure II
See
contract
estimate
* MPWT Ministry of Public Works and Transport

** APSARA Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap
1
2
193
Clauses found in contract conditions FIDIC 4

Clauses found in the Specification of the contract packages of MPWT.
Danger to nonmotorized traffic 2.
Increasing
3.
pedestrianvehicle accidents
due to traffic
volume and
speed
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
Location
Time frame
In rural
sections of
the road
and where
space
permits
flattened
path only
During
design phase
During
design phase
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Included in
the contract
document
capital costs
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
See
contract
estimate
prior to the commencement of civil works.

A design will be prepared for an ox cart track
paralleling the road (within the RoW) where space
permits, either as a part of the roadway feature or a
separate surface located a meter or two from the toe
of the roadbed. Special provisions at bridges will also
be designed into these cart tracks. Secondly, given
that the carriageway is 8m across, (i.e. two fourmeter-wide lanes), there will be room for slower
moving vehicles, e.g. motorcycles, to use the shoulder
areas (about 1.5m) of the carriageway.
A rehabilitated road will more than quadruple the
traffic within a short span of its completion, due to the
suppressed traffic restored onto the road. To help
reduce the risk of serious accidents, speed control
signs and other visual means will be used at the
entrance and through the urban zones of towns and
villages along the road. Many of the activities of the
villages are centered on the road and thus there is a
large pedestrian and livestock traffic back and forth
across the road. A reduced speed will help both with
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
194
Environmental
impact
Land, assets
and right to
use land taken
away
4.
5.
6.
7.
Losses to
cultural
heritage
Demolition of
buried
archaeological
sites
8.
9.
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
Location
Refer to
Table 6 in
RAP
Time frame
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
During design MPWT and
phase see
NGO(s)
Table 4 in
recommended
RAP:
as a monitor
Implementhe PIU
tation
schedule for
RAP/EMAP
Damdek
(NR6)
Contractor
working
with
community
leaders
Kampong
Kdai (NR6)
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
MPWT and
MOEF, plus
Governors
Office
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
See RAP
for $$
values
$12/m2 x
1000m2
shaded
enclosed
36,000
10000
10000
Trapeang
Rapou
(NR3)
Based in
PP, but
operating
from Siem
Reap
Along SR
roads
During
design phase
PIU and
CCP
During
design phase
195
Compensation will be given to entitled PAPs based on

a census of all PAPs. This will form the basis of the
Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) and its Entitlement
Policy.
The RAP will be implemented by the provincial
Governors Office in cooperation with a reputable
NGO. The NGO would participate as the advisor to
the Governors Office. Entitled people must be
moved back from the work zone, (as defined during
the PAP census), before any civil engineering works
can start. This will be done in a sequence such that
actual resettlement occurs at least 4 months ahead of
the start of civil works in that location. (see RAP)
The RAP will contain a section outlining who is
entitled to compensation, what the compensation
mechanisms will be, how grievances are filed, and
how the Government is expected to handle them.
In the approaches to towns and villages and the road
through them, mobile vendors who sell items on the
ground or from makeshift stands at the edge of the
pavement, will be encouraged to conduct their
business at new market areas provided by the project.
These would be constructed at locations agreed to by
the village head and the displaced vendors. These
market areas are proposed for Damdek, Kampong
Kdai and Trapeang Rapou. Details are provided in
the RAP document.
The Minister of Culture and Planning, will form a
Steering Committee on Cultural Property (CCP) to
address and make decisions on all architectural
problems arising with the project. Deciding which of
the small bridges will be restored should be one of the
CCPs first tasks.
Visible cultural heritage sites along the alignment
have been identified and inventoried. A more detailed
surface archaeological survey of the road corridor will
be conducted to confirm that there are no special
additional sites that need conservation. A protocol
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
Environmental
impact
Potential
damage to
Kampong Kdai
Angkor bridge
Destruction of
the nine small
Angkor period
bridges
10.
11.
12.
and action plan will also be prepared by the CCP, to

establish exactly the procedure the contractor(s) must
follow should a cultural feature be unearthed
(regardless of size). Finally, the CCP will organize a
half-day training session, given by an external expert,
for contractors and monitors (latter from PIU and
Env. Cell) on road construction and archaeological
finds and key steps to follow. Attendance by
contractors will be mandatory.
A special study will be commissioned by the Bank
(through the French Trust Fund (probably) to
examine the load and emissions-related effects of
future traffic across the Kampong Kdai bridge. The
study will be directed by the PIU and will establish
whether the bridge can continue to be used and if so
what measures need to be taken.
The nine small bridges have been inventoried and
photographed. It was agreed with the Government to
restore 2 of these bridges (but first dismantle them and
move them to a suitable nearby site) for use as tourist
attractions. The laterite rock blocks from the other
nine bridges will be taken to a site designated by the
CCP and left for use with the Angkor restoration. The
CCP will decide on which of the bridges are to be
restored and will carry out the site preparation. The
CCP will also prepare an estimate cost, since much of
the work is archeological.
All culverts will be designed for the purpose of the
flood discharge (100-year flood). In areas where
extreme fill heights (>3.5m) need to be used to
prevent road flooding, e.g. along NR3, cross drainage
will be carefully managed to assure that no lands are
flooded or conversely washed away by build-up of
water followed by flash flooding. No new bridges will
be constructed.
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
Location
Time frame
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
During
design phase
At
Kampong
Kdai
At bridge
sites
Refer to
Engineering
Design
Report
180,000
Design
phase, prior
to the
initiation of
civil works
During
design phase
Contractor
with
direction
from PIU
10,000 per
bridge
Included in
bridge
construction
cost
Increasing
danger of
flooding due to
inadequate
culverts and
drainage
196
Environmental
impact
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
19.1. (c)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Location
Time frame
Throughout
corridor
during
construction
During
reconstruction
of grade and
between
asphalt
removal and
replacement
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Contractor/
MPWT and
its PIU. At
present no
in-house
environ.
Capacity. It
will come
from new
Env. Cell
within
MPWT,
under ADBTA.
Pollution
Control
Dept. for
monitoring.
standard
equipment
and
materials
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
CONSTRUCTION PHASE
Natural
Environment (Dust,
odour, air and
noise)
Dust/ Odour
13.
14.
15.
16.
Water should be sprayed during the construction

phase in any mixing area where dry materials are
handled and/or crushed. Temporary access roads to
aggregate sites must be included in the dust
suppression programme. A spraying schedule will be
prepared by the contractor and will serve as the basis
of a dust control programme. The PIU will monitor
this schedule should problems arise.
Vehicles delivering materials to and from the
construction sites should be covered to reduce spills.
Asphalt application will be heated liquid bitumen
sprayed onto an aggregate base. Bitumen preparation
sites will be noisy, with some odor and a considerable
risk of fire. Therefore all bitumen preparation and
loading sites must be over 500m down-wind from any
communities/residences, and the contractor must
have spill and fire protection equipment available to
rapidly deal with any accidents.
Mixing and crushing plants/operations should be
equipped with dust suppression devices such as water
sprays. Operators should wear dust masks and ear
protection.
19.1. (c)
19.1. (c)
During
construction
During
construction
phase
19.1. (c)
During
construction
phase
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
Environmental
impact
197
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
19.1. (c)
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Throughout
corridor
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Throughout
corridor
Location
Time frame
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
Beginning with Contractor/
and continuing / with
throughout
monitoring
construction
from PCD
and PIU or
Env. Cell of
MPWT
Beginning and Contractor/
throughout
/ with
construction
monitoring
from PCD
and PIU or
Env. Cell of
MPWT
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
Air Pollution
17.
Vehicles and machinery are to be regularly

maintained so that emissions conform to national
standards. Since Cambodias standards for emissions
controls are still being developed, Thailands
standards for construction vehicle and truck emissions
will be applied.
Noise
18.
Noise standards at aggregate crushing plants and

bitumen preparation sites will be strictly enforced to
prevent increase in
acceptable noise standards
(Government of Thailand standards for commercial
zones, namely L90 of 70 dBA). Maintenance of
machinery and vehicles should be enhanced to
minimize noise.
When construction is taking place at 100 m from the
many villages along both routes, or the road passes
within 150m of sensitive areas such as hospitals,
construction should be stopped from 2000 hrs to 0600
hrs. This will reduce night time noise levelswhich
in most towns are non-existent.
19.1. (c)
Wherever possible, the siting of alignment and filling

should avoid ponds and wells. Natural wetlands, such
as those found along the NR3 road corridor, should
be left undisturbed.
Where ponds are affected, replacements will be dug.
Any wells removed must be replaced with an
equivalent or better well (same flow level) prior to the
closure of the existing well.
In sections along watercourses, earth and stones will
be properly disposed off so that they do not block
rivers and streams, resulting in adverse impact on
water quality and flow regime.
The formation of standing waters on construction
sites in tropical areas often leads to the spread of
insect-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue fever
and schistosomiasis. Therefore there must be a
Design
requirement
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
1 on NR6,
1 on NR3
Whenever
encountered
during
construction
PIU and
Contractor/
/
MOE and
Env. Cell of
MPWT
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
19.1. (c)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Refer to
cross
drainage
structure
engineering
report
Whenever
encountered
during
construction
Contractor/
/ PIU and
Env. Cell of
MPWT
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
19.
20.
21.
Alteration of
drainage
22.
23.
Stagnant water
as insect-borne
disease
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
See RAP
WATER
Loss of
wetlands and
ponds
19.1. (c)
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
198
Environmental
impact
vectors
24.
Siltation
25.
Contamination
of water table
or surface
drainage
26.
vigorous programme by the contractor to avoid such

standing waters, including the removal of old
materials such as used tires and storage drums. In
cases where standing waters are managed by their
owners (users), e.g., through fish or waterfowl
stocking, they will be held responsible for insect
control. The owners/users should be given
information about the dangers of waterborne diseases
in standing water and how to prevent them.
All necessary measures will be taken to prevent
earthworks and stone works related to the road from
impeding cross drainage at rivers/streams and canals
or existing irrigation and drainage systems. Sideborrow sites will be used as drainage ditches and
designed such that they drain into the nearest water
courseBUT at a slope (e.g., <5%) permitting fine
suspended materials to settle out
Construction materials containing fine particles, e.g.
limestone or laterite, should be stored in an enclosure
such that sediment laden water does not drain into
near by watercourses, but rather percolates slowly
into the soil. See measure for soil erosion.
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
19.1. (c)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Location
Time frame
Refer to
Through out
construction construction
site plans
period.
Refer to
construction
site plans
Throughout
construction
period
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Contractor/
/ PIU and
Env. Cell of
MPWT,
input from
MoEF
PIU and
Env. Cell
prepare spill
contingency
plan
Monitoring
by PIU and
Env. Cell,
with advice
from
Pollution
Control
Dept.
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
199
For this type of road rehabilitation the most severe

possible water quality impact could come from spilled
bitumen or any petroleum products used to thin the
bitumen. Bitumen is stored in drums which may leak
or which are often punctured during handling after
long periods (>6months in the elements) of storage.
No bitumen must enter either running or dry
streambeds and none can be disposed of in ditches or
small waste disposal sites prepared by the contractor.
Bitumen storage and mixing areas must be protected
against spills and all contaminated soil must be
properly handled according to MOE or other
acceptable (to RCG and World Bank) standards. As a
minimum these areas must be contained, such that
any spills can be immediately contained and cleaned
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
Environmental
impact
27.
Contamination
from fuel and
lubricants
28.
Sanitation and
waste disposal
in construction
camps
29.
30.
31.
Vehicle maintenance and refueling should be

confined to areas in construction camps designed to
contain spilled lubricants and fuels. Waste petroleum
products must be collected, stored and taken to
approved disposal sites, according to MOE
requirements.
Sufficient measures will be taken in the construction
camps, i.e. provision of garbage bins and sanitation
facilities. All sewage sources or toilet facilities should
be at least 300m from water sources or existing
residences. Prior to initiating work, the contractor will
present a simple sewage management plan to the
MOE and PIU for approval.
Drinking water will meet national potable water
standards.
Solid waste and garbage will be collected in bins and
disposed of daily, according to a brief and basic waste
management plan prepared by the contractor and
approved by the MOE and the PIU, prior to the
commencement of civil works.
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
19.1. (c)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
19.1. (c)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
19.1. (c)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Location
Refer to
construction
design
survey
document
(CDSR)
Construction
camp lease
area
Time frame
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Throughout
construction
period
Contractor/
/ PIU and
Env. Cell of
MPWT
Covered
under Item
No. 103
Throughout
construction
period
Contractor/
/ PIU and
Env. Cell of
MPWT
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
Construction Before and

camp lease
during building
area
of construction
camps
Contractor/
/ PIU and
Env. Cell of
MPWT
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
Contamination
from waste
water (other
than sewage)
up. Prior to initiating the work, the contractor will

meet with the MOE to determine the proper siting of
the mixing areas and the handling and management
of such spills. Any petroleum products used in the
preparation of the bitumen mixture must also be
carefully managed to avoid spills and contamination
of the local water table only 3-6 meters below the
road surface.
All justifiable measures will be taken to prevent the
wastewater produced during construction from
entering directly into rivers and irrigation systems.
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
200
Environmental
impact
SOIL
Soil erosion
32.
33.
Loss of
topsoil
34.
35.
Compaction of
Soil
FLORA
Loss of trees
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
Location
On slopes and other potentially erodible places along

the roadside, appropriate vegetation that retards
erosion should be planted.
On sections with high filling and deep cutting, the
slopes should be protected by stone or brick walls and
planted with appropriate vegetation (occurring rarely
on these project roads).
Design
requirements
Special
Specification
Sections
6.6 and
6.20
Upon
completion of
construction
activities at
these sites
Contractor/
/ PIU and
Env. Cell
of MPWT
Covered under
normal work
Pay items and
Item No. 103
Arable lands should not be used as earth borrowing or

storage sites whenever possible. If needed, the topsoil
(15cm or so) should be kept and refilled after
excavation is over to minimize the impact on
productive lands.
It may be necessary to construct new access roads to
aggregate sites, and place them through agricultural
lands. These temporary roads will be made along
existing farm tracks so as to avoid losses to
agricultural lands. Contractors will be required to
present proposed construction road alignments and
hauling schedule to the PIU for approval, 4 weeks
before construction is to commence.
Construction vehicles should operate within the
corridor of impact, i.e. approx. 9 m to either side of
the carriageway centerline, to avoid damaging soil
and vegetation. It will be most important to avoid soil
compaction around trees. Generally the rule will be to
avoid driving heavy equipment or trucks anywhere
into the drip-line of a tree (defined as the imaginary
line around a tree where rainwater falls freely to the
ground unimpeded by the trees foliage).
19.1. (c)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Primarily at
water
crossings
and sections
where fill
heights are
>3m. Refer
to CDSR
Along
corridor
During
construction
Contractor/
/ PIU and
Env. Cell
of MPWT
Along river
north of
Kampong
Kdai
During
construction
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
36.
19.1. (c)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Throughout
corridor
especially
in
productive
areas
During
construction
Contractor/
/ PIU and
Env. Cell
of MPWT
Covered under
normal work
Pay items and
Item No. 103
37.
A tree-cutting and replanting scheme will be prepared

by APSARA, the Provincial Forestry Department,
the contractor and the PIU, within the first four
months of the start of civil works. Tree clearing
within the RoW of NR3 should be avoided beyond
Design
Special
Specification
Section
6.6
Areas of
tree
plantations
along
roadsides;
Soon after
completion of
construction
activities in
immediate area
Forest
Dept.//
PIU, Env.
Cell of
MPWT and
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
19.1. (c)
Time frame
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
201
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
Environmental
impact
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
what is directly required for construction activities

and what should be removed to reduce accidents. A
replanting scheme must be developed by the
APSARA, the contractor and the PIU, within the
same 4-month time period.
Compaction of
vegetation
38.
See soil compaction (No. 36).
39.
Construction workers should be told to protect

natural resources and wild animals. Hunting is strictly
prohibited.
Stream crossings that are dry during the work period
should be kept unobstructed at all times and the
channels should not be altered, since during the
monsoon periods these dry river beds become fishing
areas for local residents. Materials are not to be
borrowed from these river beds.
In the NR3 corridor, the first 5 km of roadway are
flanked by brackish tidal waters, which mark the end
of a large brackish wetland stretching to the coast.
During road construction this channel may have to be
moved back away from the carriageway, and if so this
must be done with great care to make sure that the
natural water movement (in terms of flow and
volume) is maintained. Prior to civil works beginning
there, the MoE should be consulted.
Many of the streams along NR3, for which culverts
will be sized, are tidally influenced and therefore
adequate measures to keep such flows unimpeded
must be considered in calculating the culvert sizes.
Location
refer to
strip
mapping
survey
Time frame
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
contractor
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
No. 103
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
202
Environmental
impact
During
clearing
operations
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Especially
in arable
areas
During
construction
Contractor/
/ PIU and
Env. Cell of
MPWT
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Vicinity of
construction
During
construction
Contractor/
/ PIU,
MOE and
Env. Cell
FAUNA
40.
42.
Contractor/
/ PIU,
MOE and
Env. Cell
Contractor/
/ PIU,
MOE and
Env. Cell
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
41.
19.1. (c)
Social
Environment
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
29.1
Special
Specification
Section
1.9
Wherever
necessary
During
construction
During
construction
Contractor/
/ PIU and
police
authority
During
construction
Contractor/
/ PIU
Location
Loss of access
43.
Temporary bypasses should be constructed and

maintained (including dust control) during the
construction period, particularly at bridge crossings.
Traffic jams and

congestion
44.
If there are traffic jams during construction, measures

should be taken to relieve the congestion through
better coordination between the contractor, the
Provincial Transportation Department, and the
police.
19.1.
(c)
Special
Specification
Section
1.9
High traffic
and urban
areas
Road safety;
collisions
between
vehicles,
people and
livestock
45.
Control speed of construction vehicles through road

safety education and fines.
Allow for adequate traffic flow around construction
areas.
Provide adequate signage, barriers and flag persons
for traffic control.
Communicate to the public through radio, TV, and
newspaper announcements regarding the scope and
time frame of projects, as well as certain construction
activities causing disruptions or access restrictions.
19.1.
(c)
Special
Specification
Section
1.9
Throughout
road
corridors
46.
47.
48.
Time frame
Months period
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Contractor/
/ PIU and
Env. Cell
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
Environmental
impact
203
Deterioration of
health of
workers due to
poor camp
conditions
49.
50.
51.
Risks from
accidents
during blasting
in quarries
52.
Cultural
Remains
54.
53.
56.
Littering with
waste
construction
materials
57.
If archaeological relics or remains are discovered, the

procedure developed by the CCP should be triggered
immediately. The primary contact would be
APSARA in Siem Reap. The construction should be
stopped until APSARA or their designated specialist
assesses the find and gives a resume work instruction.
Should any artifacts be uncovered, archaeologists will
supervise the excavation to avoid any damage to the
relics.
A detailed study is to be conducted on the Kampong
Kdai bridge to assess its structural strength and
resistance to corrosive emissions, to establish whether
it can be used as an NR6 bridge.
All construction materials should be reused, recycled
or properly disposed of. This will become particularly
important at the many small bridge replacement sites,
where old reinforced concrete will need to be properly
disposed of. All worn out parts, equipment and empty
containers must be removed from the site to a proper
storage location designated by the provincial
government and the MOE.
19.1. (c)
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Location
Construction
camps
Time frame
During
construction
At start-up
19.1. (c)
At start-up
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
Contractor/
/ PIU
Env. Cell of
MPWT,
Health Dept
and MOE
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
19.1. (a)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
In areas
with rock
substrate
and in
quarries
During
construction
Contractor/
/
Police
27.1
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Throughout
road
corridors
Throughout
construction
Contractor
with PIU,
APSARA
and Env.
Cell of
MPWT
19.1 (c)
Special
Specification
Section
1.12
Throughout
road
corridors
Throughout
construction
Contractor
with PIU,
and Env.
Cell of
MPWT
Covered
under
normal work
Pay items
and Item
No. 103
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
55.
Make certain that there is good drainage at all

construction areas, to avoid creation of stagnant
water bodies, including water in old tires, especially
in urban/industrial areas.
Provide adequate sanitation and waste disposal at
construction camps.
Provide adequate health care for workers and locate
camps away from sensitive areas.
Effective safety and warning measures will be taken
to reduce accidents.
The management and use of blasting materials will be
in strict conformity with the safety requirements for
public security.
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
19.1. (c)
204
Environmental
impact
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
Location
Time frame
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Regular
intervals
based on
maint. plan
Design then
build during
construction
MPWT
Env Cell of
MPWT,
Forest
Department
Covered in
construction
phase under
sub-head of
Flora of this
EMAP
OPERATIONAL PHASE
Natural
Environment
AIR
Dust
58.
Maintain roads.
59.
Replace roadside tree plantations lost to construction

and encourage new afforestation projects.
Any areas
where new
plantings
took place
Pollution
60.
61.
Noise
62.
According to monitoring results, at places with

excessive noise, measures such as soil berms, dense
layered plantings of vegetation, line of sight blockages
to noise by placement of commercial establishments
to block the noise, or other measures should be
considered.
63.
Contingency plans for cleanup of spills of oil, fuel,

and toxic chemicals, according to Item No. 27-29 and
Particularly
in
settlement
areas
After
completion
of
construction
See Flora
After
completion of
construction
1.12.6.1
1.12.6.2
Provincial
Governors
Should be
developed
Dept of
Pollution
Control//
MPWT
Forest
Department
// Env. Cell
of MPWT
MOE,
MPWT,
Dept of
Pollution
Control and
Forestry
Dept.
Prov. Public
Works
Covered in
construction
phase under
sub-head of
Flora of this
EMAP
205
WATER
RESOURCES
Contamination
from spills due
The Department of Pollution Control of the MOE

should check emissions from diesel trucks, buses and
2-stroke motor bikes semi-annually and require
maintenance.
By increasing roadside plantations, localized air
pollution will be reduced due to the blocking effect of
foliage and through photosynthesis.
Plant
immediately
after area is
no longer
disturbed
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
Environmental
impact
to traffic
movement and
accidents
Maintenance
of storm water
drainage
system
FAUNA
Tend and
maintain tree
plantations
Social
Environment
64.
based on a spill contingency plan worked out by a

consultant for the MPWT, within one week of the
opening.
The drainage system will be periodically cleared so as
to ensure adequate storm water flow.
65.
Trees planted along the roadsides and in villages to

replace the ones lost during construction need to have
a tending and maintenance schedule prepared and
live-tree counts provided to the MPWT every six
months.
66.
PREPARATION OF A SPILL CONTINGENCY

PLAN: For delivery of hazardous substances, three
certificates issued by the transportation department
are required - permit license, driving license, and
guarding license. Vehicles delivering hazardous
substances will be labeled with standardized signs.
Public security, transportation and fire fighting
departments will be made aware of the routes and
designated parking lots for these vehicles.
In case of spills of hazardous materials, report to the
Pollution Control Department in PP at once and deal
with it in accordance with the spill contingency plan.
67.
68.
Ref No.
11
(FIDIC
Clause)
Ref. No.22
(Contract
Specs.)
Location
Time frame
Office and
MPWT
1.12.2.5
Urban
areas
Beginning and
end of
monsoon
1.12.6.2
N/A
Prepare Plan
within 6
months of
commencement
of construction
and familiarize
contractor with
SCP at start of
work and
implementation
measures that
are required.
Implementing
organization/
Supervising
organization
Dept.,
Govt. office
and MoE
MPWT,
Municipal
Govt.
Capital cost
in $$
(@3,600R/
$US)
Operational
costs/Unit
cost ($/unit)
MPWT,
working
with the
MoE and
likely an
international
consultant
Note:
1. This EMP, is in a form which has proven to be the most useful for direct inclusion or transfer of materials to contracts. Being specific in
defining the mitigative measures in column 2 is critical, as is the identification of who will be responsible.
Accident
involving
hazardous
materials
206
Environmental
impact
3.
4.
5.
Usually accompanying the EMP, is an implementation schedule, prepared as a bar chart showing the tasks listed in the EMP in relation to
the planning, start and execution of the engineering work.
It is often very useful to include the Resettlement Action Plan schedule in this bar chart.
Make sure that each mitigation measure is numbered, in order to permit cross referencing.
Wildlife and sensitive habitat impacts can also be highlighted as colours or shaded to add special emphasisthere can also be interrelated
tasks shown.
Make sure that the impacts listed in column 1 are truly impacts, they must be worded as impactsthis is often poorly done.
2.
207
INDEX
Analysis
Biodiversity 53,57,75,115
checklists 94-95
Biological diversity see biodiversity
expert systems 104-105,107
Biological integrity
Calyx-ADB system 105,107

ECOZONE 105
matrices 98-99
ecosystems, 47 and special ecosystem,

52
Birds
and threat matrix 94
diversity 2,19
models 103,106-107,115
estimation 98
EIA-AID 104
identification 96
EIA-TRACK 104
indicator 3
SOURCE 104
Animals
distribution 102
mortality 16,62
Borrow pits 112
Buffer zone 71,72,80
dispersal 60,71
mortality 13,16-17,23,60,62
Canada 115
movement 13,15-16,20,59,61,79
Case studies
Aquatic ecosystem 15,18,47-48 see

also under ecosystem types
Case 1
Road rail network

development and Gir
National Park and
Sanctuary, India 131
Case 2
Kohalpur-Mahakali highway,
Nepal 139
Avoidance 7,62,109
Bangladesh Third Road Project 111
Barriers 15,16,23,61
artificial 77
Case 3 Mumbai-Pune expressway,

India 155
ecological 59
Case 4
noise 42
physical 54,59
psychological 54,60
Baseline studies, 95
Benefit 2,3
Benefit-Cost Analysis 67,108 see
also cost-benefit analysis
Linear development and

elephant movement; RajajiCorbett conservation area,
India 155
Case 5 Colombo Katunayake

Expressway, Sri Lanka 163
Case 6 The Nandyal-GiddalurThokapalli road, India 173
Best practice 9,29,68,95
Caves, karst areas and coral reefs

see under ecosystem types
Best use classification 32
Coastal see under ecosystem types
210
Coastal wetlands 57
Communities
animal/wildlife, 51,56,58,71
and plant, 48,60,97
Critical habitat 67,74,96

natural capital, 2
Crossing structures 59,61,71
Cumulative actions
characteristics of 14,114
additive 21see also case study 4
composition of 60
aggregated 100
description of 97
Cumulative effects
ecological, 2
local,tribal and rural 26,56,74,75
incremental or multiplicative effects

21
unique, 140
measurement of 21
Compensation 70,73,74,110
sources of 22
Comoensatory afforestation 113
spatial extent of 23
Conditional clearance 152
temporal extent of 23,108
and additional condition for clearance

173
Conservation
biodiversity/wildlife 13,30,72,78
conservation buffer zone see buffer
zone
conservation significance 108
Construction 5,13-15,18 see also
contractor and road
costs 40,193
contract/contractual clause 71
Data
biological 102
chemical contaminants 18-19
ecological 96,97
primary 102
remotely sensed 100,106
secondary 114
spatial 101-102
Database
environmental guidelines 29,37,38
designing 100
and sectoral guidelines 34,40-41
sources 121-127
monitoring for compliance 112-113
type, of database
schedule 109,113
Contractor 28 see also under
stakeholder
Cost-Benefit Analysis 111
Corridor
computerized 104
environmental 116
field based 97
historical 110
Data collection 96-97
movement 75
Decision making 8,29,90-91,100
river 190
Department of Environment
road 59
Bangladesh 36
wildlife route 76,157
Bhutan 37
Cover
India 25,29
estimation 97
Nepal 38
forest 72
Pakistan 39
vegetative 61,67,69
Sri Lanka 41
Index
Desert see under ecosystem types
211
restoration 8,72
Development planning 38
Development
and habitat restoration 73

replacement 73,103
rural 16,39
and habitat replacement 73
rural roads 47,62
stability 71
urban 6,41
type, of ecosystem
urban roads 4,67
aquatic, 68
Directives 25
caves, karst areas and coral 52
Diversity
reefs 53
biological 14,47,74
coastal 48,149
ecological 48,51
desert, 48
Disturbance
forest 50-51
ecological 15
Indira Gandhi Wildlife

Sanctuary 51
indicators of 93 see also indicators

under impact
Pollachi-Chalakudi road,Tamil
Nadu 51
Dudhwa Tiger Reserve 50
mountain and alpine, 48-49
Documentation, content, format

and responsibility 33-35,37, 41,43
EA see EIA
Ecologically critical areas 36
Ecological impacts, predicting
69,157,166,175
Ecological evaluation
baseline, estabilishment of 97
criteria 108 see also impact indicator
diversity 96
tools for evaluation 98 see also
checklists, matrices, networks
overlays
Ecological concepts
savannah and grassland 49-50

unique ecosystem 151
valued ecosystem component (VEC)
92
EIA
analysis see Analysis
approaches 91-94
basic elements 89
controls/checks 34,37-39,41
deficiencies 89
design 90
effectiveness, of EIA 90
institutional set up 25
in EA 91
legislative tools 28, 36-37,39-40,43
in EcA 91
notification, EIA 29-30
in project scoping 91
practical and scientific, EIA 2,91,111
Ecosystem
barriers see barriers
problems, in EIA 90
regulatory agencies
conservation status 96
Bangladesh 36
evaluation guide 96
Bhutan 38
fragility 48,156
India 26
resilience 108
Nepal 38
redundancy 47,93
Pakistan 40
212
Sri Lanka 41
scoping process 91
Forest see under ecosystem types

Forest clearance 34,35
screening process 40
steps involved, screening
Bangladesh 37
India 33,34
Nepal 39
Pakistan 40
Sri Lanka 43,44
software see Analysis
Ecological Impact Assessment (EAE)
91
Endangered wildlife species 107,140
Endemic species 150,165
Environmental clearance 33
chain of command
Bangladesh 36
Bhutan 37,38
India 33
Geographical information system

(GIS) 100-102
application, in EIA 102
glossary 182-192
Habitat assessment and evaluation
Procedure 97,103
Habitat designations
national parks 188
Gir National Park 131
Rajaji National Park 155
Royal Bardia National Park 140
reserved forest 189
sanctuaries 190
Gundla Bramheswaram Sanctuary
173
tiger reserves 155
Nepal 39
Buxa Tiger Reserve 68
Pakistan 40
Pench Tiger Reserve 64
Sri Lanka 43
procedures
Bangladesh 37
Bhutan 37,38
Sariska Tiger Reserve 66

wetlands 191
wildlife corridors 192
Habitat integrity 13
India 25 see also Figure 3.3, 35

Nepal 39
Pakistan 40,41
Sri Lanka 41,42
Impact
categories
cumulative 20 - 21
Environmental law see under EIA

legislative tools
direct 20 see also primary
Environmental safeguards 144,152153
primary 54,100
Environmenal sensitive areas 42
indirect 20 see also secondary

secondary 54,100,102
synergistic 20-22
Erosion and sedimentation 18
cause-effect relationships 20-21,68 see

also Table 2.2
Field surveys/sampling 95,106

and wildlife surveys 96,97
cross drainage structures 158 see also

crossing structures and case study on
Rajaji National park, 155
Fire 15,19,67
duration, of impacts 108
Index
213
evaluation tools
checklists 94
resource exploitation 67
tourism, impact of 65
Gir National Park 65,133,137
computerized mapping 100

matrices, example of 99
Implementation
networks, example of 100
compliance monitoring 145
overlays, example of 101
environmental management plan
indictors, of impact 93,107,108

magnitude, of impact 107
mitigation plan 145

Institutional framework 25
meta-populations, impact on 58
predictive models 103
Knowledge bases 104-105
habitat evaluation procedures

(HEP) 103
Management(Action) Plan 113
habitat suitability index model

(HSI), application of 103
Methods
road-effects zone 55-56

significance, of impacts 106-107
summary, of road activities and
impacts see Table 4.3
types
sample of 193-207
error, 178
field techniques 97, see also field
surveys
mapping 100
sampling 97
animal mortality see under animal

Gir National Park and
Sanctuary 63,133-136
Pench Tiger Reserve 64
barrier effect 59,69,74,134
erosion and sedimentation 67,147
survey techniques 96,98

design and analysis 97-98
methods 97-103
Mitigation, including mitigative
measures and approaches
fire 67,135
avoidance and prevention 109 see

also avoidance
habitat contamination 167
barriers effects
habitat degradation 151
crossing structures 75
habitat fragmentation 53,141, 147
design modifications 75,144
habitat modification 53,147 and

transformation 55-57
habitat manipulation 76
route selection, 74
habitat loss 54
compensation measures 110
human use and colonization 63
cost of 145
hunting 66
erosion, siltation and sedimentation

79,167
alignment 79
bioengineering 79
habitat isolation 58
and isolated animal population
157
movement obstruction and
restriction 157,163,167 see also
disruption under migratory
movement
contract clause 80
engineering 79
slope grading and stabilizing 79
fragmentation and isolation 71
214
conservation buffer zones 71

ecological connectivity-networks
and corridors 72
engineered structures 71
human use 77
environmental clauses 79
check posts, for inspection
78,144,177
road closure 78,79,144
speed limits 78,143
mortality, preventive devices,
alarms, flash mirror and fencing
76,77,143,177
traffic controls, speed breakers
and warning signage, 76,78,137
Indicators
of disturbance 93
India,
schedule I projects 33
Nepal,
donor funded projects 39
Pakistan 40
Sri Lanka,
prescribed projects 41
Protected areas
national parks 188
sanctuaries 190
Public consultation
legislative requirement for 34
participatory process 4
public hearing 27,35
Prevention, see avoidance and
prevention
of habitat 93
of pollution 93
selection criteria 94
Migratory movement,
disruption, 151
facilitation, 23
Monitoring
compliance monitoring 112,142,178
effects monitoring 113
environmental management action
plan (EMAP) 113,193
monitoring programme 169
monitoring protocol 153
responsibility 112,113
Mountain and alpine ecosystem see
under ecosystem types
Movement corridor see under
corridor
Rapid rural appraisal, various

forms 111
Remedial measures 109
avoidance 109
mitigation 109
habitat enhancement 109
compensation 73,110
Roads
alignment, options 151,157
categories, in relation to types of
impact 6
construction 14
borrow pits 112,176
construction/work camps 69
earthworks 50,142
crossing structures 61
culvert, placement 75-76
design criteria 61,159
Network 99
and provisions 170
No net loss 109
wildlife crossing structures 75 see also

crossing structures
Project screening categories

Bangladesh,
orange and red category 36
engineered structures 157

environmental clause 28,79
impacts on wildlife and habitat 13
Index
215
networks, summary for India and

South Asia 5,6
proponents 26-27
new versus upgraded 6,7
NGOs and local governments 27
and planning 7
regulatory agencies 26-27
statistics 4,5
Roads project
facilitators ( EIA specialist) 27
Standards
air, ambient 31-32
Arun Basin Power Project access road

102
environmental quality, 30,37
Coastal highway, Orissa 49
water, air, ambient 31 see also best

use classification
Dakpai-Buli road, Bhutan 50

East-west highway, Great Nicobar 54
Golden Quadrangle Road Project 5
Kohalpur-Mahakali highway, Nepal
60,141
Lantau expressway, Hong Kong 74
Mumbai-Pune Expressway Project 55
see also Case Study 3
Rajasthan State Highway Project 57
Tala-Rydak road and Buxa Tiger
Reserve 68
Sariska-Kalighati Pandupole road 66
Savannah and grasslands see under
ecosystem types
Screening
approach 92
criteria 92
definition 91
guide 92
Scoping
criteria 92
definition 92
Species estimates 2
Study
baseline 95
noise, ambient 32
Stake holder 26-27

Traffic
exotic species, introduction of 66
impact 22
movement, of traffic 62,70
pollution, source of emissions
18,19,66
restriction, of animal movement
141see also mortality
Websites, 115
Wildlife
and roads 7
conservation 176
extinction 31-32
endangered and threatened, IUCN
listing 96
key habitats 102
keystone species 188
population
dynamics 16
size 58
viability 58
regulations 36,39,43
value
field 95
ecological 3
limits 91,92,95
economic 2
reconnaissance 106-107
recreational 3
Stakeholders
contractors 28
culture and heritage groups 26-27
scientific 3
spiritual, cultural and religious 3
Wildlife action plan 10,30
Asha Rajvanshi, D. Phil. (Garhwal University) is an

environmental scientist specializing in ecological
impact assessment. She has vast experience of
conducting, coordinating and reviewing environmental
impact assessment of development projects in various
sectors. Presently, she is a Senior Reader
and
Faculty Incharge of the Environmental Impact
Assessment Cell at the Wildlife Institute of India. She
has contributed significantly
both nationally and
internationally in building the technical capacity in the
field of EIA through her professional inputs in academic and professional
training programmes. She has served on several Committees of the
Government of India for environmental appraisal of development projects
and has worked as a consultant for several international agencies . She is
also the member of the International Association for Impact Assessment.
Vinod B Mathur, D. Phil. (Oxford University,
England) is a wildlife ecologist specializing in Protected
Area management and mitigation planning of
developmental projects. He began his career as a
professional forester and joined the Wildlife Institute of
India in 1986. He has been associated with the conduct
of Environmental Assessments of developmental
projects. Presently, he is the Professor and Head of the
Department of Protected Area Network, Wildlife
Management and Conservation Education and is
involved in training, research and consultancy in the field of biodiversity
conservation. He is also a member of the International Association for
Impact Assessment and has worked as a consultant for several
international agencies.
Geza C. Teleki, M.Sc. (California State Unv.,
Humboldt) is an ecologist, specializing in
environmental and social sector impact prevention and
mitigation planning. He initially served as a fisheries
scientist working on one of Canada's first long term
impact monitoring program for industrial complex
developments on large lakes and then as a biologist
with a power utility on the Columbia River. In 1982 he
entered private practice, focusing on international
environmental and social sector consulting and
technical capacity building. He has worked in 23 countries around the
world and has completed over 120 environmental and social sector
studies as well as works on institution building. He has written more than
150 environmental reports and has published a large a number of
technical books and research articles.
Sujit Kumar Mukherjee, M.Sc. (Sagar University) is a
professional forester and has a vast experience as a
wildlife manager. Presently, he is the Director of the
Wildlife Institute of India. He has coordinated several
Environmental Impact Assessment studies and has
served on several advisory committees of the Govt. of
India to advise on matters related to the amendments in
the wildlife and environmental legislations and the
formulation of national environmental and wildlife
conservation policies.
ildlife biologists have at their disposal a large library of

texts, sourcebooks and manuals on how to manage wildlife
ecosystems. Conversely, transportation planners and
managers, who must regularly route roads and rail lines
across expanses of wildlife territory, rivers, wetlands and
along coastlines have no such tools. A classic case of underequipping the 'front lines'. This seems doubly unfortunate
given that roads are the single most intrusive human activity
in relation to wildlife and wildlife habitat. The Roads,
Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife: Environmental Guideline for
India and South Asia, has been written to fill that gap. It is
likely the first of its kind in the region. The Guideline defines
a basic step-by-step process that permits non-specialists to
incorporate wildlife and wildlife habitat conservation
principles into road and rail planning. It is not an exhaustive
treatment of wildlife ecology and latest techniques. The
authors have presented these steps in the context of basic
wildlife biology and conservation concepts in order to provide
a realistic backdrop to the wildlife-road transportation
relationship.
The authors present more than 75 accounts of actual project
experiences across India and South Asia and provide six
case studies that highlight lessons learned. It is hoped that
the inclusion of the case studies will stimulate the further
exchange of experiences among road planners and natural
resource managers across India and South Asia. WII is
extending this work by continuing to assemble wildlife-roadrelated studies and data from across India.
CEC Canadian Environmental Collaborative Ltd.

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PART I THEORY AND PRACTICE

ROADS AND WILDLIFE: THE RELATIONSHIP, 1

PROTECTED AREAS, WILDLIFE AND ROADS:

2.3 Impact Significance, 21

ECOSYSTEMS, IMPACTS AND MITIGATIVE

4.3 Mitigative Measures and Best Practices, 68

METHODS AND TOOLS, 89

The Environmental Management Action Plan

5.10 Suggested Practice, 114

ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION, 121

PART - II CASE STUDIES

Road and Rail Network Development and Gir National Park

Kohalpur-Mahakali Highway Project, Nepal, 139

Mumbai-Pune Expressway Project, 147

Linear Developments and Elephant Movement in Rajaji-Corbett Conservation

Colombo-Katunayake Expressway Project: Integrating Environmental Considerations in Project Planning, 163

Andhra Pradesh State Highway Rehabilitation and Maintenance

Annexure II Sample of Environmental Management Action Plan, 193

The distribution of the World Banks Roads and the Environment

Dehra Dun, India and

THEORY AND PRACTICE

1. ROADS AND WILDLIFE: THE

n 1997, the World Bank published Roads and the Environment: A

Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife

learned and to provide practical instructions for avoiding and managing

Biodiversity represents the

Roads and WildLife: The Relationship

1.1.2 Ecological Values

Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife

privileged positions of protection. Wild animals such as the lion, elephant,

National and state

Urban roads (Municipal,

Project roads (irrigation

Source: Government of India 1997

Roads and WildLife: The Relationship

In addition to the already

Table 1.3 Current and proposed roadwork in India: 1996-2003

NH2 Delhi Calcutta

NH8 Delhi Mumbai

North South and

Source : National Highway Authority of India

Box 1.1 Indias Golden Quadrangle Road Project

Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife

1.2.1 South Asia

New versus existing project types

Roads and WildLife: The Relationship

Box 1.2 Comparison of key EA considerations for new versus upgrade or

justify the need and the use of a preferred technology;

formulate a plan to prevent anticipated undesirable impacts from occurring, such as

1.3 Roads and Wildlife

Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife

global climate change are some of the processes contributing to far-reaching

1.4 The Target Audience

Roads and WildLife: The Relationship

Guide useful as a reference document, helpful in addressing a range of

1.5 Using the Guide

Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife

Part II includes six case studies, provided as examples of existing

1.6 Additional Sources of Information