J. Cleaner Prod., Vol. 3, No. 1-2, pp.

41-46, 1995

I'~UTTERWORTH
f~E

[ N E M A N N

0959-6526(95)00041-0

Copyright 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0959--6526/95 $10.00 + 0.00

Industrial parks as ecosystems

R. C 6 t 6 and J. Hall

School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, 1312 Robie
Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 3E2

Industrial ecology and metabolism provide a conceptual framework for the transformation of
our production and consumption system into a transition toward sustainable development.
This is consistent with the expressed views of a wide range of industrial and business
associations. Burnside Industrial Park in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, provides an opportunity to
investigate the application of the concept to small businesses. The Park is a diverse assemblage
of more than 1200 businesses. A survey of 278 of those businesses indicates strong support
for changing business practices. Preliminary research has resulted in developing a set of
principles, strategies and guidelines for designing and operating industrial parks as ecosystems.
A second phase of the research will encourage and assess symbiotic relationships among
businesses and evaluate the effectiveness of various information transfer mechanisms based
in the Burnside Cleaner Production Centre.

Keywords: industrial parks; ecosystem; cleaner production

Background
The concept which underlies this research is the
industrial ecosystem. In a seminal article by Frosch
and Gallopoulos 1, they stated:
The traditional model of industry activity, in which individual
manufacturing processes take in raw materials and generate products
to be sold plus waste to be disposed of, should be transformed into
a more integrated model: an industrial ecosystem. In such a system
the consumption of energy and materials is optimized and the
effluents of one p r o c e s s . . , serve as the raw material for another
process.

At about the same time, Ayres 2 introduced the concept

of industrial metabolism. This encompasses both production and consumption with the recognition that in
many places the major human sources of environmental
problems are shifting from production to consumption
processes. More attention should be focused on
efficiency improvements, design of products and recyclability.
Since that time, these ideas have gained currency
and launched the field of industrial ecology. As defined
by Tibbs 3, industrial ecology 'involved designing industrial infrastructures as if they were a series of interlocking man-made ecosystems interfacing with the
natural global ecosystem'. Human settlements and
industrial parks are viewed as having some things in
common with natural ecosystems in terms of energy
and material flows. By looking at an industrial park
as a unit and analysing the pathways along which
energy and materials move, we can begin to investigate
how the consumptive and waste generating activities

can be reorganized and integrated with each other

and with natural processes. This in turn will increase
the efficiency of resource use, the recycling and
recovery of wasted materials and energy. In so
doing we can lessen the impact of industry on the
environment.
Odum 4 refers to urban-industrial techno-systems and
expresses a view that 'anything that grows rapidly and
haphazardly and without regard to life support will
outstrip the infrastructure necessary to maintain its
growth, thereby bringing boom-and-bust cycles'. He
advocates the use of ecological principles and input
management of production systems as a practical and
economically feasible approach to improving and
sustaining the quality of our life-support systems. An
important fact of ecological studies is that they are
often based on the complete life-cycle of species or of
a material. Until recently, the different stages of a
product's life cycle from extraction and processing
to use and disposal have been looked at quite
independently. This is now changing, in part as
a result of the emphasis on environmental impact
assessment over the past 20 years. Life Cycle Analysis
(LCA) is now being promoted as a more responsible
approach to product develpment.
Since the release of Our Common Future 5, major
corporations and business associations have embraced
the notion of sustainable development. Groups such
as the International Chamber of Commerce, the
Business Council for Sustainable Development, the
Global Environmental Management Initiative, the

J. Cleaner Prod. Volume 3 Number 1-2

41

Industrial parks as ecosystems: R. C6td and J. Hall

Conference Board of Canada, the Canadian Chamber
of Commerce and the Canadian Manufacturers Association have all been developing principles, guidelines,
strategies, codes of practice and checklists to facilitate
a different way of doing business. Canadian small
businesses have already initiated some changes to link
environment and economy. For example, some are
utilizing recycled products, changed business practices,
products or packaging materials, installing new pollution control or conservation devices, modifying their
marketing strategies or altering production processes.
The report by the Canadian Federation of Independent
Business 6 states:
The mistake of the past has been to view the environment and
economy as separate cyclesconnected by a one-way movement of
resource from nature to mankind. The ecosystemand the economy
are, in fact, very similar in structure and performance. They each
require elemental diversity and free-flowingcirculation to function
properly . . . [The objective is to optimize the] use of natural
resources and develop the return flow of resources from economic
activity back to nature.
Over long periods of time, natural ecosystems have
evolved to become reasonably stable and efficient. An
industrial park ecosystem, then, would be a diverse
assembly of businesses, with built-in resilience. The
design of the park would encourage mutualistic and
commensalistic relationships in order to make
maximum use of inputs, products and waste materials.
In other words, cycles would be encouraged. Industrial
parks already encompass primary, secondary and even
tertiary consumers. Some scavengers and decomposers
exist but more of these businesses must be established
if the general objective is to he achieved. That objective
is the reduction of the cumulative environmental impact
of the industrial park in a manner which improves
the efficiency of businesses and in so doing, their
competitiveness.
In fact an operating industrial ecosystem is already
in operation. In the Danish town of Kalundborg 7, a
coal-fired power plant, an oil refinery, a pharmaceutical
plant, a plasterboard factory, a sulphuric acid producer,
a fish farm, a cement producer, local farmers, district
heating utilities and others interact to take advantage
of discarded or wasted energy, water, chemicals and
organic materials. The reutilization of what would
otherwise be wasted has lessened the impact of
industry on the environment while generating business
opportunities and profits. As such, the concept should
reduce 'boom and bust' cycles.
The field of pollution control which has traditionally
emphasized an 'end of pipe' solution to environmental
problems is slowly being converted to waste minimization and cleaner production technologies. Design for
the environment (DFE) s is a new concept being
introduced into building design and construction as
well as product design and manufacturing. Total
Environmental Quality Management is an emerging
concept linking total quality management (TOM) and
environmental management (EMS) and includes life
cycle analysis, environmental auditing, waste management, emergency planning and prevention. The

42

J. Cleaner Prod. Volume 3 Number 1-2

Japanese have been independently studying the application of industrial ecology under the name of Ecofactories 9. They have developed a model which integrates
design of production systems technology with closed
loop manufacturing. This 'total system design' includes
design for the environment at the product and process
levels; disassembling, reuse and recycling; and control
and assessment technology.
The overarching concept is that of sustainable
development. In a 1990 policy paper, the Canadian
Manufacturers Association 1 states that the committment of industry to sustainable development must
include 'ways to recycle and re-use materials, to adapt
manufacturing processes so that they use less, and to
explore possiblities to exchange spent materials with
others who can make use of them. As the costs of
materials and of waste treatment continue to mount,
it can become a competitive advantage to use less
virgin material, to consume less energy and to produce
less waste.'
The orientation of this research is primarily, but
not exclusively, materials and energy management
with an emphasis on pollution prevention and waste
minimization. The literature contains a long list of
terms which more or less reflect our intent; anticipate
and prevent, avoidance, source reduction, clean technologies, cleaner production, appropriate technologies,
low and non-waste technologies, recycling and recovery; green design, design for environment, among
others '1. Figure 1 illustrates the levels of integration
for pollution prevention, and the advantages of dealing
with it at micro level. However, initiating pollution
prevention at the process level is not always feasible,
and it is the intent of this report to illustrate the waste
reduction opportunities within companies, between
companies, within industrial parks and within communities.
Many different objectives can be identified for the
application of an ecological approach to the design
and operation of industrial parks. Among the more
relevant, we would include:
conservation of natural and financial resources
reduced production, material, energy, insurance and
treatment costs and liabilities
improved operating efficiency, quality, population
health and public image
potential income through the sale of waste materials.
As can be seen from this list of objectives, an ecological
approach is synonymous with an economical approach.
If the approach is fully implemented, wastes are
reduced or eliminated with attendant reduction of
environmental costs,' while financial cost savings in
material inputs to the production process occur and
more products should be produced from the same
materials. In a major study of 29 US chemical
manufacturers, companies recouped their initial investments within 6 months for two-thirds of the source
reduction activities for which pay-back periods were
reported. More than three-quarters of the 181 source

Industrial parks as ecosystems: R. C6td and J. Hall

PROCESS

........

'

- MOST EFFECTIVE LEVEL

FOR WASTE REDUCTION
- PREVENT WITH ~
TECHNOLOGIES
- REDUCE ~RTH MEW TECHNOLOGIES &
"GOOD HOUSEKEEPING" PRACTICES
- REUSE & RECYCLE

L e~ _ _ _ J m ~ - -- 7 lnEILTl

C O M P A N Y

- ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND

GUIDELINES FOR "GOOD HOUSEKEEPING" PRACTICES
- RECYCLE WASTES FROM ONE PROCESS TO ANOTHER

INDUSTRIAL

PARK

.......................

- MUNICIPAL GUIDELINES & REGULATIONS

- WASTE EXCHANGE FACILITIES
- RECYCLE WASTES FROM ONE COMPANY TO ANOTHER

REGIONAL

AREA

- FEDERAL, PROVINCIAL/STATE GUIDELINES

& REGULATIONS
- DISPOSAL (LANDFILL, INCINERATION ETC..)
PRIMARY ALTERNATIVE

GLOBAL

PERSPECTIVE

f
__bl

......

- INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY
& ADVISORY AGENCIES
- LEAST EFFECTIVE LEVEL FOR
WASTE MANAGEMENT
- CAPACITY OF PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
TO ABSORB WASTES

Figure 1

Levels of integration for pollution p r e v e n t i o n

reduction activities implemented resulted in dollar

savings. The study also found that the cost of
implementing the activities was low; in at least onequarter of the cases, there was no cost 12.
In the context of ecosystemic thinking, a report by
the Office of Technology Assessment of the US
Congress 13 argues 'green design is likely to have its
largest impact in the context of changing the overall
systems in which products are manufactured, used and
disposed, rather than in changing the composition of
products per se. Waste management means managing
materials flow.' To a large degree, this is what is
intended by focusing on the level of an industrial park.
One of the big questions then relates to the nature of
the support systems and incentives which can be put
into place to manage this flow without discouraging
business activity. It may very well be that the most
helpful benefit is the creation of new opportunities.

Survey findings
Our research project proposes to test the feasibility
of designing and operating industrial parks as an
ecosystem. The benefits of applying ecosystem concepts
to industry include:
reductions in the input of materials and energy
reduction in the overall output of waste
reduction in financial, ecological and health costs

increased awareness of the integration of environment and economy

the identification of new products and businesses
making use of waste materials.
To generate data for the study, a sample survey of
278 businesses in Burnside Industrial Park, Dartmouth,
Nova Scotia, Canada, was undertaken during the
summer of 1992. The sample contained a wide range
of business categories, which illustrated the diversity
of Burnside. These companies employed over 5100
full-time and 480 part-time employees, representing
over one-third of the Burnside workforce.
The survey indicated a strong commitment to the
environment and a willingess to make changes: 90.4%
of the companies surveyed were willing to participate
in cooperative waste reduction mechanisms; 95.4%
would like to be informed of opportunities to improve
efficiency and minimize waste; and 92.3% would
support opportunities that make use of their waste for
productive and environmentally acceptable activities.
These results were consistent with surveys of business
people elsewhere in North America and in Europe.
They were also consistent with the views expressed by
Canadian business associations. Business people in the
park appear to be becoming more sensitive to the link
between environment and economy.
In Burnside 33% of the businesses surveyed have
energy conservation measures in place and 22% have

J. Cleaner Prod. Volume 3 Number 1-2

43

Industrial parks as ecosystems: R. C(~td and J. Hall

Managers were asked to rank lira I ~ n c e

of vwlous f ~ t o r s
which would help them change their energy sources, material
usage and po4uctlon p r o c e ~ to improve environmenlad
efficiency. The following ere lira average nmultm:

oe"

as a wasted resource. Some of the materials could be

recycled, some could be reused or recovered via
technological processes. Other materials may have to
be substituted to prevent the generation of a waste.
Site planning analysis of the Burnside Industrial
Park also revealed the need for a redevelopment plan
for older sections. The earliest phases of the Park
have begun to show signs of age: abandoned buildings
and lots. Amenities now standard in modern industrial
parks are missing in the older areas. With good site
planning and design the areas can be replanned to
meet ecosystem standards and to attract new tenants.

~--~ ~

Recommendations
SOURCE: INOUSTRIN. PARK AS AN ECOSYSTEM SURVEY FINOING8

Figure 2 Importance of factors which would influence change

considered alternative sources of energy. On the waste

side, 36% have considered substitute materials to
reduce waste while 45% have contemplated alternative
processes in an effort to cut down on waste. In addition,
over three-quarters of the companies surveyed said
that they recycle. Business people also indicated
that economic incentives, financial assistance and
information were the most likely to influence their
decisions to change energy and material usage, and
production processes (Figure 2). As mentioned above,
businesses also indicated very strongly that they were
interested in cooperative ventures and opportunities
for creating businesses based on wasted materials
(Figure 3). Some of these businesses already exist in
Burnside. These include companies involved in oil
and solvent recycling, silver recovery, acid and zinc
recovery, furniture rebuilding and the refurbishing of
laser cartridges.
The survey identified a wide variety of materials
used and discarded. At least some of the materials
and energy wasted in the Park are not viewed in that
light. For example, some managers do not consider
heat released into the atmosphere or vaporized solvents

SUPPORT FOR WASTE UTILIZATION

~ I E S
THATWOULD SUPPORT
OPPORTUNITES TO M4X~ USE OF
THETRWASTEFOR A PRODUCTNEAND
I~VWRONM/ENTALLYACCEPTABI.~-

UMITAIlONS PLAC~D
ON IHIS SUPPORT."

ACTM'~.
N03"~
DO NO1 ~
11%

DO NOT IO4OW

OTHER
6%
EFFORT

fi",t

Figure 3 Degree and limitation of support for waste utilization

44

J. Cleaner Prod. Volume 3 Number 1-2

Part of the project output includes a series of strategies,

guidelines and principles for minimizing and preventing
waste, and to aid in the adoption of industrial ecology
to industrial parks. The following are some of those
recommendations.
1. Industrial parks should be designed in a manner
which maintains as many of the ecological functions
of the landscape as possible.
2. Industrial parks should strive to lower the overall
level of material use per unit of production while
maintaining standards of quality and safety.
3. Industrial parks should reduce the use of toxic and
hazardous materials when alternatives are available.
4. Industrial parks should favour the use of renewable
over non-renewable resources in building materials,
energy use, products and services.
5. Industrial parks should adopt waste prevention as
an underlying design criterion, ensuring that park
layout, infrastructure, buildings and industrial processes are operated accordingly.
6. Industrial parks should strive for diversity of industries, businesses, materials, products and services
compatible with the capacity of natural systems to
absorb their impacts.
7. Industrial parks should create the necessary physical, administrative and financial infrastructure to
facilitate the cycling of waste materials first into
processes which generated them and second, into
other processes.
8. Industrial parks should encourage products and
services which have no undue environmental impact
and are safe in their intended use, that are
efficient in their consumption of energy and natural
resources, and that can be recycled, reused or
disposed of safely.
Specific strategies that will take park managers several
steps closer to sustainable development include:
1. Site Selection. The site should be selected such
that the park can benefit from the topography
and natural resources of the area.
2. Site Design. The design of parks and their facilities
should maintain as much of the natural functions
of the ecosystems as possible.

Industrial parks as ecosystems: R. C~td and J. Hall

3. Building Design and Construction. Buildings

should be designed to minimize wasteful use of
land, heat and water as well as for disassembly.
Guidelines for construction materials should be
developed along ecological lines in which wastes
can be cycled back into construction through reuse
of products.
4. Conservation. Buildings, production processes and
transportation systems should be designed to
conserve resources and energy.
5. Substitution/Use of Environmental Products.
There should be an ongoing review of materials
and wastes to substitute chemicals whose quantity,
toxicity, persistence and degradability are a cause
for concern. Also, businesses should be encouraged
to stock and sell 'environmentally friendly' products. These products are generally less toxic or
more degradable.
6. Audits. A mechanism should be established to
support more efficient material management
through waste audits or waste minimization opportunity assessments.
7. Product Development. With a comprehensive
information base, it would be possible continually
to review possibilities for new products which can
be created from wasted materials.
8. Packaging Waste Reduction. Another approach
relates to the packaging of products sold and used
within the park. Strict rules could be applied to
packaging which would require that wholesalers,
retailers and manufacturers have to take back the
container in which the material was conveyed.
9. Standardization. Standardizing as many building
components and materials as possible will reduce
wastage and allow for interchangeability.
10. Inventory Control. Reducing the quantity of
materials in the park at any one time lowers the
risk of accidents in storage facilities and the
possibility of wastage due to degradation of
materials.
11. Material Cycling/Exchanges. Wherever it is feasible, a system should be established to allow the
cycling, exchange or transfer of materials within
the park. Businesses which can make use of wastes
which are being generated or are likely to be
generated should be attracted to the park.
12. Information Collection. The ecosystemic approach
to the design and operation of an industrial park
requires a good information base on materials
used, energy required and wastes generated. There
must be a willingness on the part of business to
provide the necessary information within the
bounds of confidentiality.
13. Co-locating of Businesses. As much as is possible,
companies should be co-located so as to maximize
use of waste heat and waste water. Some businesses
release waste heat into the atmosphere, and waste
water into sewers.
14. Encouraging Scavengers and Decomposers. An
ecosystem includes scavengers and decomposers.

There are examples of scavengers in the Park.

Companies which buy, sell or trade second-hand
goods are scavengers. Maintenance and repair
businesses also fit into this category.
15. Cascading. The overall quantity of materials
required to manufacture products and offer services
in the park can be reduced by cascading higher
quality wasted materials to businesses that can use
lower quality materials (Figure 4).
16. Feedback and Communications. As in the case of
natural ecosystems, there is a need for feedback
mechanisms and channels to regulate the flow of
materials and the growth of populations and
communities. In industrial parks, this feedback
must occur within companies, between companies,
between companies and park management, and
between park management and regulatory
agencies.
An industrial park planned on the principles of
industrial ecology requires an open space plan. The
natural amenities and recreational advantages of the
site offer unique attributes which industrial park
planners should acknowledge and affirm. An industrial
society need not obliterate the environment, but should
work with it to create meaningful landscapes.
The project has identified a number of support
mechanisms that would facilitate the design and
operation of industrial parks as ecosystems. These
mechanisms include information access through a
computerized clearing house or centre, a waste
materials exchange, environmental audit teams, an
educational programme, an applied research programme, and waste management zoning.
Presently there are initiatives under way to set up
a pollution prevention centre, supported by a decision
support and information system (DSS). A prototype
of the DSS is already in operation, and includes
information bases on such things as technology,
material selection, government assistance and regulations, design issues and other information sources.

CASCADING

l-=<,<-, i
~

HH

RE~DtrF.J~
&OI$11LLAION

Figure 4 The cascading strategy

J. Cleaner Prod. Volume 3 Number 1-2

45

Industrial parks as ecosystems: R. C6t6 and J. Hall

There is also a materials exchange which facilitates
such things as the exchange of discarded materials
from one company to another that can use it as a
feedstock; and cost-benefit analysis for shared waste
recovery equipment. Other general opportunities in
which the businesses in the Park have expressed an
interest can be facilitated by both government and
industry. These include such things as cooperatives,
joint ventures, clubs, waste management zones, recycling market development zones and flexible manufacturing networks. Finally, further opportunities include
retrofitting existing and designing new industrial parks,
and the application to Third World needs.

Acknowledgements
The Industrial Park as an Ecosystem is composed of
a multi-disciplinary team of researchers, and includes
Professors B. Ellison and M. Martin of the School of
Business Administration and D. Retallack of the
Department of Engineering at Dalhousie University;
Professors J. Grant and P. Klynstra of the Environmental Planning Department of the Nova Scotia College
of Art and Design; and P. Wade of Neill and Gunter
Ltd.
Funding for the project has been provided by the
Donner Canadian Foundation, the Canada-Nova Scotia
Cooperation Agreement on Sustainable Economic

46

J. Cleaner Prod. Volume 3 Number 1-2

Development and the Environmental Innovation Fund

of the Department of Supply and Services.

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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

13

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