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Linear Motion Linear motion is the motion in 1 dimension (1-D) or the motion in

a straight line. Distance 1) The distance traveled by an object is the total len
gth that is traveled by that object. 2) Distance is a scalar quantity. 3) The SI
unit of distance is m (metre). Displacement 1) Displacement of an object from a
point of reference, O is the shortest distance of the object from point O in a
specific direction. 2) Displacement is a vector quantity. 3) The SI unit of disp
lacement is m (metre). Distance vs Displacement
Distance travelled = 200m Displacement = 120 m, in the direction of Northeast Sp
eed 1. Speed is the rate of change in distance. It is a measure of how fast the
distance change in a movement. 2. Speed is a scalar quantity. 3. The SI unit of
speed is m/s (metre per second)

Equation of Speed
Velocity Velocity is define as the rate of displacement change. It is the measur
e of how fast the displacement change of a moving object. Velocity is a vector q
uantity. The unit of displacement is m/s (metre per second)
Equation of velocity
Positive or Negative Sign of Velocity In velocity, the positive/negative sign in
dicates direction. You can take any direction as positive and the opposite as ne
gative. For a linear motion, normally we take the motion to the right as positiv
e and hence the motion to the left as negative. Acceleration Acceleration is the
rate of velocity change.Acceleration is a vector quantity. It is a measure of h
ow fast the velocity change. Acceleration is a vector quantity. The unit of acce
leration is ms-2. Equation Additional Notes An object moves with a constant velo
city if the magnitude and direction of the motion is always constant. An object
experiences changes in velocity if 1 the magnitude of velocity changes

2 the direction of the motion changes. 3 An object that experiences changes in v


elocity is said to have acceleration. An object traveling with a constant accele
ration, a, if the velocity changes at a constant rate. Equation of Uniform Accel
eration Most of the motion problems can be solved by the following equations. Th
erefore, make sure that you memorise all of them.
How we know when to use the equation?
There are 3 types of motion: 1 motion with uniform velocity 2 motion with unifor
m acceleration 3 motion with changing acceleration The 4 equations are used when
the motion is uniform acceleration. Displacement - Time Graph In a Displacement
-Time Graph, the gradient of the graph is equal to velocity of motion. the

Analysing Displacement - Time Graph


Gradient = 0 Hence, velocity = 0
Gradient is constant, hence, velocity is Uniform
Gradient is negative and constant, hence velocity is uniform and in opposite dir
ection
Gradient is increasing, hence velocity is increasing.

Gradient is decreasing, hence velocity is decreasing.


Velocity - Time Graph The shaded region is the area under the curve. As the shap
e is a triangle hence the formula for the area of a triangle should be used. y

x The gradient of the velocity-time gradient gives a value of the changing rate
in velocity, which is the acceleration of the object. The area below the velocit
y-time graph gives a value of the object's displacement.
Analysing Velocity-Time Graph
Uniform velocity

Uniform acceleration
Increasing acceleration
Uniform deceleration
Decreasing acceleration
Converting a Velocity-Time graph to Acceleration-Time graph In order to convert
a velocity-time graph to acceleration time graph, we need to find the gradient o
f the velocity time graph and plot it in the acceleration-time graph.Free fallin
g is a motion under gravitational force as the only force acting on the moving o
bject. In SPM, you need to know the graphs of free falling of the following move
ment

1. Launching object upward. 2. Dropping Object from High Place 3. Object Falling
and Bounce Back Launching Object Upward
Velocity-Time Graph
Acceleration-Time Graph
Dropping Object from High Place

Velocity-Time Graph
Acceleration-Time Graph
Object Falling and Bounce Back
Velocity-Time Graph
Acceleration-Time Graph
Mass Mass is defined as the amount of matter. The SI unit of mass is kilogram (k
g) Mass is a scalar quantity.

Inertia Inertia is the property of a body that tends to maintain its state of mo
tion. Newton's First Law In the absence of external forces, an object at rest re
mains at rest and an object in motion continues in motion with a constant veloci
ty (that is, with a constant speed in a straight line). Jerking a Card
When the cardboard is jerked quickly, the coin will fall into the glass. Explana
tion:

The inertia of the coin resists the change of its initial state, which is statio
nary. As a result, the coin does not move with the cardboard and falls into the
glass because of gravity. Pulling a Book
When the book is pulled out, the books on top will fall downwards. Explanation:

Inertia tries to oppose the change to the stationary situation, that is, when th
e book is pulled out, the books on top do not follow suit.

Pulling a Thread
1. Pull slowly - Thread A will snap. Explanation:

Tension of thread A is higher than string B. Tension at A = Weight of the load +
Pulling Force 2. Yank quickly - Thread B will snap. Explanation:

The inertia of the load prevents the force from being transmitted to thread A, h
ence causing thread B to snap. Larger Mass - Greater Inertia
Bucket filled with sand is more difficult to be moved. It's also more difficult
to be stopped from swinging. Explanation:

Object with more mass offers a greater resistance to change from its state of mo
tion. Object with larger mass has larger inertia to resist the attempt to change
the state of motion.

Empty cart is easier to be moved


An empty cart is easier to be moved compare with a cart full with load. This is
because a cart with larger mass has larger inertia to resist the attempt to chan
ge the state of motion. Momentum Momentum is defined as the product of mass and
velocity. Momentum is a vector quantity. It has both magnitude and direction. Th
e SI unit of momentum is kgms-1 Formula:
Example 1 A student releases a ball with mass of 2 kg from a height of 5 m from
the ground. What would be the momentum of the ball just before it hits the groun
d? Answer: In order to find the momentum, we need to know the mass and the veloc
ity of the ball right before it hits the ground. It's given that the mass, m = 2
kg. The velocity is not given directly. However, we can determine the velocity,
v, by using the linear equation of uniform acceleration. This is a free falling
motion, The initial velocity, u = 0 The acceleration, a = gravirational accelera
tion, g = 10ms-2 The dispacement, s = high = 50m. The final velocity = ? From th
e equation v2 = u2 + 2as v2 = (0)2 + 2(10)(5) v = 10ms-1 The momentum, p = mv =(
2)(10) = 20 kgms-1

Force 1. A force is push or pull exerted on an object. 2. Force is a vector quan


tity that has magnitude and direction. 3. The unit of force is Newton ( or kgms2). Unbalanced Force/ Resultant Force When the forces acting on an object are no
t balanced, there must be a net force acting on it. The net force is known as th
e unbalanced force or the resultant force. When a force acts on an object, the e
ffect can change the 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. size, shape, stationary state, speed and dir
ection of the object.
Newton's Second Law The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proport
ional to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction. Im
plication: When there is resultant force acting on an object, the object will ac
celerate (moving faster, moving slower or change direction). Formula of Force
From Newton's Second Law, we can derived the equation (IMPORTANT: F Must be the
net force) Summary of Newton's 1st Law and 2nd Law Newton's First Law: When ther
e is no net force acting on an object, the object is either stationary or move w
ith constant speed in a straight line. Newton's Second Law: When there is a net
force acting on an object, the object will accelerate. Example 1 A box of mass 1
50kg is placed on a horizontal floor with a smooth surface; find the acceleratio
n of the box when a 300N force is acting on the box horizontally. Answer:

F = ma (300) = (150)a a = 2 ms-2 Example 2 A object of mass 50kg is placed on a


horizontal floor with a smooth surface. If the velocity of the object changes fr
om stationary to 25.0 m/s in 5 seconds when is acted by a force, find the magnit
ude of the force that is acting? Answer: We know that we can find the magnitude
of a force by using the formula F = ma. The mass m is already given in the quest
ion, but the acceleration is not give directly. We can determine the acceleratio
n from the formula .From the formula F = ma = (50)(5) = 250N The force acting on
the box is 250N. Impulse Impulse is defined as the product of the force (F) act
ing on an object and the time of action (t). Impulse exerted on an object is equ
al to the momentum change of the object. Impulse is a vector quantity. Formula o
f impulse Impulse is the product of force and time. Impulse = F t Impulse = mome
ntum change Impulse = mv mu Impulsive Force Impulsive force is defined as the ra
te of change of momentum in a reaction. It is a force which acts on an object fo
r a very short interval during a collision or explosion. Effects of impulse vs F
orce

A force determines the acceleration (rate of velocity change) of an object. A gr
eater force produces a higher acceleration. An impulse determines the velocity c
hange of an object. A greater impulse yield a higher velocity change.
Examples Involving Impulsive Force

Playing football Playing badminton Playing tennis Playing golf Playing baseball

Long Jump
1. The long jump pit is filled with sand to increase the reaction time when atle
te land on it. 2. This is to reduce the impulsive force acts on the leg of the a
tlete because impulsive force is inversely proportional to the reaction time. Hi
gh Jump
(This image is licenced under the GNU Free Document Licence. The original file i
s from the Wikipedia.org.)

During a high jump, a high jumper will land on a thick, soft mattress after the
jump. This is to increase the reaction time and hence reduces the impulsive forc
e acting on the high jumper.
Jumping A jumper bends his/her leg during landing. This is to increase the react
ion time and hence reduce the impact of impulsive force acting on the leg of the
jumper. Crumble Zone The crumple zone increases the reaction time of collision
during an accident. This causes the impulsive force to be reduced and hence redu
ces the risk of injuries.

Seat Belt
Prevent the driver and passengers from being flung forward or thrown out of the
car during an emergency break. Airbag
The inflated airbag during an accident acts as a cushion to lessen the impact wh
en the driver flings forward hitting the steering wheel or dashboard. Head Rest
Reduce neck injury when driver and passengers are thrown backwards when the car
is banged from backward. Windscreen Shatter-proof glass is used so that it will
not break into small pieces when broken. This may reduce injuries caused by scat
tered glass. Padded Dashboard Cover with soft material. This may increases the r
eaction time and hence reduce the impulsive force when passenger knocking on it
in accident. Collapsible Steering Columns The steering will swing away from driv
ers chest during collision. This may reduce the impulsive force acting on the dri
ver. Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) Prevent the wheels from locking when brake a
pplied suddenly by adjusting the pressure of the brake fluid. This can prevents
the car from skidding.

Bumper Made of elastic material so that it can increases the reaction time and h
ence reduces the impulsive force caused by collision. Passenger Safety Cell The
body of the car is made from strong, rigid stell cage. This may prevent the car
from collapsing on the passengers during a car crash. Gravitational Field A grav
itational field as a region in which an object experiences a force due to gravit
ational attraction. Gravitational Field Strength The gravitational field strengt
h at a point in the gravitational field is the gravitational force acting on a m
ass of 1 kg placed at that point. The unit of gravitational field strength is N/
kg. The gravitational field strength is denoted by the symbol "g". Gravitational
Field Strength Formula Gravitational Acceleration The gravitational acceleratio
n is the acceleration of an object due to the pull of the gravitational force. T
he unit of gravitational acceleration is ms-2 Gravitational acceleratio is also
denoted by the symbol "g". Symbol: g Important notes:

Gravitational acceleration does not depend on the mass of the moving object. The
magnitude of gravitational acceleration is taken to be 10ms-2.
Gravitational Field Strength vs. Gravitational Acceleration

Both the gravitational field strength and gravitational acceleration have the sy
mbol, g and the same value (10ms-2) on the surface of the earth. When considerin
g a body falling freely, the g is the gravitational acceleration. When consideri
ng objects at rest, g is the Earths gravitational field strength acting on it.
Weight The weight of an object is defined as the gravitational force acting on t
he object. The SI unit of weight is Newton (N) Differences between Weight and Ma
ss Weight Depends on the gravitational field strength Mass Independent from the
gravitational field strength

Vector quantity Unit Newton (N) Free Falling


Scalar Quantity Unit: Kilogram (kg)
1. Free falling is a motion under force of gravity as the only force acting on t
he moving object. 2. Practically, free falling can only take place in vacuum.
Gravitational Acceleration 1. The gravitational acceleration is the acceleration
of an object due to the pull of the gravitational force. It has the unit of ms2 2. The symbol of gravitational acceleration is " g ". 3. Gravitational acceler
ation does not depend on the mass of the moving object. 4. The magnitude of grav
itational acceleration is taken to be 10ms-2. Gravitational Field Strength vs. G
ravitational Acceleration 1. Both the gravitational field strength and gravitati
onal acceleration have the symbol, g and the same value (10ms-2) on the surface
of the earth. 2. When considering a body falling freely, the g is the gravitatio
nal acceleration. 3. When considering objects at rest, g is the Earths gravitatio
nal field strength acting on it. Vector and Scalar Quantity A scalar quantity is
a quantity which can be fully described by magnitude only. A vector quantity is
a quantity which is fully described by both magnitude and direction. Vector Dia
gram
The arrow shows the direction of the vector. The length representing the magnitu
de of the vector. Equal Vector Two vectors A and B may be defined to be equal if
they have the same magnitude and point in the same direction.

Case of Free Falling 1 - Falling from High Place


When an object is released from a high place, 1. its initial velocity, u = 0. 2.
its acceleration is equal to the gravitational acceleration, g, which taken to
be 10ms-2 in SPM. 3. the displacement is the of the object when it reaches the g
round is equal to the initial height of the object, h. Case of Free Falling 2 Launching Object Upward
If an object is launched up vertically, 1. 2. 3. 4. the acceleration = -g (-10ms
-2) the velocity become zero when the object reaches the highest point. the disp
lacement of the object at highest point is equal to the vertical height of objec
t, h the time taken for the object to move to the maximum height = the time take
n for the object to fall from the maximum point to its initial position.

Vector Addition - Triangle Method


Join the tail of the 2nd vector to the head of the 1st vector. Normally the resu
ltant vector is marked with double arrow.
Vector Addition - Parallelogram Method
Join the tail of the 2nd vector to the tail of the 1st vector. Normally the resu
ltant vector is marked with double arrow. Addition of 2 Perpendicular Vectors
If 2 vectors (a and b) are perpendicular to each others, the magnitude and direc
tion of the resultant vector can be

determined by the following equation.


Example 2
Diagram above shows that four forces of magnitude 2N, 4N, 5N and 8N are acting o
n point O. All the forces are perpendicular to each others. What is the magnitud
e of the resulatant force that acts on point O? Answer: The resultant force of t
he horizntal component = 5 - 2 = 3N to the right The resultant force of the vert
ical component = 8 - 4 = 4N acting downward. Therefore, the magtitude of these 2
force components,
Vector Resolution
A vector can be resolve into 2 component which is perpendicular to each others.
Example 1

Diagram above shows a lorry pulling a log with an iron cable. If the tension of
the cable is 3000N and the friction between the log and the ground is 500N, find
the horizontal force that acting on the log. Answer: Horizontal component of th
e tension = 3000 cos30o =2598N Friction = 500N Resultant horizontal force = 2598
N - 500N =2098N Example 2
Diagram above shows two forces of magnitude 25N are acting on an object of mass
2kg. Find the acceleration of object P, in ms-2. Answer: Horizontal component of
the forces = 25cos45o + 25cos45o = 35.36N Vertical component of the forces = 25
sin45o - 25sin45o = 0N The acceleration of the object can be determined by the e
quation F = ma (35.36) = (2)a a = 17.68 ms-2
Inclined Plane
Weight component along the plane = Wsin.

Weight component perpendicular to the plane = Wcos. Example 3


A block of mass 2 kg is pulling along a plane by a 20N force as shown in diagram
above. Given that the fiction between block and the plane is 2N, find the magni
tude of the resultant force parallel to the plane. Answer:
First of all, let's
he plane. The force
he weight component
he plane = 20 - 2 -

examine all the forces or component of forces acting along t


pulling the block, F = 20N The frictional force Ffric = 2N T
along the plane = 20sin30o = 10N The resultant force along t
10 = 8N

Vectors in E uilibrium
When 3 vectors are in e uilibrium, the resultant vector = 0. After joining all t
he vectors tail to head, the head of the last vector will join to the tail of th
e first vector. Forces in e uilibrium Forces are in e uilibrium means the result
ant force in all directions are zero. When the forces acting on an object are ba
lanced, they cancel each other out. The net force is zero. Effect :

an object at rest is continuely at rest [ velocity = 0] a moving object will mov
e at constant velocity [ a = 0]

Example 1
Diagram above shows a load of mass 500g is hung on a string C, which is tied to
2 other strings A and B. Find the tension of string A. Answer:
Tension of string C, TC = weight of the load = 5N All forces in the system are i
n e uilibrium, hence Vertical component of tension A (TA) = TC TAcos60o = TC TA
= TC/cos60o TA = 5/cos60o = 10N
Work 1. Work done by a constant force is given by the product of the force and t
he distance moved in the direction of the force. 2. The unit of Nm(Newton metre)
or J(Joule).

3. Work is a scalar uantity. E uation of Work


When the direction of force and motion are same, = 0o, therefore cos = 1Work done
, W=Fs Example 1
A force of 50 N acts on the block at the angle shown in the diagram. The block m
oves a horizontal distance of 3.0 m. Calculate the work being done by the force.
Answer: Work done, W = F s cos W = 50 3.0 cos30o = 129.9J Example 2
Diagram above shows a 10N force is pulling a metal. The friction between the blo
ck and the floor is 5N. If the distance travelled by the metal block is 2m, find
a. the work done by the pulling force

b. the work done by the frictional force Asnwer: (a) The force is in the same di
rection of the motion. Work done by the pulling force, W = F s = (10)(2) = 20J (
b) The force is not in the same direction of motion, work done by the frictional
force W = F s cos180o= (5)(2)(-1) = -10J Work Done Against the Force of Gravity
Example 3 Ranjit runs up a staircase of 35 steps. Each steps is 15cm in height.
Given that Ranjit's mass is 45kg, find the work done by Ranjit to reach the top
of the staircase. Answer: In this case, Ranjit does work to overcome the gravity
. Ranjit's mass = 45kg Vertical height of the motion, h = 35 0.15 Gravitational
field strength, g = 10 ms-2 Work done, W = ? W = mgh = (45)(10)(35 0.15) = 2362.
5J Finding Work from Force-Displacement Graph

In a Force-Displacement graph, work done is e ual to the area in between the gra
ph and the horizontal axis. Example 4
The graph above shows the force acting on a trolley of 5 kg mass over a distance
of 10 m. Find the work done by the force to move the trolley. Answer:In a Force
-Displacement graph, work done is e ual to the area below the graph. Therefore,
work done
Energy Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. Work is done when energy is
converted from one form to another. Nm or Joule(J) Gravitational Potential Ener
gy Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object as the resul
t of its vertical position (i.e., height). Formula:

Example 1 A ball of 1kg mass is droppped from a height of 4m. What is the maximu
m kinetic energy possessed by the ball before it reached the ground? Answer Acco
rding to the principle of conservation of energy, the amount of potential energy
losses is e ual to the amount of kinetic energy gain. Maximum kinetic energy =
Maximum potentila energy losses = mgh = (1)(10)(4) = 40J Elastic Potential Energ
y Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in elastic materials as the resu
lt of their stretching or compressing. Formula:
Example 2
Diagram above shows a spring with a load of mass 0.5kg. The extention of the spr
ing is 6cm, find the energy stored in the spring.

Answer: The energy stored in the spring is the elestic potential energy.
Kinetic Energy Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. E uation of Kinetic Energ
y
Example 1
Relationship between Energy and Work Done
During a conversing of energy, Amount of Work Done = Amount of Energy Converted
Example A trolley of 5 kg mass moving against friction of 5 N. Its velocity at A
is 4ms-1 and it stops at B after 4 seconds. What is the work done to overcome t
he friction? Answer: In this case, kinetic energy is converted into heat energy
due to the friction. The work done to overcome the friction is e ual to the amou
nt of kinetic energy converted into heat energy, hence Power Power is the rate a
t which work is done, which means how fast a work is done. Formula:
Example 1 An electric motor takes 20 s to lift a box of mass 20kg to a height of
1.5 m. Find the amount of work done by the machine and hence find the power of
the electric motor.

Answer: Work done, W = mgh = (20)(10)(1.5) = 300J Efficiency The efficiency of a


device is defined as the percentage of the energy input that is transformed int
o useful energy. Example In the example above, the input power is 100J/s, the de
sire output power (useful energy) is only 75J/s, the remaining power is lost as
undisire output. Therefore, the efficiency of this machine is 75/100 x 100% = 75
% Air Conditioner 1. Switch off the air conditioner when not in use. 2. Buy the
air conditioner with suitable capacity according to the room size. 3. Close all
the doors and windows of the room to avoid the cool air in the room from flowing
out. Refrigerator 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Always remember to close the door of refrig
erator. Open the refrigerator only when necessarily. Always keep the cooling coi
l clean. Defrost the refrigerator regularly. Choose the refrigerator with capaci
ty suitable for the family size. Refrigerator of large capacity is more efficien
t compare with refirgerator of small capacity.
Lamp or Light Bulb 1. Use fluorecent bulb rather than incandescent bulb. Fluores
cent bulbs are much more efficient than incandescent bulbs. 2. Use a lamp with r
eflector so that more light is directed towards thr desirable place. Washing Mac
hine 1. Use front-loading washing machine rather than top-loading wahing machine
because it uses less water and electricity. 2. Use washing machine only when yo
u have sufficient clothes to be washed. Try to avoid washing small amount of clo
thes. Elasticity Elasticity is the ability of a sub-stance to recover its origin
al shape and size after distortion.

Forces Between Atoms


The intermolecular forces consist of an attractive force and a repulsive force.

At the e uilibrium distance d, the attractive force e ual to the repulsive force
. If the 2 atoms are brought closer, the repulsive force will dominate, produces
a net repulsive force between the atoms. If the 2 atoms are brought furhter, th
e attractive force will dominate, produces a net attractive force between the at
oms.
Graph of Forces Between 2 atoms
x0 = E uilibrium Distance When the particles are compressed, x < x0, the attract
ive force between the particles increases. If the distance x exceeds the elastic
limit, the attractive force will decreases. Hooke's Law Hooke's Law states that
if a spring is not stretched beyond its elastic limit, the force that acts on i
t is directly proportional to the extension of the spring. Elastic Limit The ela
stic limit of a spring is defined as the maximum force that can be applied to a
spring such that the spring will be able to be restored to its original length w
hen the force is removed. E uation derived from Hooke's Law

From Hook's Law, we can derived that


Spring Constant
Spring constant is defined as the ratio of the force applied on a spring to the
extension of the spring. It is a measure of the stiffness of a spring or elastic
object. Graph of Streching Force - Extension
Gradient = Spring constant Area below the graph = Work done F-x graph and spring
constant

The higher the gradient, the greater the spring constant and the harder (stiffer
) spring. For example, the stiffness of spring A is greater than spring B.
Spring
Arrangement in series: Extension = x number of spring Stiffness decreases Spring
constant = k/number of spring
Arrangement in parallel: Extension = x number of spring Stiffness increases Spri
ng constant = k number of spring
Factors Affecting the Stiffness of Spring Stiffer Less stiff

Material type of spring (A steel spring is stiffer than a copper spring)


Diameter of wire of spring (The greater the diameter of the wire, the stiffer th
e spring)
Diameter of the spring (The smaller the diameter of spring, the stiffer the spri
ng)
Length of the string (Shorter spring is stiffer)

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