CARBON FIBRES

PROCESSING, STRUCTURE,
PROPERTIES AND
APPLICATIONS.

Carbon Fiber Characteristics

Carbon Fiber's reputation as a material has taken on
mystical proportions! Not only does it have a reputation
for being the best and the strongest, but it's also
become cool to have something made of carbon fiber!
I don't claim to be an expert. This article combines
information that I have found in my research on Carbon
Fiber. I try to be accurate but I MAKE MISTAKES, I know
this might come as a surprise to some of you, but there
it is. If you plan to build a mast or other boaty things,
do your research. Consult an expert, and be careful.
Have Fun.

First, What is Carbon Fiber

Carbon Fibre, not surprisingly, is made of carbon
crystals aligned in a long axis. These honeycomb
shaped crystals organize themselves in long flattened
ribbons. This crystal alignment makes the ribbon strong

in the long axis. In turn these ribbons align themselves

within fibers. The fiber shape is the original shape of
the material (its precursor) used to produce the Carbon
Fiber. I don't know of any process where fibers are
shaped AFTER carbonizing. These fibers (containing flat
ribbons of carbon crystals) in turn are bundled by the
manufacturer in thicker fibres and are woven into
carbon cloth, made into felt, twisted or bundled without
twisting. This is referred to as Roving. Carbon fiber is
also offered as chopped strands and powder.
In order to modify the characteristics of the lay up,
other materials are sometimes added such as glass
fibers, Kevlar or Aluminium. Carbon fiber is rarely used
as it. Rather it is embedded in a matrix. In mast-making
and boat building we usually think of epoxy or polyester
resins, but carbon fiber is also used as reinforcement
for thermoplastics, concrete or ceramics.

Manufacturing of Carbon Fibre

There are several methods of making carbon fiber but
essentially they consists of first making fibers out of a
carbon rich precursor material. The original size and
shape of the fibre will remain in the finished carbon
fiber, but the interior chemical structure will have been
greatly modified through the various heating cycles.
The first steps are carbonizing and stretching precursor
fibers, either PAN: Polyacrylonitrile, Pitch or Rayon.
There are several cycles of heating at varying
temperatures excluding oxygen. This process drives off
most of other elements (hydrogen and nitrogen mainly)
of the starting material leaving carbon behind. It also

allows the carbon to gradually crystallize in its

characteristic honeycomb way. If you haven't seen it
yet, go to my Carbon Research page and look at the
video on Carbon fibre structure. it's fabulous..
The most important factors determining the physical
properties of carbon fiber are degree of carbonization
(carbon content, usually more than 92% by weight) and
orientation of the layered carbon planes (the ribbons).
Fibers are produced commercially with a wide range of
crystalline and amorphous contents variations to
modify or favour the various properties.
Depending on the starting material and process of
carbonization Carbon fiber is modified to suit the end
purpose. PAN or polyacrylonitrile is the most common
precursor for plastic composites.
The main variations of characteristics is strength vs
stiffness. By using different heating cycles either can be
emphasized. Research is being done to modify other
features such as heat and electrical conductivity.

Carbon Fiber PropertieS:1.High Strength to weight ratio

2.Rigidity
3. Corrosion resistance
4. Electrical Conductivity

5. Fatigue Resistance
6. Good tensile strength but Brittle
7. Fire Resistance/Not flammable
8. High Thermal Conductivity in some forms
9. Low coefficient of thermal expansion
10. Non poisonous
11. Biologically inert
12. X-Ray Permeable
13. Self Lubricating
14. Excellent EMI (Electromagnetic Interference)
Shielding Property
Relatively Expensive
Requires specialized experience and equipment to use.
1- Carbon Fiber has High Strength to Weight
Ratio (also known as specific strength)
Strength of a material is the force per unit area at
failure, divided by its density. Any material that is
strong AND light has a favourable Strength/Weight
ratio. Materials such as Aluminium, titanium,
magnesium, Carbon and glass fiber, high strength steel
alloys all have good strength to weight ratios. It is not
surprising that Balsa wood comes in with a high
strength to weight ratio.
The following figures are offered for comparison only
and will vary depending on composition, alloy, type of
spider, density of wood etc. The units are kN.m/kg.

Because of the way the crystals of carbon fibre orient in

long flat ribbon or narrow sheets of honeycomb
crystals, the strength is higher running lengthwise than
across the fibre. That is why designers of carbon fibre
objects specify the direction the fibre should be laid to
maximize strength and rigidity in a specific direction.
The fibre being aligned with the direction of greatest
stress.Pan based precursor carbon fibre has higher
strength than pitch based carbon fibre which has higher
stiffness
2- Carbon Fiber is very Rigid
Rigidity or stiffness of a material is measured by its
Young Modulus and measures how much a material
deflects under stress. Carbon fiber reinforced plastic is
over 4 times stiffer than Glass reinforced plastic, almost
20 times more than pine, 2.5 times greater than
aluminium. For more information on stiffness and how it
is measured, plus a comparison table of different
materials see my Young Modulus page.
Remember stress is force, strain is deflection such as
bending or stretching
3- Carbon fiber is Corrosion Resistant and
Chemically Stable.
Although carbon fiber themselves do not deteriorate
measurably, Epoxy is sensitive to sunlight and needs to
be protected. Other matrices (whatever the carbon
fiber is embedded in) might also be reactive.

Composites made from carbon fibre must either be

made with UV resistant epoxy (uncommon), or covered
with a UV resistant finish such as varnishes.
4- Carbon fiber is Electrically Conductive
This feature can either be useful or be a nuisance. In
Boat building conductivity has to be taken into account
just as Aluminium conductivity comes into play. Carbon
fiber conductivity can facilitate Galvanic Corrosion in
fittings. Careful installation can reduce this problem.
Carbon Fiber dust can accumulate in a shop and cause
sparks or short circuits in electrical appliances and
equipment.

5- Fatigue Resistance is good

Resistance to Fatigue in Carbon Fiber Composites is
good. However when carbon fiber fails it usually fails
catastrophically without significant exterior signs to
announce its imminent failure.
Damage in tensile fatigue is seen as reduction in
stiffness with larger numbers of stress cycles, (unless
the temperature is high)
Test have shown that failure is unlikely to be a problem
when cyclic stresses coincide with the fiber orientation.

Carbon fiber is superior to E glass in fatigue and static

strength as well as stiffness.
The orientation of the fibers AND the different fiber
layer orientation, have a great deal of influence on how
a composite will resist fatigue (as it has on stiffness).
The type of forces applied also result in different types
of failures. Tension, Compression or Shear forces all
result in markedly different failure results.
Paper by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, on test of
carbon fiber composites intended for automotive use.
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, test
for materials to be used in wind turbines blades.
6- Carbon Fiber has good Tensile Strength
Tensile strength or ultimate strength, is the maximum
stress that a material can withstand while being
stretched or pulled before necking, or failing. Necking is
when the sample cross-section starts to significantly
contract. If you take a strip of plastic bag, it will stretch
and at one point will start getting narrow. This is
necking. Tensile Strength is measured in Force per Unit
area. Brittle materials such as carbon fiber does not
always fail at the same stress level because of internal
flaws. They fail at small strains. (in other words there is
not a lot of bending or stretching before catastrophic
failure) Weibull modulus of brittle materials
Testing involves taking a sample with a fixed crosssection area, and then pulling it gradually increasing

the force until the sample changes shape or breaks.

Fibers, such as carbon fibers, being only 2/10,000th of
an inch in diameter, are made into composites of
appropriate shapes in order to test.
Units are MPa This table is offered as a comparison only
since there are a great number of variables.
Pine wood (parallel to grain)

40

7- Fire Resistance/Non Flammable

Depending upon the manufacturing process and the
precursor material, carbon fiber can be be made to feel
quite soft to the hand and can be made into or more
often integrated into protective clothing for firefighting.
Nickel coated fiber is an example. Because carbon fiber
is also chemically very inert, it can be used where there
is fire combined with corrosive agents. Carbon Fiber
Blanket used as welding protection.
8- Thermal Conductivity of Carbon Fiber
See my article on Heat Conductivity of Carbon Based
materials including carbon fibre, nanotubes and
graphene.
Thermal conductivity is the quantity of heat transmitted
through a unit thickness, in a direction normal to a
surface of unit area, because of a unit temperature
gradient, under steady conditions. In other words it's a
measure of how easily heat flows through a material.

Because there are many variations on the theme of

carbon fiber it is not possible to pinpoint exactly the
thermal conductivity. Special types of Carbon Fiber
have been specifically designed for high or low thermal
conductivity. There are also efforts to Enhance this
feature.
The Materials Information Society has a page on
"graphite" AKA Carbon Fiber
9- Low Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
This is a measure of how much a material expands and
contracts when the temperature goes up or down.
Units are in Inch / inch degree F, as in other tables, the
units are not so important as the comparison.
Carbon fiber can have a broad range of CTE's, -1 to 8+,
depending on the direction measured, the fabric weave,
the precursor material, Pan based (high strength,
higher CTE) or Pitch based (high modulus/stiffness,
lower CTE).
In a high enough mast differences in Coefficients of
thermal expansion of various materials can slightly
modify the rig tensions.
Low Coefficient of Thermal expansion makes carbon
fiber suitable for applications where small movements
can be critical. Telescope and other optical machinery is
one such application.

10-11-12 Non Poisonous, Biologically Inert, X-Ray

Permeable
These quality make Carbon fiber useful in Medical
applications. Prosthesis use, implants and tendon
repair, x-ray accessories surgical instruments, are all in
development.
Although not poisonous, the carbon fibers can be quite
irritating and long term unprotected exposure needs to
be limited. The matrix either epoxy or polyester, can
however be toxic and proper care needs to be
exercised.
15- Carbon Fiber is Relatively Expensive
Although it offers exceptional advantages of Strength,
Rigidity and Weight reduction, cost is a deterrent.
Unless the weight advantage is exceptionally
important, such as in aeronautics applications or
racing, it often is not worth the extra cost. The low
maintenance requirement of carbon fiber is a further
advantage.
It is difficult to quantify cool and fashionable. Carbon
fiber has an aura and reputation which makes
consumers willing to pay more for the cachet of having
it.
You might need less of it compared to fiberglass and
this might be a saving.

Fibre Glast Real Carbon Fiber Fabric - 3K, 2 X 2 - Twill

Weave - 1 yd Roll
Noahs supplies Carbon Fiber and Glass cloth to amateur
boat builders, wander in their online catalog and
compare the prices.
16- Carbon Fibers are brittle
The layers in the fibers are formed by strong covalent
bonds. The sheet-like aggregations readily allow the
propagation of cracks. When the fibers bend they fails
at very low strain. In other words carbon fibre does not
bend much before failing.
17- Carbon Fiber is not yet geared to Amateur
techniques.
In order to maximize Carbon Fiber Characteristics, a
relatively high level of technical excellence must be
achieved. Imperfections and air bubbles can
significantly affect performance. Typically, autoclaves,
or vacuum equipment is required. Moulds and mandrels
are major expenses as well.The success of any amateur
carbon fiber construction will be closely linked to the
skill and care taken.

CARBON FIBRE STRUCTURE:

Carbon fiber is frequently supplied in the form of a

continuous tow wound onto a reel. The tow is a bundle
of thousands of continuous individual carbon filaments
held together and protected by an organic coating, or
size, such as polyethylene oxide (PEO) or polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA). The tow can be conveniently unwound
from the reel for use. Each carbon filament in the tow is
a continuous cylinder with a diameter of 510
micrometers and consists almost exclusively of carbon.
The earliest generation (e.g. T300, HTA and AS4) had
diameters of 1622 micrometers.[5] Later fibers (e.g.
IM6 or IM600) have diameters that are approximately 5
micrometers.
The atomic structure of carbon fiber is similar to that of
graphite, consisting of sheets of carbon atoms arranged
in a regular hexagonal pattern (graphene sheets).

CARBON FIBRE APPLICATION:

1. Composite materials:
Carbon fiber is most notably used to reinforce composite
materials, particularly the class of materials known as carbon
fiber or graphite reinforced polymers,
2. Textiles:
Precursors for carbon fibers are polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon
and pitch. Carbon fiber filament yarns are used in several
processing techniques: the direct uses are for prepregging,
filament winding, pultrusion, weaving, braiding, etc.

3. Microelectrodes:
Carbon fibers are used for fabrication of carbon-fiber
microelectrodes. In this application typically a single carbon fiber
with diameter of 57 m is sealed in a glass capillary.
4. Flexible Heating:
Known for its conductivity, carbon fibers can carry very low
currents on their own. When woven into larger fabrics, they can
be used to reliably deliver infrared heating in applications
requiring flexible heating elements and can easily sustain
temperatures past 100 C due to its physical properties.