Contents

Articles
Gel

Gelatin

Colloid

11

Collagen

19

Gelatin dessert

32

Almond jelly

35

Guilinggao

37

Grass jelly

40

Potassium carbonate

44

Mesona

48

Mesona chinensis

49

Tiliacora triandra

50

Algae

52

Agar

68

Konjac

73

Aiyu jelly

76

References
Article Sources and Contributors

78

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

81

Article Licenses
License

83

Gel

Gel
A gel (from the lat. gelufreezing, cold, ice or gelatusfrozen,
immobile) is a solid, jelly-like material that can have properties
ranging from soft and weak to hard and tough. Gels are defined as a
substantially dilute cross-linked system, which exhibits no flow when
in the steady-state.[1] By weight, gels are mostly liquid, yet they behave
like solids due to a three-dimensional cross-linked network within the
liquid. It is the crosslinks within the fluid that give a gel its structure
(hardness) and contribute to stickiness (tack). In this way gels are a
dispersion of molecules of a liquid within a solid in which the solid is
the continuous phase and the liquid is the discontinuous phase.

An upturned vial of hair gel

Composition
Gels consist of a solid three-dimensional network that spans the volume of a liquid medium and ensnares it through
surface tension effects. This internal network structure may result from physical bonds (physical gels) or chemical
bonds (chemical gels), as well as crystallites or other junctions that remain intact within the extending fluid.
Virtually any fluid can be used as an extender including water (hydrogels), oil, and air (aerogel). Both by weight and
volume, gels are mostly fluid in composition and thus exhibit densities similar to those of their constituent liquids.
Edible jelly is a common example of a hydrogel and has approximately the density of water.

Cationic polymers
Cationic polymers are positively charged polymers. Their positive charges prevent the formation of coiled polymers.
This allows them to contribute more to viscosity in their stretched state, because the stretched-out polymer takes up
more space Gel is a colloid solution of dispersion phase as liquid and dispersion medium as solid

Types of gels
Hydrogels
Hydrogel is a network of polymer chains that are hydrophilic, sometimes found as a colloidal gel in which water is
the dispersion medium. Hydrogels are highly absorbent (they can contain over 99.9% water) natural or synthetic
polymers. Hydrogels also possess a degree of flexibility very similar to natural tissue, due to their significant water
content. Common uses for hydrogels include
currently used as scaffolds in tissue engineering. When used as scaffolds, hydrogels may contain human cells to
repair tissue.
hydrogel-coated wells have been used for cell culture[2]
environmentally sensitive hydrogels which are also known as 'Smart Gels' or 'Intelligent Gels'. These hydrogels
have the ability to sense changes of pH, temperature, or the concentration of metabolite and release their load as
result of such a change.
as sustained-release drug delivery systems.
provide absorption, desloughing and debriding of necrotic and fibrotic tissue.
hydrogels that are responsive to specific molecules, such as glucose or antigens, can be used as biosensors, as
well as in DDS.
used in disposable diapers where they absorb urine, or in sanitary napkins

Gel

2
contact lenses (silicone hydrogels, polyacrylamides)
EEG and ECG medical electrodes using hydrogels composed of cross-linked polymers (polyethylene oxide,
polyAMPS and polyvinylpyrrolidone)
water gel explosives
rectal drug delivery and diagnosis
Other, less common uses include
breast implants
now used in glue.
granules for holding soil moisture in arid areas
dressings for healing of burn or other hard-to-heal wounds. Wound gels are excellent for helping to create or
maintain a moist environment.
reservoirs in topical drug delivery; particularly ionic drugs, delivered by iontophoresis (see ion exchange resin)
Common ingredients are e.g. polyvinyl alcohol, sodium polyacrylate, acrylate polymers and copolymers with an
abundance of hydrophilic groups.
Natural hydrogel materials are being investigated for tissue engineering; these materials include agarose,
methylcellulose, hyaluronan, and other naturally derived polymers.

Organogels
An organogel is a non-crystalline, non-glassy thermoreversible (thermoplastic) solid material composed of a liquid
organic phase entrapped in a three-dimensionally cross-linked network. The liquid can be, for example, an organic
solvent, mineral oil, or vegetable oil. The solubility and particle dimensions of the structurant are important
characteristics for the elastic properties and firmness of the organogel. Often, these systems are based on
self-assembly of the structurant molecules.[3][4]
Organogels have potential for use in a number of applications, such as in pharmaceuticals,[5] cosmetics, art
conservation,[6] and food.[7] An example of formation of an undesired thermoreversible network is the occurrence of
wax crystallization in petroleum.[8]

Xerogels
A xerogel ( /zrdl/) is a solid formed from a gel by drying with unhindered shrinkage. Xerogels usually
retain high porosity (15-50%) and enormous surface area (150900 m2/g), along with very small pore size
(1-10nm). When solvent removal occurs under hypercritical (supercritical) conditions, the network does not shrink
and a highly porous, low-density material known as an aerogel is produced. Heat treatment of a xerogel at elevated
temperature produces viscous sintering (shrinkage of the xerogel due to a small amount of viscous flow) and
effectively transforms the porous gel into a dense glass.

Gel

Properties
Many gels display thixotropy - they become fluid when agitated, but resolidify when resting. In general, gels are
apparently solid, jelly-like materials. By replacing the liquid with gas it is possible to prepare aerogels, materials
with exceptional properties including very low density, high specific surface areas, and excellent thermal insulation
properties.

Naturally occurring gels in the animal kingdom

Some species secrete gels that are effective in parasite control. For example, the long-finned pilot whale secretes an
enzymatic gel that rests on the outer surface of this animal and helps prevent other organisms from establishing
colonies on the surface of these whales' bodies.[9]

Applications
Many substances can form gels when a suitable thickener or gelling agent is added to their formula. This approach is
common in manufacture of wide range of products, from foods to paints and adhesives.
In fiber optics communications, a soft gel resembling "hair gel" in viscosity is used to fill the plastic tubes containing
the fibers. The main purpose of the gel is to prevent water intrusion if the buffer tube is breached, but the gel also
buffers the fibers against mechanical damage when the tube is bent around corners during installation, or flexed.
Additionally, the gel acts as a processing aid when the cable is being constructed, keeping the fibers central whilst
the tube material is extruded around it.
Hydrogels existing naturally in the body include mucus, the vitreous humor of the eye, cartilage, tendons and blood
clots. Their viscoelastic nature results in the soft tissue component of the body, disparate from the mineral-based
hard tissue of the skeletal system. Researchers are actively developing synthetically derived tissue replacement
technologies derived from hydrogels, for both temporary implants (degradable) and permanent implants
(non-degradable). A review article on the subject discusses the use of hydrogels for nucleus pulposus replacement,
cartilage replacement, and synthetic tissue models.[10]

References
Notes
[1] Ferry, John D. Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers. New York: Wiley, 1980.
[2] Tissue Cells Feel and Respond to the Stiffness of Their Substrate (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 310/ 5751/ 1139. abstract)
[3] Terech P. Low-molecular weight organogelators. In: Robb ID, editor. Specialist surfactants. Glasgow: Blackie Academic and Professional, p.
208268 (1997).
[4] van Esch J, Schoonbeek F, De Loos M, Veen EM, Kellog RM, Feringa BL. Low molecular weight gelators for organic solvents. In: Ungaro
R, Dalcanale E, editors. Supramolecular science: where it is and where it is going. Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 233259 (1999).
[5] Kumar R, Katare OP. Lecithin organogels as a potential phospholipid-structured system for topical drug delivery: A review. American
Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists PharmSciTech 6, E298E310 (2005).
[6] Carretti E, Dei L, Weiss RG. Soft matter and art conservation. Rheoreversible gels and beyond. Soft Matter 1, 1722 (2005).
[7] Pernetti M, van Malssen KF, Flter E, Bot A. Structuring of edible oil by alternatives to crystalline fat. Current Opinion in Colloid and
Interface Science 12, 221231 (2007).
[8] Visintin RFG, Lapasin R, Vignati E, D'Antona P, Lockhart TP. Rheological behavior and structural interpretation of waxy crude oil gels.
Langmuir 21, 62406249 (2005)
[9] Eileen May Dee, Mark McGinley and C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Long-finned pilot whale. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science
and the Environment. Washington DC. (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Long-finned_pilot_whale?topic=49540) eds. Peter Saundry and
Cutler Cleveland
[10] Injectable Hydrogel-based Medical Devices: There's always room for Jell-O1 (https:/ / www. orthoworld. com/ site/ index. php/
publications/ view_article/ 221558)

Gel

Sources
I. Katime, O. Katime, D. Katime.Los materiales inteligentes de este milenio: Los hidrogeles macromoleculares.
Sntesis, propiedades y applicaciones. Servicio Editorial de la Universidad del Pas Vasco (UPV/EHU).Bilbao.
Septiembre de 2004

Further reading
Ajayaghosh, A., Praveen, V.K. & Vijayakumar, C. Organogels as scaffolds for excitation energy transfer and
light harvesting. Chem Soc Rev 37, 109-22(2008).
Ajayaghosh, A. & Praveen, V.K. p-Organogels of Self-Assembled p-Phenylenevinylenes: Soft Materials with
Distinct Size, Shape, and Functions. Acc. Chem. Res. 40, 644-656(2007).
Estroff, L.A. & Hamilton, A.D. Water gelation by small organic molecules. Chem Rev 104, 1201-18(2004).
Fairclough, J.P.A. & Norman, A.I. Structure and rheology of aqueous gels. Annu. Rep. Prog. Chem., Sect. C 99,
243-276(2003).
Pich, A.Z. & Adler, H.P. Composite aqueous microgels: an overview of recent advances in synthesis,
characterization and application. Polymer International 56, 291-307(2007).
Viscoelastic Characterization of Agarose Gel Scaffolds (http://bose-electroforce.com/pdf/
appbrief_AgaroseGels.pdf)

External links
Xerogel (definition) (http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/X06700.pdf)

Gelatin
Gelatin (or gelatine, from Latin: gelatus = stiff, frozen) is a
translucent, colorless, brittle (when dry), flavorless solid substance,
derived from collagen obtained from various animal by-products. It is
commonly used as a gelling agent in food, pharmaceuticals,
photography, and cosmetic manufacturing. Substances containing
gelatin or functioning in a similar way are called gelatinous. Gelatin is
an irreversibly hydrolysed form of collagen, and is classified as a
foodstuff. It is found in most gummy candies as well as other products
such as marshmallows, gelatin dessert, and some ice cream and yogurt.
'Sheet' or 'leaf' gelatin for cooking
Household gelatin comes in the form of sheets, granules, or powder.
Instant types can be added to the food as they are; others need to be soaked in water beforehand.
Gelatin is classed as a food in its own right and not subject to the food additives legislation in Europe. Gelatin has its
own E number: 441.[1]

Composition and properties

Gelatin is a mixture of peptides and proteins produced by partial hydrolysis of collagen extracted from the skin,
boiled crushed horn, hoof and bones, connective tissues, organs and some intestines of animals such as domesticated
cattle, chicken, and horses. The natural molecular bonds between individual collagen strands are broken down into a
form that rearranges more easily. Gelatin melts to a liquid when heated and solidifies when cooled again. Together
with water, it forms a semi-solid colloid gel. Gelatin forms a solution of high viscosity in water, which sets to a gel
on cooling, and its chemical composition is, in many respects, closely similar to that of its parent collagen.[2] Gelatin

Gelatin
is also soluble in most polar solvents.
Gelatin solutions show viscoelastic flow and streaming birefringence. If gelatin is put into contact with cold water,
some of the material dissolves, but not all. The solubility of the gelatin is determined by the method of manufacture.
Typically, gelatin can be dispersed in a relatively concentrated acid. Such dispersions are stable for 1015 days with
little or no chemical changes and are suitable for coating purposes or for extrusion into a precipitating bath.
Gelatin gels exist over only a small temperature range, the upper limit being the melting point of the gel, which
depends on gelatin grade and concentration (but is typically less than 35C) and the lower limit the freezing point at
which ice crystallizes. The upper melting point is below human body temperature, a factor which is important for
mouthfeel of foods produced with gelatin.[3]
Mechanical properties of gelatin gels (for example the gel strength, which is quantified using the Bloom test) are
very sensitive to temperature variations, previous thermal history of the gel, and time. The viscosity of the
gelatin/water mixture increases with concentration and when kept cool ( 4 C).

Production
The worldwide production amount of gelatin is about 300,000 tons per
year (roughly 600 million lb). On a commercial scale, gelatin is made
from by-products of the meat and leather industry. Recently, fish
by-products have also been considered because they eliminate some of
the religious obstacles surrounding gelatin consumption.[3] Gelatin is
derived from pork skins, pork, horses, and cattle bones, or split cattle
hides.[4] The raw materials are prepared by different curing, acid, and
alkali processes which are employed to extract the dried collagen
hydrolysate. These processes[5] may take up to several weeks, and
differences in such processes have great effects on the properties of the
final gelatin products.[6]
Gelatin can also be prepared in the home. Boiling certain cartilaginous
cuts of meat or bones will result in gelatin being dissolved into the
water. Depending on the concentration, the resulting stock (when
cooled) will naturally form a jelly or gel. This process is used for aspic.
While there are many processes whereby collagen can be converted to
gelatin, they all have several factors in common. The intermolecular
and intramolecular bonds which stabilize insoluble collagen rendering
it insoluble must be broken, and the hydrogen bonds which stabilize
the collagen helix must also be broken.[2] The manufacturing processes of gelatin consists of three main stages:
1. Pretreatments to make the raw materials ready for the main extraction step and to remove impurities which may
have negative effects on physio chemical properties of the final gelatin product,
2. The main extraction step, which is usually done with hot water or dilute acid solutions as a multi-stage extraction
to hydrolyze collagen into gelatin, and finally,
3. The refining and recovering treatments including filtration, clarification, evaporation, sterilization, drying,
rutting, grinding, and sifting to remove the water from the gelatin solution, to blend the gelatin extracted, and to
obtain dried, blended and ground final product.

Gelatin

Pretreatments
If the physical material that will be used in production is derived from bones, dilute acid solutions are used to
remove calcium and similar salts. Hot water or several solvents may be used for de-greasing. Maximum fat content
of the material should not exceed 1% before the main extraction step. If the raw material is hides and skin, size
reduction, washing, removing hair from the hides, and de-greasing are the most important pretreatments used to
make the hides and skins ready for the main extraction step. Raw material preparation for extraction is done by three
different methods: acid, alkali, and enzymatic treatments. Acid treatment is especially suitable for less fully
crosslinked materials such as pig skin collagen. Pig skin collagen is less complex than the collagen found in bovine
hides. Acid treatment is faster than alkali treatment and normally requires 10 to 48 hours. Alkali treatment is suitable
for more complex collagen, e.g., the collagen found in bovine hides. This process requires longer time, normally
several weeks. The purpose of the alkali treatment is to destroy certain chemical crosslinkages still present in
collagen. The gelatin obtained from acid treated raw material has been called type-A gelatin, and the gelatin obtained
from alkali treated raw material is referred to as type-B gelatin. Enzymatic treatments used for preparing raw
material for the main extraction step are relatively new. Enzymatic treatments have some advantages in contrast to
alkali treatment. Time required for enzymatic treatment is short, the yield is almost 100% in enzymatic treatment, the
purity is also higher, and the physical properties of the final gelatin product are better.

Extraction
After preparation of the raw material, i.e., reducing crosslinkages between collagen components and removing some
of the impurities such as fat and salts, partially purified collagen is converted into gelatin by extraction with either
water or acid solutions at appropriate temperatures. All industrial processes are based on neutral or acid pH values
because though alkali treatments speed up conversion, they also promote degradation processes. Acid extract
conditions are extensively used in the industry but the degree of acid varies with different processes. This extraction
step is a multi stage process, and the extraction temperature is usually increased in later extraction steps. This
procedure ensures the minimum thermal degradation of the extracted gelatin.

Recovery
This process includes several steps such as filtration, evaporation, drying, grinding, and sifting. These operations are
concentration-dependent and also dependent on the particular gelatin used. Gelatin degradation should be avoided
and minimized, therefore the lowest temperature possible is used for the recovery process. Most recoveries are rapid,
with all of the processes being done in several stages to avoid extensive deterioration of the peptide structure. A
deteriorated peptide structure would result in a low gelling strength, which is not generally desired.

Uses
Probably best known as a gelling agent in cooking, different types and grades of gelatin are used in a wide range of
food and non-food products: Common examples of foods that contain gelatin are gelatin desserts, trifles, aspic,
marshmallows, candy corn, and confections such as Peeps, gummy bears and jelly babies. Gelatin may be used as a
stabilizer, thickener, or texturizer in foods such as jams, yogurt, cream cheese, and margarine; it is used, as well, in
fat-reduced foods to simulate the mouthfeel of fat and to create volume without adding calories.

Gelatin

Gelatin is used for the clarification of juices, such as apple juice, and of
vinegar. Isinglass, from the swim bladders of fish, is still used as a
fining agent for wine and beer.[7] Beside hartshorn jelly, from deer
antlers (hence the name "hartshorn"), isinglass was one of the oldest
sources of gelatin.

Eggs in aspic

Technical uses
Certain professional and theatrical lighting equipment use color gels
to change the beam color. These were historically made with
gelatin, hence the term color gel.
Gelatin typically constitutes the shells of pharmaceutical capsules in
order to make them easier to swallow. Hypromellose is a
vegan-acceptable alternative to gelatin, but is more expensive to
produce.
Animal glues such as hide glue are essentially unrefined gelatin.
It is used to hold silver halide crystals in an emulsion in virtually all
photographic films and photographic papers. Despite some efforts,
no suitable substitutes with the stability and low cost of gelatin have
been found.

Capsules made of gelatin.

Used as a carrier, coating or separating agent for other substances; for example, it makes beta-carotene
water-soluble thus imparting a yellow colour to any soft drinks containing beta-carotene.
Gelatin is closely related to bone glue and is used as a binder in match heads and sandpaper.
Cosmetics may contain a non-gelling variant of gelatin under the name hydrolyzed collagen.
Gelatin was first used as an external surface sizing for paper in 1337 and continued as a dominant sizing agent of
all European papers through the mid-19th century.[8] In modern times it occasionally found in some glossy
printing papers, artistic papers, playing cards, and it maintains the wrinkles in crpe paper.

Other uses
Blocks of ballistic gelatin simulate muscle tissue as a standardized medium for testing firearms ammunition.
Gelatin is used by synchronized swimmers to hold their hair in place during their routines as it will not dissolve in
the cold water of the pool. It is frequently referred to as "knoxing," a reference to Knox brand gelatin.[9]
When added to boiling water and cooled, unflavored gelatin can make a home-made hair styling gel that is
cheaper than many commercial hair styling products, but by comparison has a shorter shelf life (about a week)
when stored in this form (usually in a refrigerator). After being applied to scalp hair, it can be removed with
rinsing and some shampoo.
It is commonly used as a biological substrate to culture adherent cells.
Also used by those who are sensitive to tannins (which can irritate the stomach) in teas, soups or brews.
It may be used as a medium with which to consume LSD. LSD in gelatin form is known as "windowpane" or
"geltabs."
Gelatin is used to make the shells of paintballs, similar to the way pharmaceutical capsules are produced.

Gelatin

Gelatin is also used as an ingredient in implantable medical devices, such as in some bone void fillers. Doctors
may discuss this with their patients in cases of religious beliefs.
Gelatin is also used in nail polish remover and makeup applications. The gelatin is often tinted in different colors
to match a model's natural skin tone.
Leaf or sheet gelatin is also used directly in food-based model-making, for example to make translucent, edible,
diamond-paned windows in gingerbread houses.[10]
Gelatin can be used as a binding agent in india ink.
Gelatin may additionally be used as a technique within the process of fine art printmaking. The prints are made by
creating a block of gelatin and applying printing inks. The gelatin is made using twice the normal amount of
gelatin granules to the usual amount of water. Once set - printmaking ink (usually water based) is applied to its
surface. Other water based media may also be applied. Items such as dried grass, leaves and paper stencils are
placed onto the inked surface. Gelatin monotype is best done with the use of medium to lightweight paper. This is
gently pressed onto the inked plate once the 'design' has been composed.

Religion and gelatin substitutes

Special kinds of gelatin indicate the specific animal that was used for its production. For example, Muslim halal or
Jewish kosher customs may require gelatin from sources other than pigs, like cows and/or fish and from animals
slaughtered ritually. Muslims do not knowingly and in normal conditions eat foods or use products that contain pork
gelatin. There are many companies that specify the source of the gelatin used, and advise consumers via the nutrition
information and/or their hotline. Likewise, Hindu customs may require gelatin-alternatives from sources other than
animals. Many Hindus are vegetarian. The few Hindus who are not vegetarians don't mind gelatin from all the
sources but cow, which is considered sacred. Vegans and strict vegetarians choose not to eat foods containing gelatin
made from animals. Romani people are cautious of gelatin products that may have been made from horses, as their
culture forbids consuming horses.
Some dietary or religious customs forbid the use of gelatin from certain animal sources, and medical issues may limit
or prevent its consumption by certain people.
Alternatives to gelatin include non-animal gel sources such as agar-agar (a seaweed), carrageenan, pectin, konjak,
and guar gum.

Medical and nutritional properties

Although gelatin is 98-99% protein by dry weight, it has less
nutritional value than many other complete protein sources. Gelatin is
unusually high in the non-essential amino acids glycine and proline
(i.e., those produced by the human body), while lacking certain
essential amino acids (i.e., those not produced by the human body). It
contains no tryptophan and is deficient in isoleucine, threonine, and
methionine. The approximate amino acid composition of gelatin is:
glycine 21%, proline 12%, hydroxyproline 12%, glutamic acid 10%,
alanine 9%, arginine 8%, aspartic acid 6%, lysine 4%, serine 4%,
leucine 3%, valine 2%, phenylalanine 2%, threonine 2%, isoleucine
1%, hydroxylysine 1%, methionine and histidine <1% and tyrosine
<0.5%. These values vary, especially the minor constituents,
depending on the source of the raw material and processing technique.[11]

Amino acid composition

Several Russian researchers offer the following opinion regarding certain peptides found in gelatin: "gelatin peptides
reinforce resistance of the stomach mucous tunic to ethanol and stress action, decreasing the ulcer area by twice."[12]

Gelatin
Gelatin is also a topical haemostatic. A piece of gelatin sponge of appropriate size is applied on bleeding wound,
pressed for some time and tied in bandage. Haemostatic action is based on platelets damage at the contact of blood
with gelatin, which activates the coagulation cascade. Gelatin also causes a tamponading effect - blood flow
stoppage into a blood vessel by a constriction of the vessel by an outside force.[13]
Gelatin has also been claimed to promote general joint health. A study at Ball State University sponsored by
Nabisco, the former parent company of Knox gelatin,[14] found that gelatin supplementation relieved knee joint pain
and stiffness in athletes.[15]
Oral gelatin consumption have been claimed to have beneficial therapeutic effect on hair loss in both men and
women.[16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23] In addition there are scientific publications that present evidences that
consumption of oral gelatin has beneficial effect for some fingernail changes and diseases.[24][25][26][27][28]

Safety concerns
Strict regulations apply for all steps in the gelatin manufacturing process. Gelatin is produced from natural raw
materials which originate from animals that have been examined and accepted for human consumption by veterinary
authorities. Hygienic regulations with respect to fresh raw materials are ensured and each batch of raw material
delivered to the manufacturing plant is immediately checked and documented.
In addition to the raw material quality, also the production process itself is an effective quality assurance measure. In
the production process a comprehensive monitoring system ensures that potential risks are minimized.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), with support from the TSE (Transmissible spongiform
encephalopathy) Advisory Committee, has since 1997 been monitoring the potential risk of transmitting animal
diseases, especially bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as Mad Cow disease. The FDA
study concluded: "...steps such as heat, alkaline treatment, and filtration could be effective in reducing the level of
contaminating TSE agents; however, scientific evidence is insufficient at this time to demonstrate that these
treatments would effectively remove the BSE infectious agent if present in the source material."[29]
The Scientific Steering Committee (SSC) of the European Union (EU) in 2003 stated that the risk associated with
bovine bone gelatin is very low or zero.[30][31] In 2006 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) stated that the
SSC opinion was confirmed, that the BSE risk of bone-derived gelatin was very small, and removed support for the
2003 request of excluding the skull and vertebrae of bovine origin older than 12 months from the material used in
gelatin manufacturing.[32]
All reputable gelatin manufacturers today follow the Quality Management System according to ISO 9001 to comply
with all required physical, chemical, microbiological and technical production and quality standards. In this way all
process steps follow international laws and customer-specific quality parameters and are guaranteed and
documented. For pharmaceutical grade gelatins strict regulations from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the
European CPMP's regulation and European Pharmacopoeia must be met. A detailed overview of the regulatory
requirements for gelatin production can be found in the Gelatine Handbook, page 99-101.[33]

Gelatin

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

(http:/ / www. laleva. cc/ food/ enumbers/ E441-470. html)

Ward, A.G.; Courts, A. (1977). The Science and Technology of Gelatin. New York: Academic Press. ISBN0-12-735050-0.
Cole, CGB (2000), "Gelatin", in Francis, FJ, Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, pp.11831188
"Gelatine information, news, history and more" (http:/ / www. gelatin-gmia. com/ html/ qanda. html). Gelatine Manufacturers Institute of
America. . Retrieved 2008-09-26.
[5] "Rousselot.com. Gelatin, Hydrolyzed collagen. Properties, processes, applications in the confectionnery, dairy, pharmaceutical. Now is
mostly used from plants industries" (http:/ / www. rousselot. com). ROUSSELOT. . Retrieved 2008-07-15.
[6] "Gelita.com" (http:/ / www. gelita. com). GELITA Group. . Retrieved 2006-12-04.
[7] "National Organic Standards Board Technical Advisory Panel Review: Gelatin processing" (http:/ / www. omri. org/ Gelatin-TAP. pdf)
(PDF). .
[8] Thurn, Jim. "History, Chemistry, and Long Term Effects of Alum-Rosin Size in Paper" (https:/ / pacer. ischool. utexas. edu/ html/ 2081/
1396/ j-thurn-03-alum. html). .
[9] "2008 United States Olympic Synchronized Swimming Team" (http:/ / www. usasynchro. org/ athletes/ National/ 2008/
Synchro_MediaGuide_2008. pdf) (PDF). .
[10] http:/ / www. gingerbread-house-heaven. com/ gingerbread-house-windows. html
[11] Stevens, P.V. (1992). "Unknown" (http:/ / www. gelatin. co. za/ gltn1. html). Food Australia 44 (7): 320324. . Retrieved 2005-08-11.
[12] "Gelatin Treats Ulcer" (http:/ / www. medicalnewstoday. com/ medicalnews. php?newsid=50126). Medical News Today. August 22, 2006. .
[13] , (2003). : - ,
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KoALc2R-h0IC& printsec=frontcover&
dq=+ + :+
-+ + . . . + + By+ +
+ #v=onepage& q& f=false). ISBN978-5-7654-2738-5. .
[14] http:/ / www. gelita. com
[15] Pearson, David. "Gelatin found to reduce joint pain in athletes" (http:/ / www. bsu. edu/ news/ article/ 0,1370,-1019-632,00. html). .
[16] Morganti P., Randazzo S.D., Bruno C, (1982) "effect of gelatin cysteine on hair after a three months treatment" J. Soc. Cosmet. Chemists
33, 95.
[17] Randazzo S.D., Morganti P., (1982) "The influence of gelatin cysteine supplementation on the amino acids composition of human hair",
accepted for presentation on XVI intern. Congress of Dermatology May 2328 Tokyo.
[18] Morganti P., Bruno C. Colelli G (1983) Geltina - cistina. Cheratogenesi e struttura pilifcra Boil, Soc, It. Biol Sper 59:20.
[19] M.P DE Padova, A. TOSTI, Gelatin - Cyctine in Seborrheic Alopecia, department of dermatology university of Bologna Italy, February
15, 1985. J Appl. Cosmetol 1968;4;55-60 (April/June 1986).
[20] Titled: Low dosage retinol and L-cystine combination improve alopecia of the diffuse type, following long-term oral administration. By
Hertel H, Gollnick H, Matthies C, Baumann I, Orfanos CE. Universitts-Hautklinik und Poliklinik, Freien Universitt Berlin. Hautarzt. 1989
Aug;40(8):490-5.
[21] Morganti P., G. Fabrizl. B james, C. Bruno, titled: "Effect of gelatin-cystine and serenoa repens extract on free radicals level and hair
growth". Presented at Singapore clinical dermatology 200 Singapore 1820 June 1998.
[22] Dr. Zeev Pam, dermatologist presented a lecture titled: "Low dosage gelatin based treatments with single dose, daily, for minimum of 3-6
months in female pattern hair loss." Presented at the first International Annual Convention on the advance in hair research of the Israeli
Society of Dermatology and Venereology at the Technion, faculty of medicine, Israel, in June 2010. www.drzeevpam.com
[23] Dr. Nadav Pam, defended successfully the diploma work on April 2011 Therapeutic Effect of Gelatin as a Dietary Supplement for
Female Hair Loss, tutored by Norbert M. Wikonkl, M.D., Ph.D at the department of Dermatology, Venereology and Skin Oncology,
Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary. No. T000538/F162573. AA187-105/06.11. The above mentioned diploma work was presented
as a poster in the 15th Annual Meeting of the European Hair Research Society (EHRS), Jerusalem, Israel, and July 69, 2011
[24] Effect of Gelatin On the Vascularity of the Finger. Mulinos, Michael G.; Kadison, Ellen D. Angiology , Volume 16 (4): 170. SAGE Apr 1,
1965.
[25] The Effect of Gelatin on Fragile Finger Nails by Terence Lloyd Tyson MD, The Journal of Investigative Dermatology (1950) 14, 323325;
doi:10.1038/jid.1950.4.
[26] NEW ASPECTS OF THE EFFECTS OF GELATIN ON FINGERNAILS by Joseph N. Michelson, Ph. D. and David J. Huntsman, B.S*,
*applied Biological Sciences Laboratories, Inc, Glendale 1, Calif. Published in The Journal of the society of cosmetics chemists pages
443-454, May 2, 1963.
[27] Gelatin therapy in onychomycoses, by Jank M. Published in German language in Wien. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4235220. Med
Wochenschr. 1968 Feb 24;118(8):154-6.
[28] Lecture titled: "NEW INSIGHTS ON THE ASPECT OF LOW DOSE ORAL GELATIN THERAPY ON FINGERNAILS" was presented
by Zeev Pam M.D., Manager of Aripam Clinic, Ashdod, Israel, and Nadav Pam, 6th year, medical student in the English program of
Semmelweis University. Present at "The Second Meeting of the Israeli Society of Dermato-Mycological and Nail Disorders", Daniel hotel,
Herzliya, Israel, Wednesday, December 7th , 2011.

10

Gelatin

11

[29] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. "The Sourcing and Processing of Gelatin to Reduce the Potential Risk Posed by Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy (BSE) in FDA-Regulated Products for Human Use" (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ RegulatoryInformation/ Guidances/ ucm125182.
htm). .
[30] The Scientific Steering Committee (67 March 2003). "Updated Opinion On The Safety With Regard To TSE Risks Of Gelatine Derived
From Ruminant Bones or Hides" (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ food/ fs/ sc/ ssc/ out321_en. pdf). .
[31] Gelatine Manufacturers of Europe (GME) (June 2003). "The Removal and Inactivation of Potential TSE Infectivity by the Different Gelatin
Manufacturing Processes" (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ OHRMS/ DOCKETS/ AC/ 03/ briefing/ 3969B1_1d. pdf). .
[32] Scientific Panel on Biological Hazards of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (18 January 2006). "Quantitative assessment of the
human BSE risk posed by gelatine with respect to residual BSE risk" (http:/ / www. efsa. europa. eu/ EFSA/ Scientific_Opinion/
biohaz_op_ej312_qra_gelatine_summary_en1. pdf). .
[33] Herbert Gareis; Reinhard Schrieber (2007). Gelatine Handbook: Theory and Industrial Practice. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
ISBN3-527-31548-9.

Colloid
A colloid is a substance microscopically dispersed
evenly throughout another substance.[1]
A colloidal system consists of two separate phases: a
dispersed phase (or internal phase) and a continuous
phase (or dispersion medium) in which the colloid is
dispersed. A colloidal system may be solid, liquid, or
gas.
The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter of
between approximately 1 and 1000 nanometers.[2] Such
particles are normally invisible in an optical
microscope, though their presence can be confirmed
with the use of an ultramicroscope or an electron
microscope. Homogeneous mixtures with a dispersed
phase in this size range may be called colloidal
aerosols, colloidal emulsions, colloidal foams,
colloidal
dispersions,
or
hydrosols.
The
dispersed-phase particles or droplets are affected
largely by the surface chemistry present in the colloid.
Some colloids are translucent because of the Tyndall
effect, which is the scattering of light by particles in the
colloid. Other colloids may be opaque or have a slight
color.

Milk is an emulsified colloid of liquid butterfat globules dispersed

within a water-based solution.

Colloidal solutions (also called colloidal suspensions) are the subject of interface and colloid science. This field of
study was introduced in 1861 by Scottish scientist Thomas Graham.

Classification
Because the size of the dispersed phase may be difficult to measure, and because colloids have the appearance of
solutions, colloids are sometimes identified and characterized by their physico-chemical and transport properties. For
example, if a colloid consists of a solid phase dispersed in a liquid, the solid particles will not diffuse through a
membrane, whereas with a true solution the dissolved ions or molecules will diffuse through a membrane. Because
of the size exclusion, the colloidal particles are unable to pass through the pores of an ultrafiltration membrane with

Colloid

12

a size smaller than their own dimension. The smaller the size of the pore of the ultrafiltration membrane, the lower
the concentration of the dispersed colloidal particules remaining in the ultrafiltred liquid. The exact value of the
concentration of a truly dissolved species will thus depend on the experimental conditions applied to separate it from
the colloidal particles also dispersed in the liquid. This is, a.o., particularly important for solubility studies of readily
hydrolysed species such as Al, Eu, Am, Cm, ... or organic matter complexing these species. Colloids can be
classified as follows:
Medium/Phases

Continuous
medium

Dispersed phase
Gas

Liquid

Solid

NONE
(All gases are mutually miscible)

Liquid aerosol
Examples: fog, mist, hair sprays

Solid aerosol
Examples: smoke, cloud, air
particulates

Liquid

Foam
Example: whipped cream, Shaving
cream

Emulsion
Examples: milk, mayonnaise, hand
cream

Sol
Examples: pigmented ink, blood

Solid

Solid foam
Examples: aerogel, styrofoam,
pumice

Gel
Examples: agar, gelatin, jelly

Solid sol
Example: cranberry glass

Gas

In some cases, a colloid can be considered a homogeneous mixture. This is because the distinction between
"dissolved" and "particulate" matter can be sometimes a matter of approach, which affects whether or not it is
homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Hydrocolloids
A hydrocolloid is defined as a colloid system wherein the colloid particles are hydrophilic polymers dispersed in
water. A hydrocolloid has colloid particles spread throughout water, and depending on the quantity of water
available that can take place in different states, e.g., gel or sol (liquid). Hydrocolloids can be either irreversible
(single-state) or reversible. For example, agar, a reversible hydrocolloid of seaweed extract, can exist in a gel and sol
state, and alternate between states with the addition or elimination of heat.
Many hydrocolloids are derived from natural sources. For example, agar-agar and carrageenan are extracted from
seaweed, gelatin is produced by hydrolysis of proteins of bovine and fish origins, and pectin is extracted from citrus
peel and apple pomace.
Gelatin desserts like jelly or Jell-O are made from gelatin powder, another effective hydrocolloid. Hydrocolloids are
employed in food mainly to influence texture or viscosity (e.g., a sauce). Hydrocolloid-based medical dressings are
used for skin and wound treatment.
Other main hydrocolloids are xanthan gum, gum arabic, guar gum, locust bean gum, cellulose derivatives as
carboxymethyl cellulose, alginate and starch.

Interaction between particles

The following forces play an important role in the interaction of colloid particles:
Excluded volume repulsion: This refers to the impossibility of any overlap between hard particles.
Electrostatic interaction: Colloidal particles often carry an electrical charge and therefore attract or repel each
other. The charge of both the continuous and the dispersed phase, as well as the mobility of the phases are factors
affecting this interaction.
van der Waals forces: This is due to interaction between two dipoles that are either permanent or induced. Even if
the particles do not have a permanent dipole, fluctuations of the electron density gives rise to a temporary dipole

Colloid
in a particle. This temporary dipole induces a dipole in particles nearby. The temporary dipole and the induced
dipoles are then attracted to each other. This is known as van der Waals force, and is always present (unless the
refractive indexes of the dispersed and continuous phases are matched), is short-range, and is attractive.
Entropic forces: According to the second law of thermodynamics, a system progresses to a state in which entropy
is maximized. This can result in effective forces even between hard spheres.
Steric forces between polymer-covered surfaces or in solutions containing non-adsorbing polymer can modulate
interparticle forces, producing an additional steric repulsive force (which is predominantly entropic in origin) or
an attractive depletion force between them. Such an effect is specifically searched for with tailor-made
superplasticizers developed to increase the workability of concrete and to reduce its water content.

Preparation
There are two principal ways of preparation of colloids:[3]
Dispersion of large particles or droplets to the colloidal dimensions by milling, spraying, or application of shear
(e.g., shaking, mixing, or high shear mixing).
Condensation of small dissolved molecules into larger colloidal particles by precipitation, condensation, or redox
reactions. Such processes are used in the preparation of colloidal silica or gold.

Stabilization (peptization)
The stability of a colloidal system is the capability of the system to remain as it is.
Stability is hindered by aggregation and by sedimentation phenomena, that determine phase separation.
Aggregation is due to the sum of the interaction forces
between particles.[4][5] If attractive forces (such as van
der Waals forces) prevail over the repulsive ones (such
as the electrostatic ones) particles aggregate in clusters.
Electrostatic stabilization and steric stabilization are
the two main mechanisms for stabilization against
aggregation.
Electrostatic stabilization is based on the mutual
Examples of a stable and of an unstable colloidal dispersion.
repulsion of like electrical charges. In general,
different phases have different charge affinities, so
that an electrical double layer forms at any interface. Small particle sizes lead to enormous surface areas, and this
effect is greatly amplified in colloids. In a stable colloid, mass of a dispersed phase is so low that its buoyancy or
kinetic energy is too weak to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between charged layers of the dispersing phase.
Steric stabilization consists in covering the particles in polymers which prevents the particle to get close in the
range of attractive forces.
A combination of the two mechanisms is also possible (electrosteric stabilization). All the above mentioned
mechanisms for minimizing particle aggregation rely on the enhancement of the repulsive interaction forces.
Electrostatic and steric stabilization do not directly address the sedimentation/floating problem.
Particle sedimentation (and also floating, although this phenomenon is less common) arises from a difference in the
density of the dispersed and of the continuous phase. The higher the difference in densities, the faster the particle
settling.
The gel network stabilization represents the principal way to produce colloids stable to both aggregation and
sedimentation.[6][7]

13

Colloid
The method consists in adding to the colloidal suspension a green biopolymer able to form a gel network and
characterized by shear thinning properties. Examples of such substances are xanthan and guar gum.
Particle settling is hindered by the stiffness
of the polymeric matrix where particles are
trapped.[6] In addition, the long polymeric
chains can provide a steric or electrosteric
stabilization to dispersed particles.
Steric and Gel network stabilization.
The rheological shear thinning properties
find beneficial in the preparation of the
suspensions and in their use, as the reduced viscosity at high shear rates facilitates deagglomeration, mixing and in
general the flow of the suspensions.

Destabilization (flocculation)
Unstable colloidal dispersions form flocs as the particles aggregate due to interparticle attractions. In this way
photonic glasses can be grown. This can be accomplished by a number of different methods:
Removal of the electrostatic barrier that prevents aggregation of the particles. This can be accomplished by the
addition of salt to a suspension or changing the pH of a suspension to effectively neutralize or "screen" the surface
charge of the particles in suspension. This removes the repulsive forces that keep colloidal particles separate and
allows for coagulation due to van der Waals forces.
Addition of a charged polymer flocculant. Polymer flocculants can bridge individual colloidal particles by
attractive electrostatic interactions. For example, negatively-charged colloidal silica or clay particles can be
flocculated by the addition of a positively-charged polymer.
Addition of non-adsorbed polymers called depletants that cause aggregation due to entropic effects.
Physical deformation of the particle (e.g., stretching) may increase the van der Waals forces more than
stabilization forces (such as electrostatic), resulting coagulation of colloids at certain orientations.
Unstable colloidal suspensions of low-volume fraction form clustered liquid suspensions, wherein individual clusters
of particles fall to the bottom of the suspension (or float to the top if the particles are less dense than the suspending
medium) once the clusters are of sufficient size for the Brownian forces that work to keep the particles in suspension
to be overcome by gravitational forces. However, colloidal suspensions of higher-volume fraction form colloidal
gels with viscoelastic properties. Viscoelastic colloidal gels, such as bentonite and toothpaste, flow like liquids under
shear, but maintain their shape when shear is removed. It is for this reason that toothpaste can be squeezed from a
toothpaste tube, but stays on the toothbrush after it is applied.

14

Colloid

Monitoring stability
Multiple light scattering coupled with vertical scanning is the most
widely used technique to monitor the dispersion state of a product,
hence
identifying
and
quantifying
destabilisation
[8][9][10][11]
phenomena.
It works on concentrated dispersions without
dilution. When light is sent through the sample, it is backscattered by
the particles / droplets. The backscattering intensity is directly
proportional to the size and volume fraction of the dispersed phase.
Therefore, local changes in concentration (e.g.Creaming and
Sedimentation) and global changes in size (e.g. flocculation,
coalescence) are detected and monitored.

Accelerating methods for shelf life prediction

The kinetic process of destabilisation can be rather long (up to several
months or even years for some products) and it is often required for the
Measurement principle of multiple light
formulator to use further accelerating methods in order to reach
scattering coupled with vertical scanning
reasonable development time for new product design. Thermal
methods are the most commonly used and consists in increasing
temperature to accelerate destabilisation (below critical temperatures of phase inversion or chemical degradation).
Temperature affects not only the viscosity, but also interfacial tension in the case of non-ionic surfactants or more
generally interactions forces inside the system. Storing a dispersion at high temperatures enables to simulate real life
conditions for a product (e.g. tube of sunscreen cream in a car in the summer), but also to accelerate destabilisation
processes up to 200 times. Mechanical acceleration including vibration, centrifugation and agitation are sometimes
used. They subject the product to different forces that pushes the particles / droplets against one another, hence
helping in the film drainage. However, some emulsions would never coalesce in normal gravity, while they do under
artificial gravity.[12] Moreover segregation of different populations of particles have been highlighted when using
centrifugation and vibration.[13]

As a model system for atoms

In physics, colloids are an interesting model system for atoms. Micrometre-scale colloidal particles are large enough
to be observed by optical techniques such as confocal microscopy. Many of the forces that govern the structure and
behavior of matter, such as excluded volume interactions or electrostatic forces, govern the structure and behavior of
colloidal suspensions. For example, the same techniques used to model ideal gases can be applied to model the
behavior of a hard sphere colloidal suspension. In addition, phase transitions in colloidal suspensions can be studied
in real time using optical techniques, and are analogous to phase transitions in liquids.

Crystals
A colloidal crystal is a highly ordered array of particles that can be formed over a very long range (typically on the
order of a few millimeters to one centimeter) and that appear analogous to their atomic or molecular counterparts.[14]
One of the finest natural examples of this ordering phenomenon can be found in precious opal, in which brilliant
regions of pure spectral color result from close-packed domains of amorphous colloidal spheres of silicon dioxide (or
silica, SiO2).[15][16] These spherical particles precipitate in highly siliceous pools in Australia and elsewhere, and
form these highly ordered arrays after years of sedimentation and compression under hydrostatic and gravitational
forces. The periodic arrays of submicrometre spherical particles provide similar arrays of interstitial voids, which act
as a natural diffraction grating for visible light waves, particularly when the interstitial spacing is of the same order

15

Colloid
of magnitude as the incident lightwave.[17][18]
Thus, it has been known for many years that, due to repulsive Coulombic interactions, electrically charged
macromolecules in an aqueous environment can exhibit long-range crystal-like correlations with interparticle
separation distances, often being considerably greater than the individual particle diameter. In all of these cases in
nature, the same brilliant iridescence (or play of colors) can be attributed to the diffraction and constructive
interference of visible lightwaves that satisfy Braggs law, in a matter analogous to the scattering of X-rays in
crystalline solids.
The large number of experiments exploring the physics and chemistry of these so-called "colloidal crystals" has
emerged as a result of the relatively simple methods that have evolved in the last 20 years for preparing synthetic
monodisperse colloids (both polymer and mineral) and, through various mechanisms, implementing and preserving
their long-range order formation.

In biology
In the early 20th century, before enzymology was well understood, colloids were thought to be the key to the
operation of enzymes; i.e., the addition of small quantities of an enzyme to a quantity of water would, in some
fashion yet to be specified, subtly alter the properties of the water so that it would break down the enzyme's specific
substrate, such as a solution of ATPase breaking down ATP. Furthermore, life itself was explainable in terms of the
aggregate properties of all the colloidal substances that make up an organism. As more detailed knowledge of
biology and biochemistry developed, the colloidal theory was replaced by the macromolecular theory, which
explains an enzyme as a collection of identical huge molecules that act as very tiny machines, freely moving about
between the water molecules of the solution and individually operating on the substrate, no more mysterious than a
factory full of machinery. The properties of the water in the solution are not altered, other than the simple osmotic
changes that would be caused by the presence of any solute. In humans, both the thyroid gland and the intermediate
lobe (pars intermedia) of the pituitary gland contain colloid follicles.

In the environment
Colloidal particles can also serve as transport vector[19] of diverse contaminants in the surface water (sea water,
lakes, rivers, fresh water bodies) and in underground water circulating in fissured rocks[20] (limestone, sandstone,
granite, ...). Radionuclides and heavy metals easily sorb onto colloids suspended in water. Various types of colloids
are recognised: inorganic colloids (clay particles, silicates, iron oxy-hydroxides, ...), organic colloids (humic and
fulvic substances). When heavy metals or radionuclides form their own pure colloids, the term "Eigencolloid" is used
to designate pure phases, e.g., Tc(OH)4, U(OH)4, Am(OH)3. Colloids have been suspected for the long-range
transport of plutonium on the Nevada Nuclear Test Site. They have been the subject of detailed studies for many
years. However, the mobility of inorganic colloids is very low in compacted bentonites and in deep clay
formations[21] because of the process of ultrafiltration occurring in dense clay membrane.[22] The question is less
clear for small organic colloids often mixed in porewater with truly dissolved organic molecules.[23]

In intravenous therapy
Colloid solutions used in intravenous therapy belong to a major group of volume expanders, and can be used for
intravenous fluid replacement. Colloids preserve a high colloid osmotic pressure in the blood,[24] and therefore, they
should theoretically preferentially increase the intravascular volume, whereas other types of volume expanders called
crystalloids also increases the interstitial volume and intracellular volume. However, there is still controversy to the
actual difference in efficacy by this difference.[24] Another difference is that crystalloids generally are much cheaper
than colloids.[24] Recently, however, it has been determined that the use of colloids was bolstered by faked research
studies.[25]

16

Colloid

17

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

[5]
[6]

[7]

[8]
[9]

"Colloid" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 125898/ colloid). Britannica Online Encyclopedia. . Retrieved 31 August 2009.
Levine, Ira N. (2001). Physical Chemistry (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-231808-2., p. 955
http:/ / www. substech. com/ dokuwiki/ doku. php?id=preparation_of_colloids
Israelachvili, Jacob N. (1991). Intermolecular and Surface Forces (http:/ / books. google. it/ books?id=vgyBJbtNOcoC& pg=PA281&
lpg=PA281& dq=Intermolecular+ and+ Surface+ Forces+ 1991+ ISBN& source=bl& ots=_NPm5jB_Yf&
sig=LwEkFopryZDlLipJft4qidkO1e8& hl=it& ei=YZbPTu3lNePm4QScm4k8& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1&
ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false). Academic Press. ISBN978-0-12-391927-4. .
Menachem Elimelech, John Gregory, Xiadong Jia, Richard Williams (1998). Particle deposition and aggregation: measurement, modelling
and simulation. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN0-7506-7024-X.
Comba, Silvia; Sethi (August 2009). "Stabilization of highly concentrated suspensions of iron nanoparticles using shear-thinning gels of
xanthan gum" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ S004313540900356X). Water Research 43 (15): 37173726.
doi:10.1016/j.watres.2009.05.046. .
Cantrell, K.J.; Kaplan, D.I., Gilmore, T.J. (1997). "Injection of colloidal Fe-0 particles in sand with shear-thinning fluids" (http:/ / ascelibrary.
org/ eeo/ resource/ 1/ joeedu/ v123/ i8/ p786_s1?isAuthorized=no). Journal of Environmental Engineering-Asce 123 (8): 786791.
doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1997)123:8(786). .
Roland, I; Piel, G; Delattre, L; Evrard, B (2003). "Systematic characterization of oil-in-water emulsions for formulation design". International
Journal of Pharmaceutics 263 (12): 8594. doi:10.1016/S0378-5173(03)00364-8. PMID12954183.
Lemarchand, Caroline; Couvreur, Patrick; Besnard, Madeleine; Costantini, Dominique; Gref, Ruxandra (2003). "Novel
polyester-polysaccharide nanoparticles". Pharmaceutical Research 20 (8): 128492. doi:10.1023/A:1025017502379. PMID12948027.

[10] Mengual, O (1999). "Characterisation of instability of concentrated dispersions by a new optical analyser: the TURBISCAN MA 1000".
Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 152: 111. doi:10.1016/S0927-7757(98)00680-3.
[11] P. Bru et al. (2004). T. Provder and J. Texter. ed. Particle sizing and characterisation.
[12] J-L Salager (2000). Franoise Nielloud,Gilberte Marti-Mestres. ed. Pharmaceutical emulsions and suspensions (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=hDOS5OfL_pQC& pg=PA89& lpg=PA89). CRC press. p.89. ISBN0-8247-0304-9. .
[13] Snabre, Patrick; Pouligny, Bernard (2008). "Size Segregation in a Fluid-like or Gel-like Suspension Settling under Gravity or in a
Centrifuge". Langmuir 24 (23): 1333847. doi:10.1021/la802459u. PMID18986182.
[14] Pieranski, P. (1983). "Colloidal Crystals". Contemporary Physics 24: 25. Bibcode1983ConPh..24...25P. doi:10.1080/00107518308227471.
[15] Sanders, J.V.; Sanders, J. V.; Segnit, E. R. (1964). "Structure of Opal". Nature 204 (4962): 1151. Bibcode1964Natur.204..990J.
doi:10.1038/204990a0.
[16] Darragh, P.J., et al. (1976). Scientific American 234: 84.
[17] Luck, W. et al. (1963). "Ber. Busenges". Phys. Chem. 67: 84.
[18] Hiltner, P.A. and Krieger, I.M. (1969). "Diffraction of light by ordered suspensions". J. Phys. Chem. 73 (7): 2306. doi:10.1021/j100727a049.
[19] Frimmel, Fritz H.; Frank von der Kammer, Hans-Curt Flemming (2007). Colloidal transport in porous media (http:/ / www. springer. com/
earth+ sciences/ book/ 978-3-540-71338-8?detailsPage=toc) (1 ed.). Springer. p.292. ISBN3-540-71338-7. .
[20] Alonso, U.; T. Missana, A. Patelli, V. Rigato (2007). "Bentonite colloid diffusion through the host rock of a deep geological repository".
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 32 (17): 469476. Bibcode2007PCE....32..469A. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2006.04.021.
ISSN1474-7065.
[21] Voegelin, A.; Kretzschmar, R. (December 2002). Stability and mobility of colloids in Opalinus Clay. (http:/ / www. nagra. ch/ documents/
database/ dokumente/ $default/ Default Folder/ Publikationen/ e_ntb02-14. pdf). Nagra Technical Report 02-14.. Institute of Terrestrial
Ecology, ETH Zrich. p.47. ISSN1015-2636. .
[22] "Diffusion of colloids in compacted bentonite" (http:/ / www. kth. se/ che/ divisions/ nuchem/ research/ 1. 19965?l=en_UK). . Retrieved 12
February 2009.
[23] Wold, Susanna; Trygve Eriksen (2007). "Diffusion of humic colloids in compacted bentonite". Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts
A/B/C 32 (17): 477484. Bibcode2007PCE....32..477W. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2006.05.002. ISSN1474-7065.
[24] An Update on Intravenous Fluids (http:/ / www. medscape. com/ viewarticle/ 503138) by Gregory S. Martin, MD, MSc
[25] Millions of surgery patients at risk in drug research fraud scandal (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ health/ 8360667/
Millions-of-surgery-patients-at-risk-in-drug-research-fraud-scandal. html), The Telegraph, 4 November 2011

Colloid

18

Further reading

Lyklema, J. Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science, Vol. 2, p.3208, 1995

Hunter, R.J. Foundations of Colloid Science, Oxford University Press, 1989
Dukhin, S.S. & Derjaguin, B.V. Electrokinetic Phenomena, J.Wiley and Sons, 1974
Russel, W.B., Saville, D.A. and Schowalter, W.R. Colloidal Dispersions, Cambridge, 1989 Cambridge University
Press
Kruyt, H.R. Colloid Science, Volume 1, Irreversible systems, Elsevier, 1959
Dukhin, A.S. and Goetz, P.J. Ultrasound for characterizing colloids, Elsevier, 2002
Rodil, Ma. Lourdes C., Chemistry The Central Science, 7th Ed. ISBN 013533480
Pieranski, P., Colloidal Crystals, Contemp. Phys., Vol. 24, p.25 (1983)
Sanders, J.V., Structure of Opal, Nature, Vol. 204, p.1151, (1964);
Darragh, P.J., et al., Scientific American, Vol. 234, p.84, (1976)
Luck, W. et al., Ber. Busenges Phys. Chem., Vol. 67, p.84 (1963);
Hiltner, P.A. and Krieger, I.M., Diffraction of Light by Ordered Suspensions, J. Phys. Chem., Vol. 73, p.2306
(1969)
Arora, A.K., Tata, B.V.R., Eds. Ordering & Phase Transitions in Charged Colloids Wiley, New York (1996)
Sood, A.K. in Solid State Physics, Eds. Ehrenreich, H., Turnbull, D., Vol. 45, p.1 (1991)

Murray, C.A. and Grier, D.G., Colloidal Crystals, Amer. Scientist, Vol. 83, p.238 (1995);
Video Microscopy of Monodisperse Colloidal Systems, Ann. Rev. Phys. Chem., Vol. 47, p.421 (1996)
Tanaka, 1992, Phase Transition of Gel

Collagen

Collagen
Collagen (
/kldn/) is a group of naturally occurring proteins found in animals,
especially in the flesh and connective tissues of vertebrates.[1] It is the main component of
connective tissue, and is the most abundant protein in mammals,[2] making up about 25% to
35% of the whole-body protein content. Collagen, in the form of elongated fibrils, is mostly
found in fibrous tissues such as tendon, ligament and skin, and is also abundant in cornea,
cartilage, bone, blood vessels, the gut, and intervertebral disc. The fibroblast is the most
common cell which creates collagen.
In muscle tissue, it serves as a major component of the endomysium. Collagen constitutes one
to two percent of muscle tissue, and accounts for 6% of the weight of strong, tendinous
muscles.[3] Gelatin, which is used in food and industry, is collagen that has been irreversibly
hydrolyzed.

History and background

The molecular and packing structures of collagen have eluded scientists over decades of
research. The first evidence that it possesses a regular structure at the molecular level was
presented in the mid-1930s.[4][5] Since that time, many prominent scholars, including Nobel
laureates Crick, Pauling, Rich and Yonath, and others, including Brodsky, Berman, and
Ramachandran, concentrated on the conformation of the collagen monomer. Several
competing models, although correctly dealing with the conformation of each individual peptide
chain, gave way to the triple-helical "Madras" model, which provided an essentially correct
model of the molecule's quaternary structure[6][7][8] although this model still required some
refinement.[9][10][11][12] The packing structure of collagen has not been defined to the same
Tropocollagen triple
degree outside of the fibrillar collagen types, although it has been long known to be hexagonal
helix
[13][14][15]
or quasi-hexagonal.
As with its monomeric structure, several conflicting models
alleged that either the packing arrangement of collagen molecules is 'sheet-like' or microfibrillar.[16][17] The
microfibrillar structure of collagen fibrils in tendon, cornea and cartilage has been directly imaged by electron
microscopy.[18][19][20] The microfibrillar structure of adult tendon, as described by Fraser, Miller, and Wess
(amongst others), was modeled as being closest to the observed structure, although it oversimplified the topological
progression of neighboring collagen molecules, and hence did not predict the correct conformation of the
discontinuous D-periodic pentameric arrangement termed simply: the microfibril.[21][22] Various cross linking agents
like dopaquinone, embelin, potassium embelate and 5-O-methyl embelin could be developed as potential
cross-linking/stabilization agent of collagen preparation and its application as wound dressing sheet in clinical
applications is enhanced.[23]

Chemistry
Collagen is composed of a triple helix, which generally consists of two identical chains (1) and an additional chain
that differs slightly in its chemical composition (2).[24] The amino acid composition of collagen is atypical for
proteins, particularly with respect to its high hydroxyproline content. The most common motifs in the amino acid
sequence of collagen are glycine-proline-X and glycine-X-hydroxyproline, where X is any amino acid other than
glycine, proline or hydroxyproline. The average amino acid composition for fish and mammal skin is given.[24]

19

Collagen

20

Amino Acid Abundance in Mammal Skin (Residues/1000) Abundance in Fish Skin (Residues/1000)
Asp

47

47

Hyp

95

67

Thr

19

26

Ser

36

46

Glu

74

76

Pro

126

108

Gly

329

339

Ala

109

114

Val

22

21

Met

13

Ile

11

11

Leu

24

23

Tyr

Phe

13

14

Hyl

Lys

29

26

His

Arg

49

52

Synthesis
First, a three dimensional stranded structure is assembled, with the amino acids glycine and proline as its principal
components. This is not yet collagen but its precursor, procollagen. A recent study shows that vitamin C must have
an important role in its synthesis. Prolonged exposure of cultures of human connective-tissue cells to ascorbate
induced an eight-fold increase in the synthesis of collagen with no increase in the rate of synthesis of other proteins
(Murad et al., 1981). Since the production of procollagen must precede the production of collagen, vitamin C must
have a role in this step. The conversion involves a reaction that substitutes a hydroxyl group, OH, for a hydrogen
atom, H, in the proline residues at certain points in the polypeptide chains, converting those residues to
hydroxyproline. This hydroxylation reaction organizes the chains in the conformation necessary for them to form a
triple helix.[25] The hydroxylation, next, of the residues of the amino acid lysine, transforming them to
hydroxylysine, is then needed to permit the cross-linking of the triple helices into the fibers and networks of the
tissues.
These hydroxylation reactions are catalyzed by two different enzymes: prolyl-4-hydroxylase[26] and
lysyl-hydroxylase. Vitamin C also serves with them in inducing these reactions. in this service, one molecule of
vitamin C is destroyed for each H replaced by OH. [27] The synthesis of collagen occurs inside and outside of the
cell. The formation of collagen which results in fibrillary collagen (most common form) is discussed here.
Meshwork collagen, which is often involved in the formation of filtration systems is the other form of collagen. It
should be noted that all types of collagens are triple helixes, and the differences lie in the make-up of the alpha
peptides created in step 2.
1. Transcription of mRNA: There are approximately 34 genes associated with collagen formation, each coding for
a specific mRNA sequence, and typically have the "COL" prefix. The beginning of collagen synthesis begins with
turning on genes which are associated with the formation of a particular alpha peptide (typically alpha 1, 2 or 3).

Collagen
2. Pre-pro-peptide Formation: Once the final mRNA exits from the cell nucleus and enters into the cytoplasm it
links with the ribosomal subunits and the process of translation occurs. The early/first part of the new peptide is
known as the signal sequence. The signal sequence on the N-terminal of the peptide is recognized by a signal
recognition particle on the endoplasmic reticulum, which will be responsible for directing the pre-pro-peptide into
the endoplasmic reticulum. Therefore, once the synthesis of new peptide is finished, it goes directly into the
endoplasmic reticulum for post-translational processing. Note that it is now known as pre-pro-collagen.
3. Alpha Peptide to Procollagen: Three modifications of the pre-pro-peptide occurs leading to the formation of the
alpha peptide. Secondly, the triple helix known as procollagen is formed before being transported in a transport
vesicle to the golgi apparatus. 1) The signal peptide on the N-terminal is dissolved, and the molecule is now
known as propeptide (not procollagen). 2) Hydroxylation of lysines and prolines on propeptide by the enzymes
prolyl hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase (to produce hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine) occurs to aid
crosslinking of the alpha peptides. It is this enzymatic step that requires vitamin C as a cofactor. In scurvy, the
lack of hydroxylation of prolines and lysines causes a looser triple helix (which is formed by 3 alpha peptides). 3)
Glycosylation occurs by adding either glucose or galactose monomers onto the hydroxy groups that were placed
onto lysines, but not on prolines. From here the hydroxylated and glycosylated propeptide twists towards the left
very tightly and then three propeptides will form a triple helix. It is important to remember that this molecule,
now known as procollagen (not propeptide) is composed of a twisted portion (center) and two loose ends on
either end. At this point the procollagen is packaged into a transfer vesicle destined for the golgi apparatus.
4. Golgi Apparatus Modification: In the golgi apparatus, the procollagen goes through one last post-translational
modification before being secreted out of the cell. In this step oligosaccharides (not monosaccharides like in step
3) are added, and then the procollagen is packaged into a secretory vesicle destined for the extracellular space.
5. Formation of Tropocollagen: Once outside the cell, membrane bound enzymes known as collagen peptidases,
remove the "loose ends" of the procollagen molecule. What is left is known as tropocollagen. Defect in this step
produces one of the many collagenopathies known as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. This step is absent when
synthesizing type III, a type of fibrilar collagen.
6. Formation of the Collagen Fibril: Lysyl oxidase and extracellular enzyme produces the final step in the collagen
synthesis pathway. This enzyme acts on lysines and hydroxylysines producing aldehyde groups, which will
eventually undergo covalent bonding between tropocollagen molecules. This polymer of tropocollogen is known
as a collagen fibril.

21

Collagen

22

Amino acids
Collagen has an unusual amino acid composition and sequence:
Glycine is found at almost every third residue
Proline (Pro) makes up about 17% of collagen
Collagen contains two uncommon derivative amino acids not
directly inserted during translation. These amino acids are found at
specific locations relative to glycine and are modified
post-translationally by different enzymes, both of which require
vitamin C as a cofactor.
Hydroxyproline (Hyp), derived from proline.
Hydroxylysine (Hyl), derived from lysine (Lys). Depending on
the type of collagen, varying numbers of hydroxylysines are
glycosylated (mostly having disaccharides attached).
Cortisol stimulates degradation of (skin) collagen into amino acids.[28]

Collagen I formation
Most collagen forms in a similar manner, but the following process is
typical for type I:
1. Inside the cell

Action of lysyl oxidase

1. Two types of peptide chains are formed during translation on

ribosomes along the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER): alpha-1 and alpha-2 chains. These peptide chains
(known as preprocollagen) have registration peptides on each end and a signal peptide.
2. Polypeptide chains are released into the lumen of the RER.
3. Signal peptides are cleaved inside the RER and the chains are now known as pro-alpha chains.
4. Hydroxylation of lysine and proline amino acids occurs inside the lumen. This process is dependent on
ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) as a cofactor.
5. Glycosylation of specific hydroxylysine residues occurs.
6. Triple helical structure is formed inside the endoplasmic reticulum from each two alpha-1 chains and one
alpha-2 chain.
7. Procollagen is shipped to the Golgi apparatus, where it is packaged and secreted by exocytosis.
2. Outside the cell
1. Registration peptides are cleaved and tropocollagen is formed by procollagen peptidase.
2. Multiple tropocollagen molecules form collagen fibrils, via covalent cross-linking (aldol reaction) by lysyl
oxidase which links hydroxylysine and lysine residues. Multiple collagen fibrils form into collagen fibers.
3. Collagen may be attached to cell membranes via several types of protein, including fibronectin and integrin.

Collagen

Synthetic pathogenesis
Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy, a serious and painful disease in which defective collagen prevents the formation
of strong connective tissue. Gums deteriorate and bleed, with loss of teeth; skin discolors, and wounds do not heal.
Prior to the eighteenth century, this condition was notorious among long duration military, particularly naval,
expeditions during which participants were deprived of foods containing Vitamin C.
An autoimmune disease such as lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis[29] may attack healthy collagen fibers.
Many bacteria and viruses have virulence factors which destroy collagen or interfere with its production.

Molecular structure
The tropocollagen or collagen molecule is a subunit of larger collagen aggregates such as fibrils. At approximately
300nm long and 1.5nm in diameter, it is made up of three polypeptide strands (called alpha peptides, see step 2),
each possessing the conformation of a left-handed helix (its name is not to be confused with the commonly occurring
alpha helix, a right-handed structure). These three left-handed helices are twisted together into a right-handed coiled
coil, a triple helix or "super helix", a cooperative quaternary structure stabilized by numerous hydrogen bonds. With
type I collagen and possibly all fibrillar collagens if not all collagens, each triple-helix associates into a right-handed
super-super-coil referred to as the collagen microfibril. Each microfibril is interdigitated with its neighboring
microfibrils to a degree that might suggest they are individually unstable, although within collagen fibrils, they are so
well ordered as to be crystalline.
A distinctive feature of collagen is the regular arrangement of amino acids in each of the three chains of these
collagen subunits. The sequence often follows the pattern Gly-Pro-X or Gly-X-Hyp, where X may be any of various
other amino acid residues.[24] Proline or hydroxyproline constitute about 1/6 of the total sequence. With glycine
accounting for the 1/3 of the sequence, this means approximately half of the collagen sequence is not glycine, proline
or hydroxyproline, a fact often missed due to the distraction of the unusual GX1X2 character of collagen
alpha-peptides. The high glycine content of collagen is important with respect to stabilization of the collagen helix as
this allows the very close association of the collagen fibers within the molecule, facilitating hydrogen bonding and
the formation of intermolecular cross-links.[24] This kind of regular repetition and high glycine content is found in
only a few other fibrous proteins, such as silk fibroin. About 75-80% of silk is (approximately) -Gly-Ala-Gly-Alawith 10% serine, and elastin is rich in glycine, proline, and alanine (Ala), whose side group is a small methyl group.
Such high glycine and regular repetitions are never found in globular proteins save for very short sections of their
sequence. Chemically-reactive side groups are not needed in structural proteins, as they are in enzymes and transport
proteins; however, collagen is not quite just a structural protein. Due to its key role in the determination of cell
phenotype, cell adhesion, tissue regulation and infrastructure, many sections of its nonproline-rich regions have cell
or matrix association / regulation roles. The relatively high content of proline and hydroxyproline rings, with their
geometrically constrained carboxyl and (secondary) amino groups, along with the rich abundance of glycine,
accounts for the tendency of the individual polypeptide strands to form left-handed helices spontaneously, without
any intrachain hydrogen bonding.
Because glycine is the smallest amino acid with no side chain, it plays a unique role in fibrous structural proteins. In
collagen, Gly is required at every third position because the assembly of the triple helix puts this residue at the
interior (axis) of the helix, where there is no space for a larger side group than glycines single hydrogen atom. For
the same reason, the rings of the Pro and Hyp must point outward. These two amino acids help stabilize the triple
helixHyp even more so than Pro; a lower concentration of them is required in animals such as fish, whose body
temperatures are lower than most warm-blooded animals. Lower proline and hydroxyproline contents are
characteristic of cold-water, but not warm-water fish; the latter tend to have similar proline and hydroxyproline
contents to mammals.[24] The lower proline and hydroxproline contents of cold-water fish and other poikilotherm
animals leads to their collagen having a lower thermal stability than mammalian collagen.[24] This lower thermal
stability means that gelatin derived from fish collagen is not suitable for many food and industrial applications.

23

Collagen
The tropocollagen subunits spontaneously self-assemble, with regularly staggered ends, into even larger arrays in the
extracellular spaces of tissues.[30][31] In the fibrillar collagens, the molecules are staggered from each other by about
67nm (a unit that is referred to as D and changes depending upon the hydration state of the aggregate). Each
D-period contains four plus a fraction collagen molecules, because 300nm divided by 67nm does not give an
integer (the length of the collagen molecule divided by the stagger distance D). Therefore, in each D-period repeat of
the microfibril, there is a part containing five molecules in cross-section, called the overlap, and a part containing
only four molecules, called the "gap".[21] The triple-helices are also arranged in a hexagonal or quasihexagonal array
in cross-section, in both the gap and overlap regions.[13][21]
There is some covalent crosslinking within the triple helices, and a variable amount of covalent crosslinking between
tropocollagen helices forming well organized aggregates (such as fibrils).[32] Larger fibrillar bundles are formed with
the aid of several different classes of proteins (including different collagen types), glycoproteins and proteoglycans
to form the different types of mature tissues from alternate combinations of the same key players.[31] Collagen's
insolubility was a barrier to the study of monomeric collagen until it was found that tropocollagen from young
animals can be extracted because it is not yet fully crosslinked. However, advances in microscopy techniques (i.e.
electron microscopy (EM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM)) and X-ray diffraction have enabled researchers to
obtain increasingly detailed images of collagen structure in situ. These later advances are particularly important to
better understanding the way in which collagen structure affects cell-cell and cell-matrix communication, and how
tissues are constructed in growth and repair, and changed in development and disease.[33][34] For example using
AFM based nanoindentation it has been shown that a single collagen fibril is a heterogeneous material along its
axial direction with significantly different mechanical properties in its gap and overlap regions, correlating with its
different molecular organizations in these two regions.[35]
Collagen fibrils are semicrystalline aggregates of collagen molecules. Collagen fibers are bundles of fibrils.
Collagen fibrils/aggregates are arranged in different combinations and concentrations in various tissues to provide
varying tissue properties. In bone, entire collagen triple helices lie in a parallel, staggered array. 40nm gaps between
the ends of the tropocollagen subunits (approximately equal to the gap region) probably serve as nucleation sites for
the deposition of long, hard, fine crystals of the mineral component, which is (approximately) Ca10(OH)2(PO4)6.[36]
Type I collagen gives bone its tensile strength.

Types and associated disorders

Collagen occurs in many places throughout the body. Over 90% of the collagen in the body, however, is of type I.[37]
So far, 28 types of collagen have been identified and described. The five most common types are:

Collagen I: skin, tendon, vascular ligature, organs, bone (main component of the organic part of bone)
Collagen II: cartilage (main component of cartilage)
Collagen III: reticulate (main component of reticular fibers), commonly found alongside type I.
Collagen IV: forms bases of cell basement membrane
Collagen V: cell surfaces, hair and placenta

Collagen-related diseases most commonly arise from genetic defects or nutritional deficiencies that affect the
biosynthesis, assembly, postranslational modification, secretion, or other processes involved in normal collagen
production.

24

Collagen

25

Type

Notes

Gene(s)

Disorders

This is the most abundant collagen of the human body. It is present in scar
tissue, the end product when tissue heals by repair. It is found in tendons,
skin, artery walls, cornea, the endomysium of myofibrils, fibrocartilage,
and the organic part of bones and teeth.

COL1A1, COL1A2

Osteogenesis imperfecta,
EhlersDanlos syndrome, Infantile
cortical hyperostosis aka Caffey's
disease

II

Hyaline cartilage, makes up 50% of all cartilage protein. Vitreous humour

of the eye.

COL2A1

Collagenopathy, types II and XI

III

This is the collagen of granulation tissue, and is produced quickly by young COL3A1
fibroblasts before the tougher type I collagen is synthesized. Reticular
fiber. Also found in artery walls, skin, intestines and the uterus

EhlersDanlos syndrome,
Dupuytren's contracture

IV

Basal lamina; eye lens. Also serves as part of the filtration system in
capillaries and the glomeruli of nephron in the kidney.

COL4A1, COL4A2,
COL4A3, COL4A4,
COL4A5, COL4A6

Alport syndrome, Goodpasture's

syndrome

Most interstitial tissue, assoc. with type I, associated with placenta

COL5A1, COL5A2,
COL5A3

EhlersDanlos syndrome
(Classical)

VI

Most interstitial tissue, assoc. with type I

COL6A1, COL6A2,
COL6A3, COL6A5

Ulrich myopathy, Bethlem

[38]
myopathy, Atopic dermatitis

VII

Forms anchoring fibrils in dermoepidermal junctions

COL7A1

Epidermolysis bullosa dystrophica

VIII

Some endothelial cells

COL8A1, COL8A2

Posterior polymorphous corneal

dystrophy 2

IX

FACIT collagen, cartilage, assoc. with type II and XI fibrils

COL9A1, COL9A2,
COL9A3

EDM2 and EDM3

Hypertrophic and mineralizing cartilage

COL10A1

Schmid metaphyseal dysplasia

XI

Cartilage

COL11A1, COL11A2 Collagenopathy, types II and XI

XII

FACIT collagen, interacts with type I containing fibrils, decorin and

glycosaminoglycans

COL12A1

XIII

Transmembrane collagen, interacts with integrin a1b1, fibronectin and

components of basement membranes like nidogen and perlecan.

COL13A1

XIV

FACIT collagen

COL14A1

XV

COL15A1

XVI

COL16A1

XVII

Transmembrane collagen, also known as BP180, a 180 kDa protein

COL17A1

Bullous pemphigoid and certain

forms of junctional epidermolysis
bullosa

XVIII

Source of endostatin

COL18A1

XIX

FACIT collagen

COL19A1

XX

COL20A1

XXI

FACIT collagen

COL21A1

XXII

COL22A1

XXIII

MACIT collagen

COL23A1

XXIV

COL24A1

XXV

COL25A1

XXVI

EMID2

XXVII

COL27A1

Collagen

XXVIII

26
COL28A1

|+Genetic Defects of Collagen Genes

In addition to the above mentioned disorders, excessive deposition of collagen occurs in scleroderma.

Diseases
One thousand mutations have been identified in twelve out of more than twenty types of collagen. These mutations
can lead to various diseases at the tissue level.[39]
Osteogenesis imperfecta - Caused by a mutation in type 1 collagen, dominant autosomal disorder, results in weak
bones and irregular connective tissue, some cases can be mild while others can be lethal, mild cases have lowered
levels of collagen type 1 while severe cases have structural defects in collagen.[40]
Chondrodysplasias - Skeletal disorder believed to be caused by a mutation in type 2 collagen, further research is
being conducted to confirm this.[41]
Ehler-Danlos Syndrome - Ten different types of this disorder which lead to deformities in connective tissue, some
types can be lethal that lead to the rupture of arteries, each syndrome is caused by a different mutation, for example
type four of this disorder is caused by a mutation in collagen type 3.[42]
Alport syndrome - Can be passed on genetically, both an autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive disorder,
sufferers have problems with their kidneys and eyes, loss of hearing can also develop in during the childhood or
adolescent years.[43]
Osteoporosis - Not inherited genetically, brought on with age, associated with reduced levels of collagen in the skin
and bones, growth hormone injections are being researched as a possible treatment to counteract any loss of
collagen.[44]
Knobloch syndrome - Caused by a mutation in the collagen XVIII gene, patients present with protrusion of the brain
tissue and degeneration of the retina, an individual who has family members suffering from the disorder are at an
increased risk of developing it themselves as there is a hereditary link.[39]

Characteristics
Collagen is one of the long, fibrous structural proteins whose functions are quite different from those of globular
proteins such as enzymes. Tough bundles of collagen called collagen fibers are a major component of the
extracellular matrix that supports most tissues and gives cells structure from the outside, but collagen is also found
inside certain cells. Collagen has great tensile strength, and is the main component of fascia, cartilage, ligaments,
tendons, bone and skin.[45][46] Along with soft keratin, it is responsible for skin strength and elasticity, and its
degradation leads to wrinkles that accompany aging.[47][48] It strengthens blood vessels and plays a role in tissue
development. It is present in the cornea and lens of the eye in crystalline form.

Uses
Collagen has a wide variety of applications, from food to medical. For instance, it is used in cosmetic surgery and
burns surgery. It is widely used in the form of collagen casings for sausages.
If collagen is sufficiently denatured, e.g. by heating, the three tropocollagen strands separate partially or completely
into globular domains, containing a different secondary structure to the normal collagen polyproline II (PPII), e.g.
random coils. This process describes the formation of gelatin, which is used in many foods, including flavored
gelatin desserts. Besides food, gelatin has been used in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and photography industries.[49]
From a nutritional point of view, collagen and gelatin are a poor-quality sole source of protein since they do not
contain all the essential amino acids in the proportions that the human body requiresthey are not 'complete

Collagen
proteins' (as defined by food science, not that they are partially structured). Manufacturers of collagen-based dietary
supplements claim that their products can improve skin and fingernail quality as well as joint health. However,
mainstream scientific research has not shown strong evidence to support these claims. Individuals with problems in
these areas are more likely to be suffering from some other underlying condition (such as normal aging, dry skin,
arthritis etc.) rather than just a protein deficiency.
From the Greek for glue, kolla, the word collagen means "glue producer" and refers to the early process of boiling
the skin and sinews of horses and other animals to obtain glue. Collagen adhesive was used by Egyptians about
4,000 years ago, and Native Americans used it in bows about 1,500 years ago. The oldest glue in the world,
carbon-dated as more than 8,000 years old, was found to be collagenused as a protective lining on rope baskets
and embroidered fabrics, and to hold utensils together; also in crisscross decorations on human skulls.[50] Collagen
normally converts to gelatin, but survived due to the dry conditions. Animal glues are thermoplastic, softening again
upon reheating, and so they are still used in making musical instruments such as fine violins and guitars, which may
have to be reopened for repairsan application incompatible with tough, synthetic plastic adhesives, which are
permanent. Animal sinews and skins, including leather, have been used to make useful articles for millennia.
Gelatin-resorcinol-formaldehyde glue (and with formaldehyde replaced by less-toxic pentanedial and ethanedial) has
been used to repair experimental incisions in rabbit lungs.[51]

Medical uses
Cardiac applications
The four dense collagen valve rings, the central body of the heart and the cardiac skeleton of the heart are
histologically bound to the myocardium. Collagen contribution to heart performance summarily represents an
essential, unique and moving solid anchor opposed to the fluid mechanics of blood within the heart. This structure is
an impermeable firewall that excludes both blood and electrical influence (except through anatomical channels) from
the upper to the lower chambers of the heart. As proof, one could posit that atrial fibrillation almost never
deteriorates to ventricular fibrillation. Individual valvular leaflets are held in sail shape by collagen under variable
pressure. Calcium deposition within collagen occurs as a natural consequence of aging. Calcium rich fixed points in
an otherwise moving display of blood and muscle enable current cardiac imaging technology to arrive at ratios
essentially stating blood in cardiac input and blood out cardiac output. Specified imaging such as calcium scoring
illustrates the utility of this methodology, especially in an aging patient subject to pathology of the collagen
underpinning.

Type II Collagen and Rheumatoid Arthritis

According to a study[52] published in the journal Science, oral administration of type II collagen improves symptoms
of rheumatoid arthritis. The authors conducted a randomized, double-blind trial involving 60 patients with severe,
active rheumatoid arthritis. A decrease in the number of swollen joints and tender joints occurred in subjects fed with
chicken type II collagen for 3 months, but not in those that received a placebo. Four patients in the collagen group
had complete remission of the disease. No side effects were evident.

27

Collagen

Cosmetic surgery
Collagen has been widely used in cosmetic surgery, as a healing aid for burn patients for reconstruction of bone and
a wide variety of dental, orthopedic and surgical purposes. Both human and bovine collagen is widely used as dermal
fillers for treatment of wrinkles and skin aging.[48] Some points of interest are:
1. when used cosmetically, there is a chance of allergic reactions causing prolonged redness; however, this can be
virtually eliminated by simple and inconspicuous patch testing prior to cosmetic use, and
2. most medical collagen is derived from young beef cattle (bovine) from certified BSE (bovine spongiform
encephalopathy) free animals. Most manufacturers use donor animals from either "closed herds", or from
countries which have never had a reported case of BSE such as Australia, Brazil and New Zealand.
3. porcine (pig) tissue is also widely used for producing collagen sheet for a variety of surgical purposes.
4. alternatives using the patient's own fat, hyaluronic acid or polyacrylamide gels which are readily available.

Bone Grafts
As the skeleton forms the structure of the body, it is vital that it maintains its strength, even after breaks and injuries.
Collagen is used in bone grafting as it has a triple helical structure, making it a very strong molecule. It is ideal for
use in bones, as it does not compromise the structural integrity of the skeleton. The triple helical structure of collagen
prevents it from being broken down by enzymes, it enables adhesiveness of cells and it is important for the proper
assembly of the extracellular matrix.[53]

Tissue Regeneration
Collagen scaffolds are used in tissue regeneration, either in sponges, thin sheets or gels. Collagen has the correct
properties for tissue regeneration such as pore structure, permeability, hydrophilicity and it is stable in vivo.
Collagen scaffolds are also ideal for the deposition of cells, such as osteoblasts and fibroblasts and once inserted,
growth is able to continue as normal in the tissue.[54]

Reconstructive surgical uses

Collagens are widely employed in the construction of artificial skin substitutes used in the management of severe
burns. These collagens may be derived from bovine, equine or porcine, and even human sources and are sometimes
used in combination with silicones, glycosaminoglycans, fibroblasts, growth factors and other substances.
Collagen is also sold as a pill commercially as a joint mobility supplement with poor references. Because proteins
are broken down into amino acids before absorption, there is no reason for orally ingested collagen to affect
connective tissue in the body, except through the effect of individual amino acid supplementation.
Collagen is also frequently used in scientific research applications for cell culture, studying cell behavior and cellular
interactions with the extracellular environment.[55] Suppliers such as Trevigen [56] manufacture rat and bovine
Collagen I and mouse Collagen IV.

Wound care management uses

Collagen is one of the bodys key natural resources and a component of skin tissue that can benefit all stages of the
wound healing process. When collagen is made available to the wound bed, closure can occur. Wound deterioration,
followed sometimes by procedures such as amputation, can thus be avoided.
Collagen is a natural product, therefore it is used as a natural wound dressing and has properties that artificial wound
dressings do not have. It is resistant against bacteria, which is of vital importance in a wound dressing. It helps to
keep the wound sterile, because of its natural ability to fight infection. When collagen is used as a burn dressing,
healthy granulation tissue is able to form very quickly over the burn, helping it to heal rapidly.[57]

28

Collagen
Throughout the 4 phases of wound healing, collagen performs the following functions in wound healing: Guiding
Function: Collagen fibers serve to guide fibroblasts. Fibroblasts migrate along a connective tissue matrix.
Chemotactic Properties: The large surface area available on collagen fibers can attract fibrogenic cells which help in
healing. Nucleation: Collagen, in the presence of certain neutral salt molecules can act as a nucleating agent
causing formation of fibrillar structures. A collagen wound dressing might serve as a guide for orienting new
collagen deposition and capillary growth. Hemostatic properties: Blood platelets interact with the collagen to make
a hemostatic plug.
Suppliers such as Human BioSciences [58] manufacture bovine type 1 collagen into wound care bandages.

References
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type I collagen in situ by Orgel et al. (2006), Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 103, 9001-9005". Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr 65 (Pt9):
100910. doi:10.1107/S0907444909023051. PMID19690380.

29

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[23] >narayanaswamy, Radhakrishnan; Shanmugasamy, Sangeetha; Shanmugasamy, Sangeetha; Gopal, Ramesh; Mandal, Asit (2011).
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academia. edu/ PaulSzpak/ Papers/ 827788/
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38 (12): 33583372. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.022. .
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uncoupled reactions catalyzed by propyl 4-hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase". J. Biol. Chem. 259. PMID6325436.
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AntiInflammatory Drugs in the Skin and Fibroblasts". Biochemical Pharmacology 17 (10): 20812090. doi:10.1016/0006-2952(68)90182-2.
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[29] Al-Hadithy, H.; et al., DA; Addison, IE; Goldstone, AH; Snaith, ML (1982). "Neutrophil function in systemic lupus erythematosus and
other collagen diseases". Ann Rheum Dis 41 (1): 3338. doi:10.1136/ard.41.1.33. PMC1000860. PMID7065727.
[30] Hulmes, D. J. (2002). "Building collagen molecules, fibrils, and suprafibrillar structures". J Struct Biol 137 (12): 210.
doi:10.1006/jsbi.2002.4450. PMID12064927.
[31] Hulmes, D. J. (1992). "The collagen superfamilydiverse structures and assemblies". Essays Biochem 27: 4967. PMID1425603.
[32] Perumal, S.; Antipova, O. & Orgel, J. P. (2008). "Collagen fibril architecture, domain organization, and triple-helical conformation govern
its proteolysis". PNAS 105 (8): 28242829. Bibcode2008PNAS..105.2824P. doi:10.1073/pnas.0710588105. PMC2268544. PMID18287018.
[33] Sweeney, S. M.; et al., JP; Fertala, A; McAuliffe, JD; Turner, KR; Di Lullo, GA; Chen, S; Antipova, O et al. (2008). "Candidate Cell and
Matrix Interaction Domains on the Collagen Fibril, the Predominant Protein of Vertebrates". J Biol Chem 283 (30): 2118721197.
doi:10.1074/jbc.M709319200. PMC2475701. PMID18487200.
[34] Twardowski, T.; et al., A.; Orgel, J. P.R.O.; San Antonio, J. D. (2007). "Type I collagen and collagen mimetics as angiogenesis promoting
superpolymers" (http:/ / www. ingentaconnect. com/ content/ ben/ cpd/ 2007/ 00000013/ 00000035/ art00009). Curr Pharm Des 13 (35):
36083621. doi:10.2174/138161207782794176. .
[35] M. Minary-Jolandan and M.-F. Yu, "Nanomechanical Heterogeneity in the Gap and Overlap Regions of Type I Collagen Fibrils with
Implications for Bone Heterogeneity", Biomacromolecules 10, 2565 (2009)
[36] M.H.Ross & W.Pawlina,HISTOLOGY, 6th ed., p.218 (2011)
[37] Sabiston textbook of surgery board review, 7th edition. Chapter 5 wound healing, question 14
[38] Sderhll, C.; Marenholz, I.; Kerscher, T.; Rschendorf, F; Rschendorf, F.; Esparza-Gordillo, J.; et al., C; Mayr, G et al. (2007). "Variants
in a Novel Epidermal Collagen Gene (COL29A1) Are Associated with Atopic Dermatitis". PLoS Biology 5 (9): e242.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050242. PMC1971127. PMID17850181.
[39] Mahajan, VB, Olney, AH, Garrett, P, Chary, A, Dragan, E, Lerner, G, Murray, J & Bassuk, AG 2010, 'Collagen XVIII mutation in
Knobloch syndrome with acute lymphoblastic leukemia', Am J Med Genet A, vol. 152A, no. 11, pp. 2875-9.
[40] Gajko-Galicka, A 2002, 'Mutations in type I collagen genes resulting in osteogenesis imperfecta in humans', Acta Biochim Pol, vol. 49, no.
2, pp. 433-41.
[41] Horton, WA, Campbell, D, Machado, MA & Chou, J 1989, 'Type II collagen screening in the human chondrodysplasias', Am J Med Genet,
vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 579-83.
[42] Hamel, BC, Pals, G, Engels, CH, van den Akker, E, Boers, GH, van Dongen, PW & Steijlen, PM 1998, 'Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and type
III collagen abnormalities: a variable clinical spectrum', Clin Genet, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 440-6.
[43] Kashtan, CE 1993, 'Collagen IV-Related Nephropathies (Alport Syndrome and Thin Basement Membrane Nephropathy)', in RA Pagon, TD
Bird, CR Dolan, K Stephens & MP Adam (eds), GeneReviews, University of Washington, Seattle, Seattle WA.
[44] Shuster, S 2005, 'Osteoporosis, a unitary hypothesis of collagen loss in skin and bone', Med Hypotheses, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 426-32.
[45] Fratzl, P. (2008). Collagen: Structure and Mechanics. New York: Springer. ISBN0-387-73905-X.
[46] Buehler, M. J. (2006). "Nature designs tough collagen: Explaining the nanostructure of collagen fibrils". PNAS 103 (33): 1228512290.
Bibcode2006PNAS..10312285B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0603216103. PMC1567872. PMID16895989.
[47] Structure of Skin | The Aging Skin (http:/ / pharmaxchange. info/ press/ 2011/ 03/ the-aging-skin-part-1-structure-of-skin-and-introduction/ )
[48] Dermal Fillers | The Ageing Skin (http:/ / pharmaxchange. info/ press/ 2011/ 03/ the-ageing-skin-part-4e-dermal-fillers/ )
[49] "Gelatin's Advantages: Health, Nutrition and Safety" (http:/ / www. gmap-gelatin. com/ gelatin_adv. html). .
[50] Walker, Amlie A. (May 21, 1998). "Oldest Glue Discovered" (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ online/ news/ glue. html). Archaeology. .
[51] Ennker, I. C.; et al., JRgen; Schoon, Doris; Schoon, Heinz Adolf; Rimpler, Manfred; Hetzer, Roland (1994). "Formaldehyde-free collagen
glue in experimental lung gluing" (http:/ / ats. ctsnetjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 57/ 6/ 1622). Ann Thorac Surg. 57 (6): 16221627.
doi:10.1016/0003-4975(94)90136-8. PMID8010812. .
[52] Trentham, D.; Dynesius-Trentham, R.; Orav, J.; Combitchi, D.; Lorenzo, C.; Sewell, K.; Hafler, D. & Weiner, H. (1993). "Effects of Oral
Administration of Type II Collagen on Rheumatoid Arthritis". Science 261 (5119): 17271730. Bibcode1993Sci...261.1727T.
doi:10.1126/science.8378772.

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[53] Cunniffe, G; F O'Brien (2011). "Collagen scaffolds for orthopedic regenerative medicine". The Journal of the Minerals, Metals and
Materials Society 63 (4): 6673.
[54] Oliveira, S; R Ringshia, R Legeros, E Clark, L Terracio, C Teixeira M Yost (2009). "An improved collagen scaffold for skeletal
regeneration". Journal of Biomedical Materials: 371379.
[55] Blow, Nathan (2009). "Cell culture: building a better matrix". Nature Methods 6 (8): 619622. doi:10.1038/nmeth0809-619.
[56] http:/ / www. trevigen. com/ angiocell/ cultrex. php
[57] Singh, O; SS Gupta, M Soni, S Moses, S Shukla, RK Mathur (2011). "Collagen dressing versus conventional dressings in burn and chronic
wounds: a retrospective study". Journal of Cutaneous and Aesthetic Surgery 4 (1): 1216.
[58] http:/ / www. humanbiosciences. com

External links

12 types of collagen (http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/extracellularmatrix.html)

Database of type I and type III collagen mutations (http://www.le.ac.uk/genetics/collagen/)
Science.dirbix Collagen (http://science.dirbix.com/biology/collagen)
Collagen Stability Calculator (http://compbio.cs.princeton.edu/csc/)
Computer-generated animations of the assembly of Type I and Type IV Collagens (http://www.mc.vanderbilt.
edu/cmb/collagen/)
Integrin-Collagen interface, PMAP (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_a8q2OWrdvM) (The Proteolysis
Map)animation
Integrin-Collagen binding model, PMAP (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BMFqRmbbes) (The
Proteolysis Map)animation
Collagen-Integrin atomic detail, PMAP (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8L3a7oqQPRY) (The Proteolysis
Map)animation

31

Gelatin dessert

32

Gelatin dessert
Gelatin dessert

A variety of packaged gelatin desserts

Details
Type

Dessert

Main ingredient(s)

Gelatin

Gelatin desserts are desserts made with sweetened and flavored gelatin. They can be made by combining plain
gelatin with other ingredients or by using a premixed blend of gelatin with additives. Fully prepared gelatin desserts
are sold in a variety of forms, ranging from large decorative shapes to individual serving cups.

Regional names
In many of the Commonwealth nations and in Ireland, gelatin desserts are called jelly.
In the United States and Canada, gelatin desserts are called jello (a generic name based on the brand name Jell-O)
or gelatin, whereas 'jelly' is a fruit preserve.

Brands
Popular brands of premixed gelatin include:
Hartley's in the United Kingdom (although most Hartley's Jellies are, since their acquisition from Rowntree's,
made without Gelatin, see Gelatin Substitutes below)
Jell-O from Kraft Foods in North America
Aeroplane Jelly in Australia
Royal in Spain and Latin America

Gelatin dessert

33

History
Before gelatin became widely available as a commercial product, the most typical gelatin dessert was "calf's foot
jelly". As the name indicates, this was made by extracting and purifying gelatin from the foot of a calf. This gelatin
was then mixed with fruit juice and sugar.

Preparation
To make a gelatin dessert, gelatin is dissolved in hot liquid with
the desired flavors and other additives. These latter ingredients
usually include sugar, fruit juice, or sugar substitutes; they may be
added and varied during preparation, or pre-mixed with the gelatin
in a commercial product which merely requires the addition of hot
water.
In addition to sweeteners, the prepared commercial blends
generally contain flavoring agents and other additives, such as
adipic acid, fumaric acid, sodium citrate, and artificial flavorings
and food colors. Because the collagen is processed extensively, the
final product is not categorized as a meat or animal product by the
US federal government.

Packets of Rowntree's gelatin dessert cubes, known as

jelly in the United Kingdom, which are now
manufactured by Hartley's

Prepared commercial blends may be sold as a powder or as a

concentrated gelatinous block, divided into small squares. Either type is mixed with sufficient hot water to
completely dissolve it, and then mixed with enough cold water to make the volume of liquid specified on the packet.
The solubility of powdered gelatin can be enhanced by sprinkling it into the liquid several minutes before heating,
"blooming" the individual granules.[1] The fully dissolved mixture is then refrigerated, slowly forming a colloidal gel
as it cools.
Gelatin desserts may be enhanced in many ways, such as using
decorative molds, creating multicolored layers by adding a new
layer of slightly cooled liquid over the previously-solidified one,
or suspending non-soluble edible elements such as marshmallows
or fruit. Some types of fresh fruit and their unprocessed juices are
incompatible with gelatin desserts; see the Chemistry section
below.
These individual gelatin snacks, 2025 grams each, are

When fully chilled, the most common ratios of gelatin to liquid (as
sold in supermarkets throughout China.
instructed on commercial packaging) usually result in a
custard-like texture which can retain detailed shapes when cold but
melts back to a viscous liquid when warm. A recipe calling for the addition of additional gelatin to regular jelly gives
a rubbery product that can be cut into shapes with cookie cutters and eaten with fingers (called "Knox Blox" by the
Knox company, makers of unflavored gelatin). Higher gelatin ratios can be used to increase the stability of the gel,
culminating in gummy candies which remain rubbery solids at room temperature. (See Bloom (test).)

Gelatin dessert

Gelatin shots
A gelatin shot (usually called a Jell-O shot in North America and
vodka jelly or jelly shot in the UK and Australia) is a shooter in
which liquor, usually vodka, rum, tequila, or neutral grain spirit
replaces some of the water or fruit juice that is used to congeal the
gel.
The American satirist and mathematician Tom Lehrer has been
rumored to have been the first to invent the gelatin shot in the
1950s while working for the National Security Agency, where he
developed vodka gelatin as a way to circumvent a restriction of
A tray of gelatin shots prior to refrigeration.
alcoholic beverages on base,[2] but the claim that he was first is
untrue. The earliest published recipe dates from 1862, found in How to Mix Drinks, or The Bon Vivant's Companion
[3]
by Jerry Thomas: the recipe calls for gelatin, cognac, rum, and lemon juice.[4]
The maximum alcohol content is somewhere between 19-20 floz (562-591 mL) of vodka mixed with a 3oz (85g)
package of gelatin powder dissolved in 4 floz (118 mL) of boiling water; the resulting solution has about 30%
alcohol by volume.[5]

Gelatin substitutes
Other culinary gelling agents can be used instead for animal-derived gelatin. These plant-derived substances are
more similar to pectin and other gelling plant carbohydrates than to gelatin proteins; their physical properties are
slightly different, creating different constraints for the preparation and storage conditions. These other gelling agents
may also be preferred for certain traditional cuisines or dietary restrictions.
Agar, a product made from seaweed, is the traditional gelling agent in many Asian desserts. Agar is a popular gelatin
substitute in quick jelly powder mix and prepared dessert gels that can be stored at room temperature. Compared to
gelatin, agar preparations require a higher dissolving temperature, but the resulting gels congeal more quickly and
remain solid at higher temperatures, 104 F (40C),[6] as opposed to 59 F (15C)[7] for gelatin. Vegans and
vegetarians can use agar to replace animal-derived gelatin.
Carrageenan is also derived from seaweed, and lacks agar's occasionally unpleasant smell during cooking. It sets
more firmly than agar and is often used in kosher and halal cooking.
Konjac is a gelling agent used in many Asian foods, including the popular konnyaku fruit jelly candies.

Chemistry
Gelatin consists of partially hydrolyzed collagen, a protein which is highly abundant in animal tissues such as bone
and skin. Although many gelatin desserts incorporate fruit, some fresh fruits contain proteolytic enzymes; these
enzymes cut the gelatin molecule into peptides (protein fragments) too small to form a firm gel. The use of such
fresh fruits in a gelatin recipe results in a dessert that never 'sets'.
Specifically, pineapple contains the protease (protein cutting enzyme) bromelain, kiwi fruit contains actinidin, figs
contain ficain, and papaya contains papain. Cooking or canning denatures and inactivates the proteases, so canned
pineapple, for example, works fine in a gelatin dessert.

34

Gelatin dessert

35

Safety
Although eating tainted beef can lead to New Variant Creutzfeldt Jakob Disease (the human variant of mad-cow
disease, Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy), there is no known case of BSE having been transmitted through
collagen products such as gelatin.[8]

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]

"Unflavored Gelatin - Using Gelatin In Your Cooking" (http:/ / whatscookingamerica. net/ gelatintip. htm). .
San Francisco - News - That Was the Wit That Was (http:/ / www. sfweekly. com/ 2000-04-19/ news/ that-was-the-wit-that-was/ )
http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QDUEAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA24& source=gbs_toc_r& cad=0_0#PPA22,M1
The Joy of Mixology by Gary Regan. Clarkson Potter, 2003. Pages 15-16, 150.
"The Ultimate Jell-O Shot" (http:/ / www. myscienceproject. org/ j-shot. html). .
"Agar Plates Bacterial Culture" (http:/ / www. molecularstation. com/ microbiology/ agar-plates-bacterial-culture/ ). . Retrieved 11 January
2009.
[7] "Gelation And Stiffening Power Of Gelatin" (http:/ / chestofbooks. com/ food/ science/ Experimental-Cookery/
Gelation-And-Stiffening-Power-Of-Gelatin. html). . Retrieved 11 January 2009.
[8] Spongiform Encephalopathy Advisory Committee(SEAC) (1992-2000). "BSE inquiry: A consideration of the possible hazard of gelatin to
man" (http:/ / collections. europarchive. org/ tna/ 20061016123923/ http:/ / bseinquiry. gov. uk/ evidence/ seac/ seac. htm). .

External links
Kraft Foods: Jell-O history (http://brands.kraftfoods.com/jello/explore/history/)
Cooper Union history page (http://www.cooper.edu/engineering/chemechem/gelatin/gel.html)

Almond jelly
Almond jelly

A bowl of almond jelly

Origin
Alternative name(s) Almond pudding, almond tofu
Details
Type

Pudding

Main ingredient(s)

Southern Chinese almond or sweet Chinese almond, water, gelling agent (usually agar)

Almond jelly

36

Almond jelly
Chinese

Cantonese Jyutping hang6 jan dau6 fu6

Hanyu Pinyin

xngrn duf

Literal meaning

almond tofu

Transcriptions
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin xngrn duf
Min
- Hokkien POJ hng-jn-tu-h
hng-ln-tu-h
Wu
- Romanization hhangnyin ddewhhu
Cantonese (Yue)
- Jyutping

hang6 jan dau6 fu6

Almond jelly, almond pudding, or almond tofu ( ) is a popular dessert in Hong Kong, Taiwan,
Singapore, Malaysia, and Japan and often found in dim sum restaurants worldwide, commonly garnished with
wolfberries.
The name is sometimes misleading, as the dish is often prepared using apricot kernels ( ), not almonds, though
the flavor is similar, and most recipes do not use soy beans (as are used in tofu, ), though the consistency is
similar.[1]

Traditional recipe
In the traditional recipe, the primary ingredient is southern Chinese almond ( , which is in fact apricot kernel)
or sweet Chinese almond, soaked and ground with water. The almond milk is extracted, sweetened, and heated with
a gelling agent (usually agar). When chilled, the almond milk mixture solidifies to the consistency of a soft gelatin
dessert.

Variations
Almond jelly can be made using instant mix or from scratch. Although the agar-based recipe is vegan, there are
numerous nontraditional recipes that are not. Most are based on dairy products and a small amount of
almond-flavored extract. Gelatin is also a common substitute for agar.
There is also an "instant" almond-flavored soy-based powder with a coagulating agent, which dissolves in hot water
and solidifies into sweetened soft tofu upon cooling.

Almond jelly

37

References
[1] "Almond Jelly (Annin Tofu)" (http:/ / www. cuisinivity. com/ recipe/ archive/ desserts/ annin_tofu. php). cuisinivity.com. . Retrieved 13
August 2012.

External links
Recipe for almond jelly (http://www.chinatownconnection.com/almond-tea-jelly-recipe.htm)

Guilinggao
Guilinggao

Origin
Alternative name(s) Tortoise Jelly, Turtle Jelly
Place of origin

China
Details

Course

Dessert

Type

Pastry

Main ingredient(s)

Plastron, Chinese herbs ()

Guilinggao
Traditional Chinese
Simplified Chinese

Literal meaning

turtle essence jelly

Transcriptions
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin gu lng go
Cantonese (Yue)
- Jyutping

gwai1 ling4 gou1

Gulnggo, also known as Tortoise Jelly (though not technically correct) or Turtle Jelly, is a jelly-like Chinese
medicine, also sold as a dessert. It was traditionally made from the powdered plastron (bottom shell) from the turtle
Cuora trifasciata (commonly known as "three-lined box turtle", or "golden coin turtle", )[1] and a variety
of herbal products, in particular, China roots Smilax glabra ( , Tu fu ling).[2][3] Although the golden coin

Guilinggao

38

turtle (Cuora trifasciata) is commercially farmed in modern China, it is extremely expensive;[4] therefore, even when
turtle-derived ingredients are used in commercially available gulnggo, they come from other, more commonly
available, turtle species.[1][5]
More often, commercially available gulnggo sold as a dessert does not contain turtle shell powder at all, despite
the product name and the prominent turtle images on most brands' labels. They do, however, share the same herbal
additives as the medicine and are similarly marketed as being good for skin complexion when ingested.

History
According to a legend, the Tongzhi Emperor nearly cured his smallpox
by taking guilinggao.[6] However, Empress Cixi believed his disease
could be cured by worshipping a smallpox idol. She succeeded in
convincing the emperor to quit his guilinggao regimen. The emperor
died soon after.[6]

A restaurant in Wuhan advertising "Genuine

Wuzhou Guilinggao"

Guilinggao is thought to be good for the skin, allowing for a healthier

complexion upon repeated consumption.[1] Other supposed positive
effects of the jelly includes improving circulation, assisting muscle
growth, relieving itching, reducing acne and kidney restoration.[6]

Variety
Regular guilinggao jelly is black in appearance; however, the actual color is more of a dark brown. Naturally, it is
not sweet, but slightly bitter, although sweeteners such as honey can be added to make it more palatable.

Availability
Relatively inexpensive canned guilinggao jelly with poptop lids and plastic spoons for immediate consumption can
be found in many East and Southeast Asian countries, as well as Chinatowns in the United States and Canada. It is
also available to buy in England. There are two varieties. and one of them also contains Lingzhi powder.

Preparation
Traditional guilinggao recipes require boiling turtle shell for many hours, first by itself, then with a variety of herbal
ingredients, so that the liquid is gradually evaporated and a jelly-like residue forms. Rice flour and corn starch is
added to "thicken" the product.[5][3]
The ingredients of traditional guilinggao consists of 300g tortoise plastron,
80g rehmannia root,
80g honeysuckle flower,
80g smilax rhizome,
80g Chinese mesona,
40g abrus fruit,
32g atractylodes rhizome,
32g forsythia fruit,
20g dandelion,
20g dictamnus root bark,
20g siler root,
20g schizonepeta spike,
20g chrysanthemum flower,

Guilinggao

39

20g lysimachia,
30 bowls of water, boiled to half its volume. 375g of rice flour and 80g of corn flour are used to thicken the
decoction.
Guilinggao jelly can be prepared at home from commercially sold powdered concentrate (the "guilinggao
powder"),[3] similarly to how Jello is made. When it is prepared, other herbal substances, such as ginseng, are added
to the jelly to give it certain tastes and medicinal values.

A typical guilingao dessert can, unopened

Picture of a Guilingao jelly

Notes
[1] Dharmananda, APPENDIX 1: "Golden Coin Turtle" (A report dated April 27, 2002 by ECES News (Earth Crash Earth Spirit)). Quote: "The
popularity of turtle jelly can be seen in the success of Ng Yiu-ming. His chain of specialty stores has grown from one shop in 1991 to 68
today, in Hong Kong, Macau, and mainland China. Ng also packs turtle jelly into portable containers sold at convenience stores. He insists no
golden coin turtles are used. 'They're too expensive' he said. '... [I]f you know how to choose the herbal ingredients, jelly made from other
kinds of turtles will be just as good.'"
[2] Medicinal Turtle Preparation (http:/ / www. chelonia. org/ articles/ China/ preparation9. htm)
[3] Dharmananda, APPENDIX 3: "Tortoise Jelly (Turtle Jelly)"
[4] Shi, Haitao; Parham, James F; Fan, Zhiyong; Hong, Meiling; Yin, Feng (2008-01-01), "Evidence for the massive scale of turtle farming in
China" (http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ action/ displayFulltext?type=1& fid=1738732& jid=ORX& volumeId=42& issueId=01&
aid=1738724), Oryx (Cambridge University Press) 42: 147150, doi:10.1017/S0030605308000562, , retrieved 2009-12-26 Also at http:/ /
sites. google. com/ site/ jfparham/ 2008Shi. pdf
[5] Dharmananda, APPENDIX 2: "Softshell Turtle Farming". Quote: "Chinese softshell turtle used ... as a substitute ... for the golden coin turtle
for making turtle jelly."
[6] http:/ / www. globaltimes. cn/ www/ english/ metro-beijing/ lifestyle/ health& food/ 2010-02/ 503714. html

Guilinggao

40

References
Dharmananda, Subhuti. "Endangered species issues affecting turtles and tortoises used in Chinese medicine"
(http://www.itmonline.org/arts/turtles.htm). See in particular
APPENDIX 1: "Golden Coin Turtle" (A report dated April 27, 2002 by ECES News (Earth Crash Earth Spirit)),
APPENDIX 2: "Softshell Turtle Farming", and
APPENDIX 3: "Tortoise Jelly (Turtle Jelly)"

Grass jelly
Grass jelly

Pieces of grass jelly cut into approximately 1cm cubes

Origin
Alternative name(s) Leaf jelly
Details
Main ingredient(s)

Mesona chinensis stalks and leaves, potassium carbonate, starch

Grass jelly
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese

Transcriptions
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin

xin co

- WadeGiles

hsien1 ts'ao3
Min

- Hokkien POJ

sian-chhu

Cantonese (Yue)
- Jyutping

sin1 cou2

- Yale Romanization sin1 chou2

Alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese

Grass jelly

41
Simplified Chinese

Transcriptions
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin

ling fn

- WadeGiles

liang2 fen3

Cantonese (Yue)
- Jyutping

loeng4 fan2

- Yale Romanization leung4 fan2

Vietnamese name
Vietnamese

sng so

Indonesian name
Indonesian

cincau

Grass jelly, or leaf jelly, is a jelly-like dessert found in China, Hong Kong, Macau, Southeast Asia,and Taiwan . It is
sold in cans or packets in Asian supermarkets.

Preparation
Grass jelly is made by boiling the aged and slightly oxidized stalks and leaves of Mesona chinensis[1][2] (member of
the mint family) with potassium carbonate for several hours with a little starch and then cooling the liquid to a
jelly-like consistency.[1][3] This jelly can be cut into cubes or other forms, and then mixed with syrup to produce a
drink or dessert thought to have cooling (yin) properties, which makes it typically consumed during hot weather. The
jelly itself has a slight bitter taste, a light iodine lavender flavor, and is a translucent black.

Regional
China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau
In China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau, grass jelly was traditionally served with sugar syrup. Now it is often
served mixed with other ingredients, such as mango, sago, watermelon, cantaloupe, and other fresh or canned fruit,
and evaporated milk.
Although this dish is sometimes called liangfen (leung fan) in Chinese, it should not be confused with the Chinese
starch jelly liangfen, which is an entirely different dish.

Grass jelly

42

Indonesia
In Indonesia, black jelly (Cincau hitam) is manufactured as an instant
powder, like other instant jellies or agar. This form is easier to use. It is
made from the leaves of Mesona palustris.
Two other plants used in Indonesia are Melastoma polyanthum, known
as Cincau perdu,[4] and Cyclea barbata, known as Cincau Hijau or
green grass jelly.[5]

Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei

Plain grass jelly is mixed in various kinds of desserts, such as ice
kacang and cendol. It is also mixed with cold soy milk and served as a
refreshing drink/dessert, a drink known as Michael Jackson in
South-East Asia (a reference to Michael Jackson's changing skin color
and/or the song "Black or White").[6] Various combinations of grass
jelly with milk syrup (bandung) are called "bancau"
Green grass jelly

Taiwan
In Taiwan, grass jelly is known as (xian cao), and is used in
various desserts and drinks. It can sometimes be added to boba drinks
and shaved ice ( ). It is also commonly used in a traditional
Taiwanese drink, where the jelly is heated and melted to be consumed
as a thick dessert beverage ( , literally Grass Jelly Tea), with
numerous toppings like tangyuan, taro balls, azuki beans, and tapioca.

Thailand
Chao kuai sold on the Sunday Walking Street
In Thailand, grass jelly is known as chao kuai (Thai: Thai
market in Chiang Mai, Thailand
pronunciation:[tw kuj]), and is commonly served relatively plain
together with ice and natural brown sugar. Additionally, it can also be
served with fruits such as jackfruit, the fruit of the toddy palm or mixed with other Thai desserts.

Vietnam
In the Vietnamese language, grass jelly is sng so or thch sng so. Grass jelly is chopped in small cubes and
served as an additional ingredient in sweet desserts made from various kinds of beans (ch). There are two common
kinds of grass jelly in Vietnam which are Mesona chinensis (called sng so in Vietnamese) and Tiliacora
triandra (called sng sm; sng sa or rau cu is the name for jelly made from various kinds of algae).

References
[1] " " (http:/ / www. herb. nat. gov. tw/ b2b_cpinfo06. asp?id=892). . . "
"
[2] Armstrong, Wayne P., Grass Jelly (Mesona chinensis) (http:/ / waynesword. palomar. edu/ ecoph37. htm), , retrieved 2008-05-19
[3] Bush, Austin, Inside the greenhouse (http:/ / www. austinbushphotography. com/ 2006/ 06/ inside-greenhouse. html), , retrieved 2008-05-19
[4] www.unimainz.de (http:/ / www. unimainz. de/ FB/ Biologie/ Botanikspeziell/ web_old/ Botanikspeziell/ oldPages/ Melastomataceae/
Mmalabathricum. html#Mpolyanthum)
[5] TANAMAN OBAT INDONESIA (http:/ / www. iptek. net. id/ ind/ pd_tanobat/ view. php?id=141). www.iptek.net.id. Retrieved on
2012-01-11.
[6] Kopi (Coffee) (http:/ / unclelimscafe. com/ menu. htm). unclelimscafe.com. Retrieved on 2012-01-11.

Grass jelly

External links
Asian Food Glossary (http://www.asiafood.org/glossary_1.cfm?alpha=G&amp;wordid=2677&
amp;startno=27&amp;endno=51)
Black jelly and other kind grass jelly (http://www.elti.co.id/modules.phpop=modload&amp;name=News&
amp;file=article&amp;sid=16&amp;mode=thread&amp;order=0&amp;thold=0)
Indonesia Black jelly Instant Powder (http://sajwl.tripod.com/jelly)

43

Potassium carbonate

44

Potassium carbonate
Potassium carbonate

Identifiers
[1]

CAS number

584-08-7

PubChem

11430

ChemSpider

10949

UNII

BQN1B9B9HA

RTECS number

TS7750000

Jmol-3D images

Image 1

[2]
[3]

[4]

[5]

Properties
Molecular formula

K CO

Molar mass

138.205 g/mol

Appearance

white, hygroscopic solid

Density

2.29 g/cm3

Melting point

891C, 1164K, 1636F

Boiling point

decomposes

Solubility in water

112 g/100 mL (20 C)

156 g/100 mL (100 C)

Potassium carbonate

45

Solubility

insoluble in alcohol, acetone

Hazards
[6]

MSDS

ICSC 1588

EU Index

Not listed

R-phrases

R22 R36 R37 R38

Main hazards

Irritant

NFPA 704
Flash point

non-flammable

LD50

1870 mg/kg
Related compounds

Other anions

Potassium bicarbonate

Other cations

Lithium carbonate
Sodium carbonate
Rubidium carbonate
Caesium carbonate

Related compounds

Ammonium carbonate
(verify)

[7]

(what is: / ?)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25C, 100kPa)

Infobox references

Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is a white salt, soluble in water (insoluble in alcohol), which forms a strongly
alkaline solution. It can be made as the product of potassium hydroxide's absorbent reaction with carbon dioxide. It
is deliquescent, often appearing a damp or wet solid. Potassium carbonate is used in the production of soap and
glass.

History
Potassium carbonate was first identified in 1742 by Antonio Campanella and is the primary component of potash and
the more refined pearl ash or salts of tartar. Historically, pearl ash was created by baking potash in a kiln to remove
impurities. The fine, white powder remaining was the pearl ash. The first patent issued by the US Patent Office was
awarded to Samuel Hopkins in 1790 for an improved method of making potash and pearl ash.
In late 18th century North America, before the development of baking powder, pearl ash was used as a leavening
agent in quick breads.[8]
Other terms for potassium carbonate:

Carbonate of potash
Dipotassium carbonate
Dipotassium salt
Pearl ash
Potash
Salt of tartar
Salt of wormwood

Potassium carbonate

Production
Today, potassium carbonate is prepared commercially by the electrolysis of potassium chloride. The resulting
potassium hydroxide is then carbonated using carbon dioxide to form potassium carbonate, which is often used to
produce other potassium compounds.
2KOH + CO2 K2CO3 + H2O
It is also produced when rocket candy is burned:
48 KNO3 + 5 C12H22O11 24 K2CO3 + 24 N2 + 55 H2O + 36 CO2

Applications
Pearl ash has been used for soap, glass, and china production. In the laboratory, it may be used as a mild drying
agent where other drying agents, such as calcium chloride and magnesium sulfate, may be incompatible. It is not
suitable for acidic compounds, but can be useful for drying an organic phase if one has a small amount of acidic
impurity.
Mixed with water, it causes an exothermic reaction. It is mixed with distilled water to make a safer electrolyte for
oxyhydrogen production than potassium hydroxide, the more commonly used electrolyte.
In cuisine, it is used as an ingredient in the production of grass jelly, a food consumed in Chinese and Southeast
Asian cuisines. It is used to tenderize tripe. German gingerbread recipes often use potassium carbonate as a baking
agent.
Potassium carbonate is sometimes used as a buffering agent in the production of mead or wine.
It will soften hard water.[9] Aqueous potassium carbonate is also used as a toxin-free cleaning agent and is also called
electrolyzed or "engineered" water. The water softening properties of the potassium carbonate add to water's natural
ability to remove dirt and sanitize areas.
Aqueous potassium carbonate is used in the fertilizer industry for removal of carbon dioxide from the ammonia
production synthesis gas coming from the steam reformer.
Aqueous potassium carbonate is also used as a fire suppressant in extinguishing deep-fat fryers and various other B
class-related fires, and in condensed aerosol fire suppression, although as the byproduct of potassium nitrate.
Potassium carbonate is used in reactions to maintain anhydrous conditions without reacting with the reactants and
product formed. It may also be used to dry some ketones, alcohols, and amines prior to distillation.[10]
It is an ingredient in welding fluxes, and in the flux coating on arc-welding rods.

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]

http:/ / www. commonchemistry. org/ ChemicalDetail. aspx?ref=584-08-7

http:/ / pubchem. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ summary/ summary. cgi?cid=11430
http:/ / www. chemspider. com/ 10949
http:/ / fdasis. nlm. nih. gov/ srs/ srsdirect. jsp?regno=BQN1B9B9HA
http:/ / chemapps. stolaf. edu/ jmol/ jmol. php?model=C%28%3DO%29%28%5BO-%5D%29%5BO-%5D. %5BK%2B%5D.
%5BK%2B%5D
[6] http:/ / www. inchem. org/ documents/ icsc/ icsc/ eics1588. htm
[7] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special%3Acomparepages?rev1=464211205& page2=%3APotassium+ carbonate
[8] See references to "pearl ash" in "American Cookery" by Amelia Simmons, printed by Hudson & Goodwin, Hartford, 1796.
[9] Child, Lydia M. "The American Frugal Housewife" 1832
[10] Leonard, J.; Lygo, B.; Procter, G. "Advanced Practical Organic Chemistry" 1998, Stanley Thomas Publishers Ltd

46

Potassium carbonate

Bibliography
A Dictionary of Science, Oxford University Press, New York 2003

External links
International Chemical Safety Card 1588 (http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1588.htm)

47

Mesona

48

Mesona
Mesona
Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Lamiaceae

Genus:

Mesona
Species

See text.
Mesona is a genus in the mint family (Lamiaceae).
Exemplar species in this genus are Mesona procumbens Hemsley and Mesona chinensis, generically called xiancao
( ) in Mandarin Chinese, sian-chhu in Taiwanese, and leung fan cao ( ) in Cantonese, sng so in
Vietnamese.
It is said to be a diuretic, used in Taiwan as a hot, viscous drink, or set as a gel and served as a grass jelly.
In Indonesia the Mesona palustris leaf is used to make a black jelly; there is also an instant powder variety available.

External links
Asian grass jelly [1]
Indonesia Black Jelly Instant Powder [2]

References
[1] http:/ / waynesword. palomar. edu/ ecoph37. htm
[2] http:/ / members. tripod. com/ ~sajwl/ jelly. html

Mesona chinensis

49

Mesona chinensis
Mesona chinensis
Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Lamiaceae

Genus:

Mesona

Species:

M. chinensis
Benth.[1]

Mesona chinensis is a species of plants belonging to the genus Mesona of the mint family. The species grows
extensively in East Asia such as south east China and Taiwan preferring ravines, grassy, dry, and sandy areas.[2] The
plants are from 15100cm high with hairy stems and leaves. The leaves are tear-drop shaped and serrated.[2]
The plants are referred to as xiancao ( , , , ) in Mandarin Chinese, sian-chhu in
Taiwanese, and leung fan cao ( ) in Cantonese, sng so in Vietnamese, in Thai and
primarily cultivated and used in making grass jelly.[1]

Cultivation and processing

M. chinensis is cultivated on flat ground or areas with a slight slope. In
Taiwan, this plant is often grown under fruit trees in fruits orchards as
a secondary crop.[1] The plant is processed by harvesting all the aerial
portions above the root. The portions are then partially dried and piled
up in order to allows them to oxidize until they have darkened. After
the oxidation, they are then thoroughly dried for sale.[1]
Cut grass jelly

References
[1] " " (http:/ / www. herb. nat. gov. tw/ b2b_cpinfo06. asp?id=892). . . "
"
[2] "Mesona chinensis in Flora of China" (http:/ / www. efloras. org/ florataxon. aspx?flora_id=2& taxon_id=200019823). .

Tiliacora triandra

50

Tiliacora triandra
Tiliacora triandra
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class:

Magnoliopsida

Order:

Ranunculales

Family:

Menispermaceae

Genus:

Tiliacora

Species:

T. triandra

Binomial name
Tiliacora triandra
(Colebr.) Diels
Tiliacora triandra is a species of flowering plant native to mainland Southeast Asia and used particularly in the
cuisines of northeast Thailand and Laos. In the Isan language, it is called bai yanang or bai ya nang (,
literally "yanang leaf"), or simply yanang or ya nang (). In Laos, it is also called bai yanang (). It is
a climbing plant with deep green leaves and yellowish flowers, tolerating only very mild frost.

Culinary use
In the Isan culture of northeast Thailand, the leaves are used in the preparation of kaeng no mai som (Thai:
, sometimes called keng Lao (Thai: )), photo [1] a sour-tasting soup that also includes bamboo
shoots, chilis, salt, citric acid, and sometimes also oyster mushrooms, straw mushrooms, cha-om, or other
ingredients. Generally the leaves are not used whole, but rather a juice (or extract) made from the leaves is used to
make the broth, primarily as a thickening agent rather than for its flavor. This juice may be prepared from scratch,
from fresh leaves, or purchased in canned form. photo [2]

Tiliacora triandra

51

In Vietnam, the plant is called dy sng sm, and be made into a

kind of jelly called: "sng sm".
In Cambodia, it is used as an ingredient in a sour soup called samlar
machu.
In Laos and Thailand, the leaves are extracted with water using both
hands rubbing on leaves back and forth until all the green part in the
leaves are out in the water, this is called nam yanang (Lao:
; Thai: ), meaning "yanang water". The yanang
water is used to make bamboo soup.

External links
Yanang page

[3]

(Thai)

Yanang page

[4]

(Thai)

Tiliacora triandra page [5] (Vietnamese)

"Sng sm" jelly in Vietnam

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]

http:/ / www. ctfood. se/ u_img/ 1001_bamboo_shoot_strip_w_bay_chili_pantai. jpg

http:/ / www. thaiworld. co. th/ IMAGE/ Product/ 1. canned/ juice/ yanang_leave_extract_l. jpg
http:/ / www. dld. go. th/ nutrition/ exhibision/ native_grass/ other/ Tiliacora%20triandra. htm
http:/ / www. gifu-u. ac. jp/ ~miya/ DDplantshtml/ plant158. htm
http:/ / www. lrc-hueuni. edu. vn/ dongy/ show_target. plx?url=/ thuocdongy/ D/ DaySuongSam. htm& key=& char=D

Algae

52

Algae
Algae

Laurencia, a genus of red algae from Hawaii

Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Included groups

Archaeplastida
Chlorophyta (green algae)
Rhodophyta (red algae)
Glaucophyta
Rhizaria, Excavata
Chlorarachniophytes
Euglenids
Chromista, Alveolata
Heterokonts
Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms)
Axodine
Bolidomonas
Eustigmatophyceae
Phaeophyceae (brown algae)
Chrysophyceae (golden algae)
Raphidophyceae
Synurophyceae
Xanthophyceae (yellow-green algae)
Cryptophyta
Dinoflagellates
Haptophyta
Excluded groups

Cyanobacteria
Plantae

Algae

53

Algae (/ldi/ or /li/; singular alga /l/,

Latin for "seaweed") are a very large and diverse
group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms,
ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms, such
as the giant kelps that grow to 65 meters in length.
Most are photosynthetic like plants, and "simple"
because they lack the many distinct cell and organ
types found in land plants. The largest and most
complex marine forms are called seaweeds.
Though the prokaryotic cyanobacteria are informally
referred to as blue-green algae, this usage is incorrect
[3]
since they are regarded as bacteria.[4] The term
algae is now restricted to eukaryotic organisms.[5]
All true algae therefore have a nucleus enclosed
within a membrane and plastids bound in one or
more
membranes.[3][6] Algae
constitute
a
[3]
paraphyletic and polyphyletic group, as they do not
include all the descendants of the last universal
ancestor nor do they all descend from a common
algal ancestor, although their plastids seem to have a
single origin.[1] Diatoms are also examples of algae.
Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies,
from simple, asexual cell division to complex forms
of sexual reproduction.[7]

The lineage of algae according to Thomas Cavalier-Smith. The exact

number and placement of endosymbiotic events is currently unknown,
[1][2]
so this diagram can be taken only as a general guide
It represents
the most parsimonious way of explaining the three types of
endosymbiotic origins of plastids. These types include the
endosymbiotic events of cyanobacteria, red algae and green algae,
leading to the hypothesis of the supergroups Archaeplastida,
Chromalveolata and Cabozoa respectively. However, the monophyly of
Cabozoa has been refuted and the monophylies of Archaeplastida and
Chromalveolata are currently strongly challenged. Endosymbiotic
events are noted by dotted lines.

Algae lack the various structures that characterize

land plants, such as the leaf-like phyllids of
bryophytes, rhizoids in nonvascular plants and the
roots, leaves and other organs that are found in tracheophytes (vascular plants). Many are phototrophic, although
some groups contain members that are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic
carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species rely entirely on external energy
sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus.
Nearly all algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria, and so produce oxygen as a
by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria.
Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.[8]

Algae

54

Etymology and study

The singular alga is the Latin word for a particular seaweed and
retains that meaning in English.[9] The etymology is obscure.
Although some speculate that it is related to Latin algre, "be
cold",[10] there is no known reason to associate seaweed with
temperature. A more likely source is alliga, "binding, entwining."[11]
The Ancient Greek word for seaweed was (fkos or phykos),
which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red
dye derived from it. The Latinization, fcus, meant primarily the
cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate
has long been some word related to the Biblical ( pk), "paint" (if
not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient
Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It
could be any color: black, red, green, blue.[12]

Title page of Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin, Historia

Fucorum, dated 1768.

Accordingly the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is

called either phycology or algology, depending on whether the
Greek or Latin root is used. The name Fucus appears in a number of
taxa.

Classification
While cyanobacteria have been traditionally
considered algae, recent works usually
exclude them due to large differences such
as the lack of membrane-bound organelles,
the presence of a single circular
chromosome, the presence of peptidoglycan
in the cell walls, and ribosomes different in
size and content from those of the
Eukaryotes.[13][14]
Rather
than
in
chloroplasts, they conduct photosynthesis on
specialized
infolded
cytoplasmic
membranes called thylakoid membranes.
Therefore, they differ significantly from
algae despite occupying similar ecological
niches.
By modern definitions, algae are Eukaryotes
and
conduct
photosynthesis
within
membrane-bound
organelles
called
chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain circular
DNA and are similar in structure to

False-color Scanning electron micrograph of the unicellular coccolithophore,

Gephyrocapsa oceanica.

Algae

55

cyanobacteria, presumably representing reduced cyanobacterial endosymbionts. The exact nature of the chloroplasts
is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes
the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper
right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not
chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely.
Phylogeny based on plastid[15] not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy:
Cyanobacteria

Cyanelles

Rhodophytes
Heterokonts
Rhodoplasts
Cryptophytes
Haptophytes

Euglenophytes

Chlorophytes
Chloroplasts

Charophytes
Higher plants (Embryophyta)

Chlorarachniophytes

Supergroup
affiliation
Primoplantae/
Archaeplastida

Members

Chlorophyta
Rhodophyta
Glaucophyta

Endosymbiont

Cyanobacteria

Summary

These algae have primary chloroplasts, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by two
membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The
chloroplasts of red algae have chlorophylls a and c (often), and phycobilins, while
those of green algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll a and b. Higher plants are
pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them, and thus
Chlorophyta is a sister taxon to the plants; sometimes they are grouped as
Viridiplantae.

Algae

Excavata and
Rhizaria

56

Chlorarachniophytes Green algae

Euglenids

[13]
These groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b.
Their
chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes, respectively, and were
probably retained from ingested green algae.
Chlorarachniophytes, which belong to the phylum Cercozoa, contain a small
nucleomorph, which is a relict of the algae's nucleus.
Euglenids, which belong to the phylum Euglenozoa, live primarily in freshwater and
have chloroplasts with only three membranes. It has been suggested that the
endosymbiotic green algae were acquired through myzocytosis rather than
phagocytosis.

Chromista and
Alveolata

Heterokonts
Haptophyta
Cryptomonads
Dinoflagellates

Red algae

These groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and c, and phycobilins.The

shape varies from plant to plant. they may be of discoid, plate-like, reticulate,
cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon shaped. They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve
protein and starch. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or
primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with red algae suggest a relationship
there.
In the first three of these groups (Chromista), the chloroplast has four membranes,
retaining a nucleomorph in Cryptomonads, and they likely share a common
pigmented ancestor, although other evidence casts doubt on whether the Heterokonts,
Haptophyta, and Cryptomonads are in fact more closely related to each other than to
[2][16]
other groups.
The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but there is considerable
diversity in chloroplasts within the group, and it appears there were a number of
[1]
endosymbiotic events. The Apicomplexa, a group of closely related parasites, also
have plastids called apicoplasts. Apicoplasts are not photosynthetic but appear to have
[1]
a common origin with Dinoflagellate chloroplasts.

W.H.Harvey (18111866) was the first to divide algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the
first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodophyta), brown
algae (Heteromontophyta), green algae (Chlorophyta) and Diatomaceae.[17]

Algae

57

Relationship to higher plants

The first plants on earth probably evolved from shallow freshwater algae much like Chara some 400 million years
ago. These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated
land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago.[18][19]

Morphology
A range of algal morphologies are exhibited, and
convergence of features in unrelated groups is common.
The only groups to exhibit three dimensional multicellular
thalli are the reds and browns, and some chlorophytes.[20]
Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the
florideophyte reds, various browns, and the charophytes.[20]
The form of charophytes is quite different to those of reds
and browns, because have distinct nodes, separated by
internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the
horsetails occur at the nodes.[20] Conceptacles are another
polyphyletic trait; they appear in the coralline algae and the
Hildenbrandiales, as well as the browns.[20]
Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or
amoeboids, but colonial and non-motile forms have
developed independently among several of the groups.
Some of the more common organizational levels, more than
one of which may occur in the life cycle of a species, are
Colonial: small, regular groups of motile cells
Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in
mucilage
Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls
Palmelloid: non-motile cells embedded in mucilage
Filamentous: a string of non-motile cells connected
together, sometimes branching

The kelp forest exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. A

three-dimensional, multicellular thallus.

Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues

In three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the
brown algae,[21]some of which may reach 50 m in length (kelps)[22]the red algae,[23] and the green algae.[24]
The most complex forms are found among the green algae (see Charales and Charophyta), in a lineage that
eventually led to the higher land plants. The point where these non-algal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken
to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers, a characteristic not found in the other alga
groups.

Algae

58

Physiology
Many algae, particularly members of the characeae,[25] have served as model experimental organisms to understand
the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, osmoregulation, turgor regulation, salt tolerance,
cytoplasmic streaming, and the generation of action potentials.

Symbiotic algae
Some species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply
photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism
derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are as follows.

Lichens
Lichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology to
be "an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting
in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure."[26] The fungi,
or mycobionts, are from the Ascomycota with a few from the
Basidiomycota. They are not found alone in nature but when they
began to associate is not known.[27] One mycobiont associates with the
same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the green algae, except that
alternatively the mycobiont may associate with the same species of
cyanobacteria (hence "photobiont" is the more accurate term). A
Rock lichens in Ireland.
photobiont may be associated with many specific mycobionts or live
independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal
species.[28] The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed
by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). It is possible that the photobiont triggers
otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.[29]

Coral reefs
Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of
marine invertebrates of the order Scleractinia (stony corals). As
animals they metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their
cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with
water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. As the reef is the result of a
favorable equilibrium between construction by the corals and
destruction by marine erosion, the rate at which metabolism can
proceed determines the growth or deterioration of the reef.
Floridian coral reef

Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often endosymbionts in the cells of

marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by
generating immediately available sugar and oxygen through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon
dioxide produced by the host. Stony corals that are reef-building corals (hermatypic corals) require endosymbiotic
algae from the genus Symbiodinium to be in a healthy condition.[30] The loss of Symbiodinium from the host is
known as coral bleaching, a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef.

Algae

Sea sponges
Green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponge (Halichondria panicea). The
alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to
80% of sponge growth in some species.[31]

Life-cycle
Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta and Heterokontophyta, the three main algal Phyla, have life-cycles which show
tremendous variation with considerable complexity. In general there is an asexual phase where the seaweed's cells
are diploid, a sexual phase where the cells are haploid followed by fusion of the male and female gametes. Asexual
reproduction is advantageous in that it permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Sexual
reproduction allows more variation, but is more costly. Often there is no strict alternation between the sporophyte
and also because there is often an asexual phase, which could include the fragmentation of the thallus.[22][32][33]

Numbers
The Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium (located in the
National Museum of Natural History) consists of approximately
320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no
exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of
the number of algal species (that number remains unknown).[34]
Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard
textbook,[35] in the British Isles the UK Biodiversity Steering Group
Report estimated there to be 20000 algal species in the UK. Another
checklist reports only about 5000 species. Regarding the difference of
Algae on coastal rocks at Shihtiping in Taiwan
about 15000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed
field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ...."
Regional and group estimates have been made as well:
50005500 species of red algae worldwide
"some 1300 in Australian Seas"[36]
400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa,[37] and 212 species from the coast of
KwaZulu-Natal.[38] Some of these are duplicates as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is
probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in List of seaweeds of South Africa. These exclude
phytoplankton and crustose corallines.
669 marine species from California (US)[39]
642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland[40]
and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British
ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton.
The most recent estimate suggests a total number of 72,500 algal species worldwide.[41]

Distribution
The topic of distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of phytogeography in the
mid-19th century AD.[42] Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of spores analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by
seeds and spores. Spores are everywhere in all parts of the Earth: the waters fresh and marine, the atmosphere,
free-floating and in precipitation or mixed with dust, the humus and in other organisms, such as humans. Whether a
spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions of

59

Algae

60

where the spore lands.

The spores of fresh-water algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers.[43] The
bodies of water into which they are transported are chemically selective. Marine spores are spread by currents.
Ocean water is temperature selective, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions and provinces.[44]
To some degree the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such
as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is therefore possible to identify species occurring by
locality, such as "Pacific Algae" or "North Sea Algae". When they occur out of their localities, it is usually possible
to hypothesize a transport mechanism, such as the hulls of ships. For example, Ulva reticulata and Ulva fasciata
travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner.
Mapping is possible for select species only: "there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns."[45]
For example, Clathromorphum is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there.[46] On the other hand,
scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies."[47]

Locations
Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial
environments and are found in unusual environments, such as on
snow and on ice. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters,
under 100 metres (330ft); however some have been recorded to a
depth of 360 metres (1,180ft).[48]

Phytoplankton, Lake Chuzenji

The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology.

Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column
(phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food
chains. In very high densities (algal blooms) these algae may
discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or asphyxiate other life
forms.

Algae are variously sensitive to different factors, which has made

them useful as biological indicators in the Ballantine Scale and its modification.

Uses
Agar
Agar, a gelatinous substance derived from red algae, has
a number of commercial uses.[49] It is a good medium for
bacteria.

Alginates
Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of Macrocystis
are harvested annually in California for alginate
extraction and abalone feed.[50][51]

Harvesting algae

Algae

61

Energy source
To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should
equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae based fuels hold great promise, directly related to the potential
to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for
algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur in about ten to fifteen years.[52]

Fertilizer
For centuries seaweed has been used as a fertilizer;
George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century
referring to drift weed in South Wales:[53]
This kind of ore they often gather and lay on
great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and
will have a strong and loathsome smell;
when being so rotten they cast on the land,
as they do their muck, and thereof springeth
good corn, especially barley ... After
spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they
fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie
the same three, four, or five miles, and cast
it on the lande, which doth very much better
the ground for corn and grass.

Seaweed is used as a fertilizer.

Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners and livestock feed.[54]
Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat
effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places.
Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner.

Nutrition
Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of
food, especially in Asia. They provide many vitamins
including: A, B1, B2, B6, niacin and C, and are rich in
iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium and calcium.[55] In
addition commercially cultivated microalgae, including
both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as
nutritional supplements, such as Spirulina,[56] Chlorella
and the Vitamin-C supplement, Dunaliella, high in
beta-carotene.
Algae are national foods of many nations: China
consumes
more than 70 species, including fat choy, a
Seaweed gardens on Inisheer.
cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20
[57]
[58]
species;
Ireland, dulse; Chile, cochayuyo.
Laver is used to make "laver bread" in Wales where it is known as
bara lawr; in Korea, gim; in Japan, nori and aonori. It is also used along the west coast of North America from
California to British Columbia, in Hawaii and by the Mori of New Zealand. Sea lettuce and badderlocks are a salad
ingredient in Scotland, Ireland, Greenland and Iceland.

Algae

The oils from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty
acids. For example, Parietochloris incisa is very high in
arachidonic acid, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride
pool.[59] Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and
veganism contain the long-chain, essential omega-3 fatty acids,
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the
original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are
eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the
food chain.[60] Algae has emerged in recent years as a popular
source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get
long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such
as flaxseed oil, which only contains the short-chain
Alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA).

62

Dulse, a food.

Pollution control
Sewage can be treated with algae, reducing the need for greater amounts of toxic chemicals than are already used.
Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae
itself can be used as fertilizer.
Aquariums and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an
algae scrubber, also known as an "ATS".[61][62][63][64]
Agricultural Research Service scientists found that 60-90% of nitrogen runoff and 70-100% of phosphorus runoff
can be captured from manure effluents using an algal turf scrubber (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which are
shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years.
They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the
quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. The enriched algae itself also can be used as a fertilizer.
Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer.
They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with
commercial fertilizers.[65]

Pigments
The natural pigments produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical dyes and coloring agents.[66]

Stabilizing substances
Carrageenan, from the red alga Chondrus crispus, is used as a stabilizer in milk products.

Plastics
Algae has been implemented in the production of biodegradable plastics by Cereplast, Inc. An agreement has also
been reached with the US Military to introduce more biodegradable plastics as it attempts to move away from
petroleum based plastics and utilize more environmentally friendly alternatives.[67]

Algae

Notes
[1] Patrick J. Keeling (2004). "Diversity and evolutionary history of plastids and their hosts" (http:/ / www. amjbot. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 91/ 10/
1481). American Journal of Botany 91 (10): 14811493. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1481. PMID21652304. .
[2] Laura Wegener Parfrey, Erika Barbero, Elyse Lasser, Micah Dunthorn, Debashish Bhattacharya, David J Patterson, and Laura A Katz
(December 2006). "Evaluating Support for the Current Classification of Eukaryotic Diversity". PLoS Genet. 2 (12): e220.
doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020220. PMC1713255. PMID17194223.
[3] Nabors, Murray W. (2004). Introduction to Botany. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN0-8053-4416-0.
[4] Ed. Guiry, M.D., John, D.M., Rindi, F and McCarthy, T.K. 2007. New Survey of Clare Island Volume 6: The Freshwater and Terrestrial
Algae. Royal Irish Academy. ISBN 978-1-904890-31-7
[5] Allaby, M ed. (1992). "Algae". The Concise Dictionary of Botany. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[6] Round (1981)
[7] Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History; Department of Botany. http:/ / botany. si. edu/ projects/ algae/ introduction. htm
[8] Bengtson, S.; Belivanova, V.; Rasmussen, B.; Whitehouse, M. (May 2009). "The controversial "Cambrian" fossils of the Vindhyan are real
but more than a billion years older". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 (19): 77297734.
Bibcode2009PNAS..106.7729B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812460106. ISSN0027-8424. PMC2683128. PMID19416859.
[9] "alga, algae". Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged with Seven Language Dictionary. 1.
Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc. 1986.
[10] Partridge, Eric (1983). "algae". Origins.
[11] Lewis, Charlton T.; Charles Short (1879). "alga" (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?layout. reflang=la;layout.
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[55] Simoons, Frederick J (1991). "6, Seaweeds and Other Algae". Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry. CRC Press. pp.179190.
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[56] Morton, Steve L. "Modern Uses of Cultivated Algae" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081223081614/ http:/ / www. siu. edu/ ~ebl/
leaflets/ algae. htm). Ethnobotanical Leaflets. Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. siu. edu/
~ebl/ leaflets/ algae. htm) on 2008-12-23. . Retrieved 2008-12-26.
[57] Mondragon, J; Mondragon, J (2003). Seaweeds of the Pacific Coast. Monterey, California: Sea Challengers Publications.
ISBN0-930118-29-4.
[58] "Durvillaea antarctica (Chamisso) Hariot" (http:/ / www. algaebase. org/ speciesdetail. lasso?species_id=11752& sk=0& from=results&
-session=abv3:51909EC30802716127sVj3EDC9C7). AlgaeBase. .
[59] Bigogno, C; I Khozin-Goldberg; S Boussiba; A Vonshak; Z Cohen (2002). "Lipid and fatty acid composition of the green oleaginous alga
Parietochloris incisa, the richest plant source of arachidonic acid". Phytochemistry 60 (5): 497503. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(02)00100-0.
PMID12052516.
[60] Allison Aubrey (Morning Edition, November 1, 2007). "Getting Brain Food Straight from the Source" (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/
story/ story. php?storyId=15823852). National Public Radio. .
[61] Nutrient Cycling In The Great Barrier Reef Aquarium. Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, Australia, 1988, Vol. 2
(http:/ / www. reefbase. org/ resource_center/ publication/ main. aspx?refid=10859)
[62] U.S. Patent 4333263, Issue Date June 8, 1982 (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents/ about?id=NogyAAAAEBAJ& dq=U. S. + Patent+
4333263)

64

Algae
[63] Hydromentia Water Treatment Technologies (http:/ / www. hydromentia. com/ Products-Services/ Algal-Turf-Scrubber/
Product-Documentation/ Assets/ ATS-Technical-Brochure. pdf)
[64] Algal Response To Nutrient Enrichment In Forested Oligotrophic Stream. Journal of Phycology, June 2008 (http:/ / www3. interscience.
wiley. com/ journal/ 120083425/ abstract)
[65] "Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine" (http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ is/ AR/ archive/ may10/ algae0510. htm). USDA Agricultural
Research Service. May 7, 2010. .
[66] Arad, Shoshana; Spharim, Ishai (1998). "Production of Valuable Products from Microalgae: An Emerging Agroindustry". In Altman, Arie.
Agricultural Biotechnology. Books in Soils, Plants, and the Environment. 61. CRC Press. p.638. ISBN978-0-8247-9439-2.
[67] Casey, Tina. "Wrap Your Sandwich in Sustainable Bioplastic from Algae" (http:/ / www. scientificamerican. com/ article.
cfm?id=wrap-your-sandwich-in-sustainable-b-2010-04). CleanTechnica. . Retrieved 24 September 2011.

Bibliography
General
Chapman, V.J. (1950). Seaweeds and their Uses. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd. ISBN0-412-15740-3.
Lembi, C.A.; Waaland, J.R. (1988). Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN0-521-32115-8.
Round, F E (1981). The Ecology of Algae. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-22583-3.
Mumford, T F; Miura, A (1988). "Porphyra as food: cultivation and economic". In Lembi, C A; Waaland, J R.
Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge University Press. pp.87117. ISBN0-521-32115-8..

Regional
Britain and Ireland
Brodie, Juliet; Burrows, Elsie M; Chamberlain, Yvonne M.; Christensen, Tyge; Dixon, Peter Stanley; Fletcher,
R.L.; Hommersand, Max H; Irvine, Linda M et al. (19772003). Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative
Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History). London, Andover: British
Museum (Natural History), HMSO, Intercept. ISBN978-0-565-00781-2.
Cullinane, John P (1973). Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland. Cork: Cork University Press.
Hardy, F G; Aspinall, R J (1988). An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham. The Hancock
Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne: Northumberland Biological Records Centre.
ISBN978-0-9509680-5-6.
Hardy, F G; Guiry, Michael D; Arnold, Henry R (2006). A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and
Ireland (Revised ed.). London: British Phycological Society. ISBN9783906166353.
John, D M; Whitton, B A; Brook, J A (2002). The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK;
New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-77051-3.
Knight, Margery; Parke, Mary W (1931). Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of Man.
Liverpool Marine Biology Committee (LMBC) Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals. XXX.
Liverpool: University Press.
Morton, Osborne (1994). Marine Algae of Northern Ireland. Belfast: Ulster Museum. ISBN9780900761287.
Morton, Osborne (1 December 2003). "The Marine Macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland". Bulletin of the Irish
Biogeographical Society 27: 3164.
Australia
Huisman, J M (2000). Marine Plants of Australia. University of Western Australian (UWA) Press.
ISBN1-876268-33-6.
New Zealand
Chapman, Valentine Jackson; Lindauer, VW; Aiken, M; Dromgoole, FI (1900, 1956, 1961, 1969, 1970). The
Marine algae of New Zealand. London; Lehre, Germany: Linnaean Society of London; Cramer.

65

Algae
Europe
Cabioc'h, Jacqueline; Floc'h, Jean-Yves; Le Toquin, Alain; Boudouresque, Charles-Franois; Meinesz,
Alexandre; Verlaque, Marc (1992) (in French). Guide des algues des mers d'Europe:
Manche/Atlantique-Mditerrane. Lausanne, Suisse: Delachaux et Niestl. ISBN9782603008485.
Gayral, Paulette (1966) (in French). Les Algues de ctes franaises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales
sur l'cologie, la biologie et la systmatique des algues marines. Paris: Doin, Deren et Cie.
Guiry, M.D.; Blunden, G. (1991). Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN0-471-92947-6.
Mguez Rodrguez, Lus (1998) (in Galician). Algas marias de Galicia: bioloxa, gastronoma, industria. Vigo:
Edicins Xerais de Galicia. ISBN84-8302-263-X.
Otero, J. (2002) (in Galician). Gua das macroalgas de Galicia. A Corua: Baa Edicins. ISBN84-89803-22-6.
Brbara, I.; Cremades, J. (1993) (in Spanish). Gua de las algas del litoral gallego. A Corua: Concello da
Corua - Casa das Ciencias.
Arctic
Kjellman, Frans Reinhold (1883). The algae of the Arctic Sea: a survey of the species, together with an exposition
of the general characters and the development of the flora. 20. Stockholm: Kungl. Svenska
vetenskapsakademiens handlingar. pp.1350.
Greenland
Lund, Sren Jensen (1959). The Marine Algae of East Greenland. Kvenhavn: C.A. Reitzel. ISBN9584734.
Faroe Islands
Brgesen, Frederik (1903, 1970 reprint). "Marine Algae". In Warming, Eugene. Botany of the Fares Based Upon
Danish Investigations. Part II. Kbenhavn: Det nordiske Forlag. pp.339532..
Canary Islands
Brgesen, Frederik (1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930, 1936). Marine Algae from the Canary Islands. Kbenhavn:
Bianco Lunos.
Morocco
Gayral, Paulette (1958) (in French). Algues de la cte atlantique marocaine. Casablanca: Rabat [Socit des
sciences naturelles et physiques du Maroc].
South Africa
Stegenga, H.; Bolton, J.J.; Anderson, R.J. (1997). Seaweeds of the South African West Coast. Bolus Herbarium,
University of Cape Town. ISBN0-7992-1793-X.
North America
Abbott, I.A.; Hollenberg, G.J. (1976). Marine Algae of California. California: Stanford University Press.
ISBN0-8047-0867-3.
Greeson, Phillip E. (1982). An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of
Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States (http://www.archive.org/details/
annotatedkeytoid00gree). Washington, D.C.: US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey. Retrieved
2008-12-19.
Taylor, William Randolph (1937, 1957, 1962, 1969). Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN0-472-04904-6.
Wehr, J D; Sheath, R G (2003). Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification. US: Academic
Press. ISBN0-12-741550-5.

66

Algae

External links
Guiry, Michael and Wendy. "AlgaeBase" (http://www.algaebase.org). - a database of all algal names including
images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts
Algae - Cell Centered Database (http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&keyword=algae&
event=display&Submit=Go&start=1)
"Algae Research" (http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/). National Museum of Natural History, Department of
Botany. 2008. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20081201013721/http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/
) from the original on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-19.
Anderson, Don; Bruce Keafer; Judy Kleindinst; Katie Shaughnessy; Katherine Joyce; Danielle Fino; Adam
Shepherd (2007). "Harmful Algae" (http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779). US National Office
for Harmful Algal Blooms. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20081205151336/http://www.whoi.edu/
redtide/page.do?pid=14779) from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-19.
"Australian Freshwater Algae (AFA)" (http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/hot_science_topics/
australian_freshwater_algae2). Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW Botanic Gardens Trust.
Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20081230140015/http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/
hot_science_topics/australian_freshwater_algae2) from the original on 30 December 2008. Retrieved
2008-12-19.
"Freshwater Algae Research" (http://diatom.ansp.org/). Phycology Section, Patrick Center for Environmental
Research. 2011. Retrieved 2011-12-17.
"Monterey Bay Flora" (http://www.mbari.org/staff/conn/botany/flora/mflora.htm). Monterey Bay
Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI). 19962008. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
Silva, Paul (19972004). "Index Nominum Algarum (INA)" (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html). Berkeley:
University Herbarium, University of California. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20081223172950/
http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html) from the original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-19.
Algae: Protists with Chloroplasts (http://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=52)
"Research on microalgae" (http://www.algae.wur.nl/uk/). Wageningen UR. 2009. Archived (http://web.
archive.org/web/20090424044729/http://www.algae.wur.nl/UK/) from the original on 24 April 2009.
Retrieved 2009-05-18.

67

Agar

68

Agar

Culinary usage Mizuykan - a popular Japanese red bean jelly made from agar.

Scientific usage A blood agar plate used to culture bacteria and diagnose infection.

Agar or agar-agar is a gelatinous substance derived by boiling[1] a polysaccharide in red algae, where it
accumulates in the cell walls of agarophyte and serves as the primary structural support for the algae's cell walls.[2][3]
Agar is a mixture of two components: the linear polysaccharide agarose, and a heterogeneous mixture of smaller
molecules called agaropectin.
Throughout history into modern times, agar has been chiefly used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Asia and
also as a solid substrate to contain culture medium for microbiological work. Agar (agar-agar) can be used as a
laxative, an appetite suppressant, vegetarian gelatin substitute, a thickener for soups, in fruit preserves, ice cream,
and other desserts, as a clarifying agent in brewing, and for sizing paper and fabrics.[4]
The gelling agent is an unbranched polysaccharide obtained from the cell walls of some species of red algae,
primarily from the genera Gelidium and Gracilaria, or seaweed (Sphaerococcus euchema). For commercial
purposes, it is derived primarily from Gelidium amansii. In chemical terms, agar is a polymer made up of subunits of
the sugar galactose.

Background
Agar consists of a mixture of agarose and agaropectin. Agarose, the
predominant component of agar, is a linear polymer, made up of the
repeating monomeric unit of agarobiose. Agarobiose is a disaccharide
made up of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose.
Agaropectin is a heterogeneous mixture of smaller molecules that
occur in lesser amounts.[5]

The structure of an agarose polymer.

Agar exhibits hysteresis, melting at 85 C (358 K, 185 F) and

solidifying from 32-40 C (305-313 K, 90-104 F).[6] This property lends a suitable balance between easy melting
and good gel stability at relatively high temperatures. Since many scientific applications require incubation at
temperatures close to human body temperature (37 C), agar is more appropriate than other solidifying agents that
melt at this temperature, such as gelatin.

Agar

69
The word "agar" comes from agar-agar, the Malay name for red algae (Gigartina, Gracilaria) from which the jelly
is produced.[7] It is also known as kanten, China grass, Japanese isinglass, Ceylon moss or Jaffna moss.[8]
Gracilaria lichenoides is specifically referred to as agal-agal or Ceylon agar.[9]
Agar was first used in microbiology in 1882 by the German microbiologist Walther Hesse, an assistant working in
Robert Koch's laboratory, on the suggestion of his wife Angelina Fannie Eilshemius Hesse. He discovered that it was
more useful as a solidifying agent than gelatin, due to its better solidifying temperature.[10][11][12]

Uses
Microbiology
Agar is used throughout the world to provide a solid surface containing
medium for the growth of bacteria and fungi. Microbial growth does
not destroy the gel structure because most microorganisms are unable
to digest agar. Agar is typically sold commercially as a powder that can
be mixed with water and prepared similarly to gelatin before use as a
growth medium. Other ingredients are added to the agar to meet the
nutritional needs of the microbes. Many specific formulations are
available, because some microbes prefer certain environmental
conditions over others.

100mm diameter Petri dishes containing agar

jelly for bacterial culture

Motility assays
As a gel, an agarose medium is porous and therefore can be used to measure microorganism motility and mobility.
The gel's porosity is directly related to the concentration of agarose in the medium, so various levels of effective
viscosity (from the cell's "point of view") can be selected, depending on the experimental objectives.
A common identification assay involves culturing a sample of the organism deep within a block of nutrient agar.
Cells will attempt to grow within the gel structure. Motile species will be able to migrate, albeit slowly, throughout
the gel and infiltration rates can then be visualized, whereas non-motile species will show growth only along the
now-empty path introduced by the invasive initial sample deposition.
Another setup commonly used for measuring chemotaxis and chemokinesis utilizes the under-agarose cell migration
assay, whereby a layer of agarose gel is placed between a cell population and a chemoattractant. As a concentration
gradient develops from the diffusion of the chemoattractant into the gel, various cell populations requiring different
stimulation levels to migrate can then be visualized over time using microphotography as they tunnel upward
through the gel against gravity along the gradient.

Agar

70

Plant biology
Research grade agar is used extensively in plant biology as it is
supplemented with a nutrient and vitamin mixture that allows for
seedling germination in Petri dishes under sterile conditions (given that
the seeds are sterilized as well). Nutrient and vitamin supplementation
for Arabidopsis thaliana is standard across most experimental
conditions. Murashige & Skoog (MS) nutrient mix and Gamborg's B5
vitamin mix in general are used. A 1.0% agar/0.44% MS+vitamin
dH2O solution is suitable for growth media between normal growth
temps.
The solidification of the agar within any growth media (GM) is
pH-dependent, with an optimal range between 5.4-5.7. Usually, the
application of KOH is needed to increase the pH to this range. A
general guideline is about 600 l 0.1M KOH per 250 ml GM. This
entire mixture can be sterilized using the liquid cycle of an autoclave.

Physcomitrella patens plants growing axenically

in vitro on agar plates (Petri dish, 9cm diameter).

This medium nicely lends itself to the application of specific concentrations of phytohormones etc. to induce specific
growth patterns in that one can easily prepare a solution containing the desired amount of hormone, add it to the
known volume of GM, and autoclave to both sterilize and evaporate off any solvent that may have been used to
dissolve the often-polar hormones. This hormone/GM solution can be spread across the surface of Petri dishes sown
with germinated and/or etiolated seedlings.
Experiments with the moss Physcomitrella patens, however, have shown that choice of the gelling agent agar or
Gelrite - does influence phytohormone sensitivity of the plant cell culture.[13]

Molecular biology
Agar is a heterogeneous mixture of two classes of polysaccharide: agaropectin and agarose.[14] Although both
polysaccharide classes share the same galactose-based backbone, agaropectin is heavily modified with acidic
side-groups, such as sulfate and pyruvate.
The neutral charge and lower degree of chemical complexity of agarose make it less likely to interact with
biomolecules, and, therefore, agarose has become the preferred matrix for work with proteins and nucleic acids. Gels
made from purified agarose have a relatively large pore size, making them useful for separation of large molecules,
such as proteins and protein complexes >200 kilodaltons, as well as DNA fragments >100 basepairs. Agarose has
been used widely for immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis, as the agarose fibers functions as an anchor for
immunocomplexes. Agarose is used generally as the medium for analytical scale electrophoretic separation in
agarose gel electrophoresis and for column-based preparative scale separation as in gel filtration chromatography and
affinity chromatography.

Agar

71

Culinary
Agar-agar is a natural vegetable gelatin counterpart. White and
semi-translucent, it is sold in packages as washed and dried strips or in
powdered form. It can be used to make jellies, puddings, and custards.
For making jelly, it is boiled in water until the solids dissolve.
Sweetener, flavouring, colouring, fruit or vegetables are then added
and the liquid is poured into molds to be served as desserts and
vegetable aspics, or incorporated with other desserts, such as a jelly
layer in a cake.
Agar-agar is approximately 80% fiber, so it can serve as an intestinal
regulator. Its bulk quality is behind one of the latest fad diets in Asia,
the kanten (the Japanese word for agar-agar[2]) diet. Once ingested,
kanten triples in size and absorbs water. This results in the consumers
feeling more full. This diet has recently received some press coverage
in the United States as well. The diet has shown promise in obesity
studies.[15]
One use of agar in Japanese cuisine is anmitsu, a dessert made of small
cubes of agar jelly and served in a bowl with various fruits or other
ingredients. It is also the main ingredient in mizuykan, another
popular Japanese food.

Sago at gulaman in Filipino cuisine is made from

agar (gulaman), sago (tapioca pearls), and fruit
juice flavored with pandan

In Philippine cuisine, it is used to make the jelly bars in the various gulaman refreshments or desserts such as sago
gulaman, buko pandan, agar flan, halo-halo, and the black and red gulaman used in various fruit salads.
In Vietnamese cuisine, jellies made of flavored layers of agar agar, called thch, are a popular dessert, and are often
made in ornate molds for special occasions. In Indian cuisine, agar agar is known as "China grass" and is used for
making desserts. In Burmese cuisine, a sweet jelly known as kyauk kyaw ( [tat]) is made from agar.
In Russia, it is used in addition or as a replacement to pectin in jams and marmalades, as a substitute to gelatin for its
superior gelling properties, and as a strengthening ingredient in souffles and custards. Another use of agar-agar is in
ptich'ye moloko (bird's milk), a rich gellied custard (or soft meringue) used as a cake filling or chocolate-glazed as
individual sweets. Agar-agar may also be used as the gelling agent in gel clarification, a culinary technique used to
clarify stocks, sauces, and other liquids.

Other uses
Agar is used:

As an impression material in dentistry.

To make salt bridges for use in electrochemistry.
In formicariums as a transparent substitute for sand and a source of nutrition.
By Kanten Clay Studio as a natural ingredient to form modelling clay for young children to play with.

Agar

72

References
[1] Cyclopdia of India and of eastern and southern Asia, commercial ..., Volume 2 (1871), edited by Edward Balfour (http:/ / books. google.
com. my/ books?id=CWsIAAAAQAAJ& pg=RA1-PA70& dq=agar+ malay+ chinese& hl=en& sa=X& ei=DeKlT7zKBsrprAeNmszjAQ&
ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=agar malay chinese& f=false)
[2] Davidson, Alan, and Tom Jaine. The Oxford companion to food. Oxford University Press, USA, 2006. 805. Print. Retrieved Aug. 08, 2010,
from (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JTr-ouCbL2AC& lpg=PA805& dq=baumkuchen& pg=PA6#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[3] Williams, Peter W.; Phillips, Glyn O. (2000). Handbook of hydrocolloids. Cambridge: Woodhead. ISBN1-85573-501-6.
[4] Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, commercial ... By Edward Green Balfour (http:/ / books. google. com. my/
books?id=5ixCAAAAcAAJ& pg=PA13& dq=agar+ malacca+ paper& hl=en#v=onepage& q=agar malacca paper& f=false)
[5] Agar (http:/ / www. lsbu. ac. uk/ water/ hyagar. html) at lsbu.ac.uk Water Structure and Science
[6] "All About Agar" (http:/ / www. sciencebuddies. org/ science-fair-projects/ project_ideas/ MicroBio_Agar. shtml). Sciencebuddies.org.
Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110603081846/ http:/ / www. sciencebuddies. org/ science-fair-projects/ project_ideas/
MicroBio_Agar. shtml) from the original on 3 June 2011. . Retrieved 2011-04-27.
[7] Balfour, Edward. (1885). The cyclopdia of India and of eastern and southern Asia: commercial, industrial and scientific, products of the
mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, useful arts and manufactures. B. Quaritch. p.71.
[8] Agar-Agar (http:/ / www. agar-agar. org/ en/ ) at Agar-Agar.org
[9] Agar-Agar (http:/ / www. botanical. com/ botanical/ mgmh/ a/ agara012. html) at Botanical.com
[10] Hesse, W. (trans. Grschel, D.H.M.) (1992). "Waltherand Angelina HesseEarly Contributors to Bacteriology" (http:/ / 202. 114. 65. 51/
fzjx/ wsw/ newindex/ wswfzjs/ pdf/ 580892p425. pdf). ASM News 58 (8): 425428. .
[11] "Bacterial nutrition" (http:/ / inst. bact. wisc. edu/ inst/ index. php?module=Book& func=displayarticle& art_id=109). Microbiology
Laboratories, University of Wisconsin. . Retrieved November 3, 2012.
[12] Smith, A. (November 1, 2005). "History of the Agar Plate" (http:/ / www. labnews. co. uk/ features/ history-of-the-agar-plate/ ). Laboratory
News. . Retrieved November 3, 2012.
[13] Birgit Hadeler, Sirkka Scholz, Ralf Reski. "Gelrite and agar differently influence cytokinin-sensitivity of a moss". Journal of Plant
Physiology 146: 369371.
[14] "FAO agar manual" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ field/ 003/ AB730E/ AB730E03. htm). Fao.org. 1965-01-01. . Retrieved 2011-04-27.
[15] Maeda H, Yamamoto R, Hirao K, Tochikubo O (January 2005). "Effects of agar (kanten) diet on obese patients with impaired glucose
tolerance and type 2 diabetes". Diabetes, Obesity, and Metabolism 7 (1): 406. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1326.2004.00370.x. PMID15642074.

Konjac

73

Konjac
Konjac
Amorphophallus konjac

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Monocots

Order:

Alismatales

Family:

Araceae

Subfamily:

Aroideae

Tribe:

Thomsonieae

Genus:

Amorphophallus

Species:

A. konjac
Binomial name
Amorphophallus konjac
K. Koch

Konjac (English pronunciation: /konjk/ KOHN-yak; Amorphophallus konjac; syn. A. rivieri; Japanese: /
; ; konnyaku; Korean: ; gonyak; Chinese: ; pinyin: jru), also known as konjak,
konjaku, konnyaku potato,[1] devil's tongue, voodoo lily, snake palm, or elephant yam (though this name is also
used for A. paeoniifolius), is a plant of the genus Amorphophallus. It is native to warm subtropical to tropical eastern
Asia, from Japan and China south to Indonesia.
It is a perennial plant, growing from a large corm up to 25 cm in diameter. The single leaf is up to 1.3 m across,
bipinnate, and divided into numerous leaflets. The flowers are produced on a spathe enclosed by a dark purple spadix
up to 55 cm long.
The corm of the konjac is often colloquially referred to as a yam, although it bears no marked relation to tubers of
the family Dioscoreaceae.

Konjac

74

Cultivation and use

Konjac is grown in China, Taiwan, Japan and southeast Asia for its
large starchy corms, used to create a flour and jelly of the same name.
It is also used as a vegan substitute for gelatin.
In Japanese cuisine, konjac (konnyaku) appears in dishes such as oden.
It is typically mottled grey and firmer in consistency than most
gelatins. It has very little taste; the common variety tastes vaguely like
salt. It is valued more for its texture than flavor.
Konjac gel

Ito konnyaku ( ) is a type of Japanese food consisting of

konjac cut into noodle-like strips. It is usually sold in plastic bags with
accompanying water. It is often used in sukiyaki and oden. The name
literally means "thread-konjac".
Japanese konnyaku is made by mixing konjac flour with water and
limewater.[2] Hijiki is often added for the characteristic dark color and
flavor. Without additives for color, konnyaku is pale white. It is then
boiled and cooled to solidify. Konnyaku made in noodle form is called
shirataki and used in foods such as sukiyaki and gyudon.

Sashimi konnyaku, usually served with a

miso-based dipping sauce rather than soy sauce.

Konjac is consumed in parts of China's Sichuan province; the corm is

called moyu (Chinese: ; literally "devil's taro"), and the jelly is
called "konjac tofu" ( my dufu) or "snow konjac" (
xu my).

The dried corm of the konjac plant contains around 40% glucomannan gum. This polysaccharide makes konjac jelly
highly viscous.
Konjac has almost no calories, but is very high in fiber. Thus, it is often used as a diet food. It can also be used for
facial massage accessories which are currently popular in Korea.
The product Lipozene[3] is made from the konjac root.

Fruit jelly
Konjac can also be made into a popular Asian fruit jelly snack, known variously in the United States as lychee cups
(after a typical flavor and Nata de coco cube suspended in the gel) or konjac candy, usually served in bite-sized
plastic cups.
Choking risk
Perhaps because of several highly publicized deaths and near-deaths in the San Francisco Bay Area among children
and elderly caused by suffocation while eating konjac candy, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued
product warnings[4] in 2001 and subsequent recalls in the United States and Canada. Unlike gelatine and some other
commonly used gelling agents, konjac fruit jelly does not melt readily in the mouth. Some products formed a gel
strong enough such that only chewing, not tongue pressure or breathing pressure, could disintegrate the gel.
Although the product is intended to be eaten by gently squeezing the gel's cup, a consumer could suck the product
out with enough force to unintentionally lodge it in his or her trachea. Konjac fruit jelly was subsequently also
banned in the European Union.[5][6][7]
Some konjac jelly snacks are not of a size and consistency to pose any unusual choking risk, but are nonetheless
affected by the government bans. Some products that remain in Asian markets have an increased size, unusual shape,
and more delicate consistency than the round, plug-like gels that were associated with the choking incidents. The

Konjac
snacks usually have warning labels advising parents to make sure their children chew the jelly thoroughly before
swallowing. Japan's largest manufacturer of konjac snacks, MannanLife, temporarily stopped production of the
jellies after a 21-month-old Japanese boy was revealed to have choked to death on a frozen MannanLife konjac
jelly.[8] 17 people have died from choking on konjac between 1995 and 2008.[9] MannanLife konjac jelly's
packaging bag now shows a note to consumers, advising them to cut the product into smaller pieces before serving it
to small children.

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

About.com (http:/ / lowcarbdiets. about. com/ od/ products/ p/ shiratakinoodle. htm)

"How to make konjac foods (shirataki noodles or konyaku) myself" (http:/ / www. konjacfoods. com/ konjac. htm). .
"Lipozene Ingredients" (http:/ / www. lipozene. com/ lipozene-ingredients). . Retrieved 11 August 2011.
FDA issues a second warning and an import alert about konjac mini-cup gel candies that pose choking risk (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ bbs/
topics/ NEWS/ 2001/ NEW00770. html), FDA News P01-17, 5 October 2001
[5] Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 95/2/EC as regards the conditions of use for a food additive E
425 konjac (http:/ / www. food. gov. uk/ multimedia/ pdfs/ com2002_0451en01. pdf)
[6] Draft Commission Decision (SANCO/362/2002) suspending the placing on the market and import of jelly confectionery containing food
additive E 425 Konjac (http:/ / www. food. gov. uk/ consultations/ ukwideconsults/ 2002/ draftcomprop), UK Food Standards Agency, 8
March 2002
[7] Mini fruit gel sweets containing konjac (http:/ / www. food. gov. uk/ enforcement/ alerts/ 2003/ jul/ fruitsweets_konjac), UK Food Standards
Agency, 8 July 2003
[8] Yomiuri, (http:/ / www. yomiuri. co. jp/ dy/ national/ 20081005TDY03102. htm) (http:/ / www. yomiuri. co. jp/ dy/ national/
20081009TDY02301. htm)
[9] Article from the Japan Times, "Food maker pulls 'konyaku' sweets" (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ mail/ nn20081009a3. html), October 9,
2008

External links
Multilingual taxonomic information from the University of Melbourne (http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.
au/Sorting/Amorphophallus.html#konjac)

75

Aiyu jelly

76

Aiyu jelly
Aiyu jelly

Aiyu jelly served with a slice of lime and cranberries

Origin
Alternative name(s)

Ice jelly

Place of origin

Taiwan
Details

Main ingredient(s)

Fig seed gel

Aiyu jelly (; pinyin: iy bng; or , pinyin: iy dng; Min Nan: Peh-e-j: -gi, from Austronesian
igos), known as ice jelly in Singapore (; pinyin: wntu xe), is a jelly made from the gel from the seeds of a
variety of fig (Ficus pumila var. awkeotsang) found in Taiwan and East Asian countries of the same climates and
latitudes.[1] The jelly is not commonly made or found outside of Taiwan and Singapore, though it can be bought
fresh in specialty stores in Japan and canned in Chinatowns. It is known as -gi in Taiwanese and is used in
Taiwanese cuisine.

Origin
According to oral history, the plant and the jelly were named after the
daughter of a Taiwanese tea businessman in the 1800s. The jelling
property of the seeds was discovered by the businessman as he drank
from a river in Chiayi. He found a clear yellowish jelly in the water he
was drinking and was refreshed upon trying it. Looking above the river
he noticed fruits on hanging vines. The fruits contained seeds that
exuded a sticky gel when rubbed.
Upon this discovery, he gathered some of the fruits and served them at
home with honeyed lemon juice or sweetened beverages. Finding the
jelly-containing beverage delicious and thirst-quenching, the
enterprising businessman delegated the task of selling it to his beautiful
15-year-old daughter, Aiyu. The snack was very well received and
became highly popular. So, the businessman eventually named the jelly
and the vines after his daughter.[2]

Dried inside out fruit of F. pumila var

awkeotsang, ready for use

However, the Austronesian name igos hints at a possible Austronesian origin for this food.

Aiyu jelly

77

Harvesting
Fruits of the plant resemble large fig fruits the size of small mangos and are harvested from September through
January just before the fruit ripens to a dark purple. The fruits are then halved and turned inside out to dry over the
course of several days. The dry fruits can be sold as is, or dried aiyu seeds ( , pinyin: aiyu zi) can then be
pulled off the skin and sold separately.[2]

Jelly making
The aiyu seeds are placed in a cotton cloth bag, and the bag and its
contents are submerged in cold water and rubbed. A slimy gel will be
extracted from the bag of aiyu seeds as it is squeezed and massaged.
This is known as "washing aiyu" in Chinese ( ). After several
minutes of massaging and washing, no more of the yellowish
tea-coloured gel will be extracted, and the contents of the bag are
discarded. The washed gel is then allowed to set into a jelly either in a
cool location or in the refrigerator. One must keep in mind certain
things when making aiyu jelly or else the gel may not set:
Aiyu jelly displayed with ice and lime halves

1. There must not be any grease in the container or water used to wash
or set the gel,
2. Sugar must not be added to the aiyu prior to the setting of the gel,
3. Distilled water must not be used since the gelling depends on the presence of minerals in the water,
4. During washing, the seeds must not be rubbed so hard as to rupture their shells.
Water will slowly seep out of the jelly some time after it sets, and it will turn back to a liquid over the course of
several days.[2]
The jelly is usually served with honey and lemon juice but can also be included in other sweetened beverages or
shaved ice and is particularly popular as a cool drink in hot summers. Since the gel does not dissolve in hot water,
aiyu is sometimes used as an ingredient in hot pot.

References
[1] Wayne P. Armstrong. "Asian grass jelly" (http:/ / waynesword. palomar. edu/ ecoph37. htm). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20080219124613/ http:/ / waynesword. palomar. edu/ ecoph37. htm) from the original on 19 February 2008. . Retrieved 2008-01-30.
[2] Global Project Based Learning Forum and Exhibition. "Precious Plants Around Us (2006)" (http:/ / 210. 71. 15. 162/ pbl/ pbl330/ pbl330/
conclusion. htm). . Retrieved 2008-01-30.

External links
Video of a family making Aiyu jelly (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o90yORsc3PI)
The harvest of the fruit its processing and its nutritional content (http://www.lilyfruit.com.tw/data_29/
book_01.php)
Precise making of the jelly (http://blog.coa.gov.tw/index.php?op=ViewArticle&articleId=1124&blogId=3)

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