Internal Combustion Engines MAK 493E

IC-Engine Fuels

Prof.Dr. Cem Sorubay

Istanbul Technical University

Internal Combustion Engines MAK 493E

IC Engine Fuels

Introduction
Classification of fuels
Manufacture of engine fuels
Fuel specifications in general
Specifications of SI-engine and CI-engine fuels

IC Engine Fuels
In IC engines, the chemical energy contained in the fuel is converted
into mechanical power by burning (oxidizing) the fuel inside the
combustion chamber of the engine.
As a result of the chemical reactions which occur inside the cylinder,
heat is released. The fuel-air mixture (the working fluid before
combustion) must stay in the cylinder for a sufficient time so that the
chemical reactions can be completed.
Fuels suitable for fast chemical reaction have to be used in IC engines.
Hydrocarbons in liquid form
Alcohols (methanol, ethanol)
LPG (propane and butane)
Natural gas (methane)
Hydrogen

IC Engine Fuels

IC Engine Fuels

IC Engine Fuels

Classification of Engine Fuels

Liquid hydrocarbons

Cn H m

Fuels are mainly mixtures of hydrocarbons, with bonds between

carbon atoms and between hydrogen and carbon atoms.
During combustion these bonds are broken and new bonds are
formed with oxygen atoms, accompanied by the release of chemical
energy. Principal products are carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Fuels also contain small amounts of

O2 , N 2 , S , H 2O

Alkanes
Alkanes or Paraffins can in general be represented by Cn H 2 n 2
all the carbon bonds are single bonds they are saturated
high number of H atoms, high heat content and low density
(620 770 kg/m3)

The carbon atoms can be arranged as, a straight chain or as branched

chain compounds.
Straight chain group (normal paraffins)
shorter the chain, stronger the bond
not suitable for SI engines high tendancy for autoignition
according to the value of n in the formula, they are in gaseous
(1 to 4), liquid (5 to 15) or solid (>16) state.

Alkanes
Branched chain compounds (isoparaffins)
when four or more C atoms are in a chain molecule it is possible to form
isomers they have the same chemical formula but different
structures, which often leads to very different chemical properties.

example : iso-octane

C8 H18

2. 2 .4 trimethyl pentane

Naphthenes
Also called cycloparaffins

Cn H 2 n

saturated hydrocarbons which are arranged in a circle

have stable structure and low tendancy to autoignite compared to
alkanes (normal paraffins)
can be used both in SI-engines and CI-engines
low heat content and high density (740 790 kg / m3)

Alkenes
Also called olefins
mono-olefins

Cn H 2 n

or dio-olefins Cn H 2 n 2

have the same C-to-H ratio and the same general formula as
naphthenes, their behavior and characteristics are entirely different
they are straight or branch chain compounds with one or more
double bond. The position of the double bond is indicated by the
number of first C atom to which it is attached, ie,
CH2=CH.CH2.CH2.CH3
called pentene-1
CH3.CH=CH3
called butene-2
olefinic compounds are easily oxidized, have poor oxidation stability
can be used in SI-engines, obtained by cracking of large molecules
low heat content and density in the range 620 820 kg / m3

Alkenes
Hexen (mono-olefin)
H H H H H H
HCCCCC=C-H
H H H H
Butadien (dio-olefin)
H H H H
HC=CC=CH

Aromatics
Aromatic hydrocarbons are so called because of their aromatic odor

Cn H 2 n6
they are based on a six-membered ring having three conjugated
double bonds
aromatic rings can be fused together to give polynuclear aromatics,
PAN, also called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAH
simplest member is benzene

C6 H 6

can be used in SI-engines, to increase the resistance to knock

not suitable for CI-engines due to low cetene number
low heat content and high density in the range 800 850 kg / m3

Aromatics
Benzen

C6 H6
H
H
C - C

HC

CH
C = C
H
H

Alcohols (monohydric alcohols)

these include methanol (methyl alcohol), ethanol (ethyl alcohol),
propanol (propyl alcohol), butanol (butyl alcohol) as compounds
the OH group which replaces one of the H atoms in an alkane, gives
these compounds their characteristic properties.

specific heating value is lower than gasoline (42 43 MJ/kg)

methanol (19.7 MJ/kg) and ethanol (26.8 MJ/kg)
for air-fuel mixture s.h.v. is comperable with gasoline (MJ/kg-mixture
at stoichiometric mixtures)
other alcohol groups such as dihydric and trihydric alcohols are not
used as a fuel in IC engines

Alcohols
Methanol
CH 3 OH
can be obtained from natural gas has near and long-term potential
has high octane quality (130 RON, 95 MON)
can be used in low-concentration (5-15 %) in gasoline to increase
octane number of the mixture
Problems;
poor solubility in gasoline, toxicity, low energy content (about half of
gasoline), high latent heat of vaporization and oxygen content
contribute to poor driveability, incompatibility with some metals
Ethanol

C2 H 5 OH

produced from biomass

has high octane number can be used in lowconcentrations in
gasoline

Gaseous Fuels
due to storage and transportation problems they are not widely used
reduce volumetric efficiency and power output of engine (5 10 %)
have low tendancy to knock and low emissions
LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)
consists of propane and butane
provides good mixture with air cleaner combustion
has excellent cold weather performance
low sulphur content
high octane number (propane 111 RON and 100 MON)
lower density and lower heat content of LPG versus gasoline (23.5
MJ/liter for propane and 32 MJ/liter for gasoline) results a loss in fuel
economy but better combustion efficiency can reduce this loss.

Automotive Fuels

Automotive Fuels

Manufacture of Engine Fuels

crude oil is the liquid part of the naturally occuring organic material
composed mostly of HCs that is trapped geologically in underground
reservoirs it is not uniform and varies in density, chemical
composition, boiling range etc. for different fields.
Four different crude oils are shown in Table for different boiling
ranges :
Table - Main products from crude oil by distillation (%)
Crude type
Arabian light
Nigerian
Brent
LPG
0.7
0.6
2.1
Naphtha
17.8
12.9
17.8
Gas oil/Kerosene 33.1
47.2
35.5
Residue
48.4
39.3
44.6

Maya
1.0
11.7
23.1
64.2

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Manufacture of Engine Fuels

naphtha represents the persentage of HC boiling to gasoline range
gas oil-kerosene represents the persentage boiling to diesel fuel
range, including jet fuel and kerosene
Refineries consist basically of distillation units with processes for
upgrading the octane quality of naphtha and for removing sulfur
compounds these are called hydroskimming refineries
Refineries today have conversion processes convert heavier streams to
lighter streams by cracking

Refinery Process
Refinery gas
Fractionalization

Crude oil

Catalytic reformer
Additives
Atmospheric
distillation

Hydrotreater
Sidestream

LPG
Gasoline
blending
Kerosene-Jet fuel
Diesel
Heavy Gas oil
Fuel oil

Residuum

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Typical Refinery Production

Distillation
This is the initial process used in all refineries aims to separate the
crude oil into different boiling range fractions, each of which may be
a product in its own right, a blend component or feed for further
processing step
Crude oil contains many thousands of different HCs, each has its own
boiling point lightest are gases at ambient T but can remain
dissolved in heavier liquid HCs unless T is raised, heaviest are solids
at ambient T but stay in solution unless T is lowered.
Gasoline distillation temperature is
Jet fuel
Diesel fuel
Heavy fuels, oil

35 200 OC
35 - 150
175 370
370 550

Generally distillation of crude oil produces 30% gasoline, 20-40 % diesel

fuel, 20 % heavy fuels, 10-20 % heavy oils.

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Cracking Process
There are two types of cracking process for engine fuel production :
thermal cracking and catalytic cracking
Visbreaking and coking are also cracking procedures for fuel oil etc.
Thermal cracking take place through the creation of HC free radicals by
C-to-C bond scission
The feed is heated to around 500 - 600 OC and 70 - 100 bars and
passed into a soaking chamber where cracking takes place. The
cracked products are fractionated. The product is relatively unstable
and requires the use of antioxidants and other treatments to prevent
gum formation in use. It has relatively poor MON.

Catalytic Cracking
It is the most important aand widely used process for converting heavy
refinery streams to lighter products to increase the ratio of light to
heavy products from crude oil.
Compared to thermal cracking, it has higher yiels, improved quality
product for gasoline (not for diesel fuel) and superior economics.
A fluidized bed of catalyst is used feed is intoduced into it. Catlyst
flows from one vessel to another through a pipe (between reactor
and regenerator). Cracked oil vapour pass to fractionating towers
where smaller molecules are separated from heavier products (gas,
catalytic naphthas, cycle oils and residue).
Aluminium silicate known as zeolite is used as a catalyst has high
activity and suppress the formation of light olefins.
Hydrocracking and steam cracking mechanisms are also used.

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Other mechanisms
Alkylation is a process for producing a high-octane gasoline component
(alkylate) by combining light olefins with isobutane in the presence of
a strongly acidic catalyst (sulfuric or hydrofluoric acid).
Isomerization is a process for converting straight chain paraffins to
branch chain used to provide isobutane feed for the alkylation
process or to convert relatively low-octane quality of straight paraffins
to more valuable branch chain molecules.
eg.

n-pentane with RON 62 can be converted to

isopentane with RON 92

Process involves contacting HCs with a catalyst (platinum on a zeolite

base) and separating any unchanged straight paraffins for recycle
through the unit. The product is clean burning and has better RON
quality.

Other mechanisms
Polymerization is a process where light olefins such as propene and
butenes are reacted together to give heavier olefins whicch have
good octane quality and low vapour pressure in gasoline.
Most commonly used catalyst is phosphoric acid on keiselguhr.
The product is almost 100 % olefinic and has relatively poor MON
compared with RON.
eg.
CH3CH2CH=CH2 + CH3CH=CH2 CH3(CH2)4CH=CH2
butene
propene
heptene

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Fuel Specifications
Relative density (specific gravity)
Fuel composition
Specific heating value

Flash point
Viscosity
Surface tension
Freezing point

Relative Density
Relative density (specific gravity) is relatedto the measurement of the
ratio of the weight of a given volume of fuel to the weight of the
same volume of water, both at 20 OC and 101.325 kPa
American Petrolium Institute, also defines degrees API as,

Specific Gravity

141.5
131.5 API

For gasoline, the relative density is around 0.72 to 0.78 - which is

equivalent to an API range of 65 to 50

700 800 [kg/m 3 ]

for unleaded gasoline this value is higher due to the aromatics
For diesel fuel,

830 950 [kg/m 3 ]

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Fuel Composition
C and H : carbon content of aromatics is around 89 %, and of
paraffins and naphthenes is around 86 %
benzene - max allowable concentration is specified because it is
highly toxic material, the level is 5 %

sulphur content HC fuels contain free sulphur, hydrogen sulphide and

other sulphur compounds which are objectionable
it is a corrosive element that can corrode fuel lines, carburettor and
injection pump. It will unite with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide,
which in presence of water at low T, forms sulphurous acid.
It has low ignition T, promote knock in SI engines.
limited to approx 250 ppm

Fuel Composition
Gum deposits gasoline with unsaturated HCs forms gum in the engine,
paraffin, naphthene and aromatic HCs also form some gum it
causes operating difficulties, sticking valves and piston rings, deposits
in the manifold etc.

Water - both dissolved and free water can be present in gasoline, free
water is undesirable because it can freeze and cause problems.
Dissolved water is usually unavoidable during manifacture.
Lead - for leaded and unleaded gasoline max lead content is specified,
lead causes pollution and destroys catalytic converters in the exhaust
system.
Manganese - used for antiknock in gasoline (MMT), max amount is
specified, 0.00025 to 0.03 gMn/L

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Fuel Composition
Oxygenates - oxygenated compounds such as alcohols are used in
gasoline to improve octane rating.
In USA gasohol (10% ethanol contains 3.5% oxygen), TBA and
methanol up to 3.5% oxygenmethanol up to 5% volume, MTBE
up to 15% are used.
In EC monoalcohols and ethers with atm boiling points lower than
the final atm boiling point of gasoline in the standards can be
used. Higher concentrations require modifications on the vehicles
- carburator or fuel inj system must be modified to compensate
for the oxygen content of the fuel.
Blends with 15% methanol can be used.

Specific Heating Value

Specific heating value, Hu is a measure of the energy content of the
fuel per unit mass (kJ/kg or kcal/kg)
gaseous fuels sp heating value is given in terms of energy content
per unit volume (kJ/liter or kJ/m3 , kcal/m3)
in IC engines lower heating value is given as the combustion products
contain water in vapour form.
For gasoline and diesel fuel

H u 42000 44000 [kJ/kg]

H u 10200 10500 [kcal/kg ]

heating value of the combustible air-fuel mixture is a decisive factor

for engine performance.

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Flash Point
Flash point is the lowest temperature of a sample at which the fuel
vapour starts to ignite when in contact with a flame (ignition source).
Marcusson method fuel container is slowly heated, while the fuel
vapour is in contact with an open flame T is measured

For gasoline it is 25 OC, diesel fuel 35 OC and heavy diesel 65 OC

Viscosity
Viscosity is an important parameter for CI engines, also influences fuel
metering orifices since Re is an inverse function of fuel viscosity
lower the viscosity, smaller the diameter of the droplets in the spray.
Below certain limits, low viscosity increases the leaks in the fuel
system. It is a strong function of T must be given at certain T
values
at 50 OC, 1.5 5.0 Engler
0.5 to 0.6 centistokes

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Freezing Point
Freezing point
the precipitation of paraffin crystals in winter can lead to clogged
filters. It can be prevented by either removing paraffins from the fuel
or adding flow improvers (additives).
Antifreezing properties are determined by its filterability.
For gasoline freezing point is 65 OC and for diesel fuel 10 OC

Surface Tension
Surface tension is a parameter which effects the formation of fuel
droplets in sprays
increasing the surface tension will reduce mass flow and air-fuel ratio
in gasoline engines
lower the value, smaller the droplet diameter
diesel fuel
gasoline

0.023 0.032 N/m

0.019 0.023 N/m

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Fuel Specifications for Gasoline

Volatility
Antiknock quality

Gasoline Volatility

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Gasoline Volatility
Benzene for example has vapor pressure of 0.022 MPa at 38 OC
in a closed container of 38 OC, benzene evaporates until the partial p
has a value of 0.022 MPa, If T is raised to 80.5 OC, then saturation p
will be 0.1 MPa and will be constant during the boiling
For gasoline it is not possible to indicate a single value of evaporation T
or vapor pressure.
Gasoline contains large number of compounds - up to about 400
It has a smooth distillation curve - with good fractionation efficiency

Gasoline Distillation Curve

Temperature

Low fractionation
efficiency effects
engine performance at
different operating
conditions :
if distillation curve is
displaced downward,
gasoline becomes more
volatile - poor hot start,
vapor lock, high
evaporative losses

% Evaporated

21

Gasoline Distillation Curve

Gasoline having boiling point up to 70 OC controls ease of starting and
hot weather problems such as vapor lock
Mid-range controls the driving in cold weathers, particularly at warm
up period of engine. It also influences the ice forming in
carburetor.
Back end of the curve contains all the heavier, high boiling point
compounds and these have high heat content - they are important
in improving fuel economy for fully warmed up engine.
Some of the heavier compounds may pass into the crankcase and
dilute the crankcase oil. They are not readily combusted as the
lighter compounds - cause combustion chamber deposits.

Gasoline Distillation Curve

%10 evaporation point should be at low T for start up at cold
temperatures - at hot weathers this may cause problems - vapor lock.
50% evaporation should be slightly above 100 OC at summer and
slightly below 100 OC at winter. For warmed up engine conditions this
point is not important.
90% evaporation must not be high - produces fuel film on intake
manifold walls and dilutes lubricating oil. Back end of the curve must
not exceed 215 OC.
Gasoline volatility should be arranged according to weather conditions particularly ambient T. Altitute has some minor effect due to pressure
changes.
It is also effected by the characteristics of the vehicle itself
(drivability, fuel system design etc).

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Cold Starting
For SI engines to start, A/F ratio must be within the ignitable range, ie in
general must be between 7:1 to 20:1 by weight.
When the engine is cold, it is difficult to ignite lean mixtures, because
fuel may not vaporize sufficiently - under these conditions the mixture
is richened to bring it to ignitable range.
This is done by inc the injection time or by the use of a choke with
carburetted engines.

Measurement of Gasoline Volatility

Tests usually define Reid Vapor Pressure - ASTM Distillation test and
Vapor/Liquid ratio.
Reid vapor pressure - obtained at air-to-liquid ratio of 4:1 and
temperature 37.8 OC.
Fuel is filled into a metal chamber which is connected to an air
chamber and that is connected to a pressure gauge. The apparatus is
immersed in water bath at 37.8 OC and is shaken until constant p is
obtained - Reid VP
For gasoline allowable RVP is 0.7 bar in summer and 0.9 bar in winter
(at 37.8 OC )
ASTM Distillation procedure - distillation rate is controlled by the heat
input - distillation curve is plotted (temperature vs % evaporated).

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Measurement of Gasoline Volatility

Antiknock Quality of Gasoline

Knock occurs when the unburnt gases ahead of flame front (the end
gases) spontaneously ignite causing a sudden rise in pressure
accompanied by a characteristic pinging sound - this results in a loss
of power and can lead to damage the engine.
Combustion chamber shape, spark plug location, ignition timing, end
gas temperatures, in cylinder gas motion, air-fuel ratio of the mixture,
fuel specifications etc effects the occurance of knock.
Compression ratio of the engine also strongly effects knock. The higher
the CR, the better the thermal efficiency - but the greater the
tendancy for knock to occur.
Critical compression ratio - when knock starts
So higher fuel octane quality is required.

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Antiknock Quality of Gasoline

Autoignition of the end gases causes a rapid inc of p, producing p waves
which resonate in the combustion chamber at a frequency of
between 5000 - 8000 Hz, depending on the geometry of the chamber
Knock results in an inc of T in the cylinder and causes a severe damage
to engine components like cylinder head gasket, piston, spark plugs
etc.

Measurement of Gasoline Antiknock Quality

Prior to 1929, fuels were rated using an engine in which CR could be
varied between 2.7:1 to 8:1 - each fuel was run in this engine at
various A/F ratios and ignition timing to obtain conditions for max
power output.
Fuels were assigned values in terms of Highest Useful Compression
Ratio, HUCR
in 1929 Octane scale was proposed by Graham Edgar. In this scale two
paraffinic HCs have been selected as standards (PRF, primary
reference fuels)- iso-octane (2-2-4 trimethyl pentane) with very high
resistance to knock (arbitrary assigned a value of 100) and n-heptane
with extremely low knock resistance (assigned a value of 0).
Octane number of the fuel is the volume percentage of iso-octane in a
blend with n-heptane (PRF), that shows the same antiknock
performance as test fuel tested in standard engine and standard
conditions.

25

Octane Number
Test engine for determining Octane values, was developed by
Cooperative Fuel Research Committee (CFR). It is a single cylinder,
variable CR engine.
Two different test conditions specifies the Research Octane Number
(RON) and the Motor Octane Number (MON)
RON correlates with low speed, mild driving conditions, MON relates to
high speed, high severity conditions. Most gasolines have higher RON
than MON. This difference is called fuel sensitivity (=RON-MON) - for
fuels of same RON, high sensitivity gasoline has lower MON.
Antiknock Index = (RON + MON) / 2
For PRF, Octane Number changes linearly (for paraffinic fuels)

Test Conditions for RON and MON

Test

Research

Motor

ASTM method
Engine rpm
Intake air temp, OC

D2699
D2700
600
900
depends on p
38
O
(~ 51.7 C)
Mixture temp, OC
not specified
149
Humidity, kg/kg dry air
0.0036 - 0.0072
Coolant temp, OC
100
100
O
Ignition advance, CA 13 BTDC
varies with CR
(14 - 26 BTDC)
A/F ratio
adjusted for max knock

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Test Conditions for RON and MON

Test engines CFR : D = 3.25, H = 4.50, CR = 4 - 12
BASF : D = 65 mm, H = 100 mm, CR = 4 - 12
Critical compression ratio autoignition occuring at CRs for different fuel Octane numbers
CR
ON

6
78

7
85

8
91

9
96

10
100

11
103

12
106

Octane Number Measurement

Octane
number

% iso-octane
0
100
% n-heptane
100
0
for fuels with ON greater than 100, the sample is mixed with certain
amount of n-heptane - a linear correction is done according to the
percentage of n-hepthane added.

27

Octane Number Measurement

For non paraffinic fuels, ON relation is not linear
TEL is added to the PRF to increase the ON above 100
or

n-heptane is added to the sample to reduce ON below 100, then

nonlinear extrapolation is applied

Increasing Octane Number

Modern gasoline contains some chemical additives designed to improve
fuel quality. These are used to raise ON, control surface ignition,
reduce spark plug fouling, resist gum formation, prevent rust, reduce
carburetor icing, remove carb or inj system deposits, minimize
deposits in intake system, prevent valve sticking.
ON can be increased by antiknock agents - at less expense than
modifying HC composition by refinery process.
Most effective agents are lead alkyls TEL - tetraethyl lead, (C2H5)4 Pb
TML - tetramethyl lead,
MMT
addition of about 0.8 g lead per liter, provides a gain of about 10 ON in
gasoline

28

Increasing Octane Number

Increasing Octane Number

29

Increasing Octane Number

Increasing Octane Number

30

Increasing Octane Number

Diesel Fuel Specifications

Viscosity
Surface tension
Cetane number

31

Diesel Fuel Viscosity

Viscosity of a fluid indicates its resistance to flow - higher the viscosity,
the greater the resistance to flow.
It may be expressed as absolute viscosity (Poise, P) or kinematic
viscosity (stoke, St).

It varies inversely with temperature, usually given at 20 - 40 OC

Fuel atomization depends on viscosity
2 - 8 mm2/s (cSt) at 20 OC

Cetane Number
Cetane number is used to specify the ignition quality of diesel fuel.
Running on low cetane number will produce cold start problems. Peak
cylinder p, combustion noise and HC emissions will increase - more
fuel will be injected before ignition, less time for combustion.
Higher CN results in a sooner ignition - extremely high CN may ignite
before adequate F-A mixing can take place - higher emissions. Power
output can be reduced if burning starts too early.

32

Cetane Number Measurement

Cetane number is measured by comparing the ignition delay time of
the sample fuel with a mixture of cetane (C16H34) and
alphamethyl naptane (C10H7 CH3). The cetane percentage in
the mixture gives the CN of the sample fuel.
CN of the reference fuel cetane is arbitraryly set at 100, and of
alphamethyl naptane at 0.
CFR engine is used to measure the compression ratio at which ignition
starts. CR is gradually increased while the engine id driven by an
electric motor - a curve of CN vs critical CR is obtained.
Inlet air temp is 30 OC and cooling water temp is at 100 OC

Cetane Number Measurement

An easier and practical method to obtain Cetane Number is by
calculating the Diesel Index.
Increasing the DI, increases the tendancy to ignite.

DI

annilin point [ O F] x API [at 60 O F]

100

AP is obtained by heating equal amounts of annilin and diesel fuel. While

cooling down, the temp at which the annilin separates from the
mixture is the AP

33

Cetane Number values

Cetane number is in the range of,
50 - 60

for high speed Diesel engines

25 - 45

for low speed Diesel engines

Normal Diesel fuel CN is 40 - 55

DI of 50 gives a CN of around 50

Cetane Number values

34

Cetane Number values

Cetane Number values

35

Cetane Number values

Source :

Cetane Number values

36

Cetane Number values

Cetane Number values

37

Cetane Number values

38