PSY234 NOTES

(8/22)
Chapter 1
Goals of Psychology
(Observe)
Describe
(Compare)
Explain
Predict
Control
Theory & Method of Statistics
C Collection/Gathering
O Organization
P Presentation
A - Analysis
I Interpretation (+ Conclusion)
[G] Generalization*
*does not always happen; follows a
strict criteria
Acquiring Knowledge
A Authority
R Rationalism
I Intuition
S Scientific Method
1. Idea formed; hypothesis
made
2. Experiment designed
3. Data collected & analyzed using
statistics
4. Hypothesis confirmed, denied,
or modified
NEXT MEETING: Terminologies
(8/24)
Goals of Psychology + Necessary
Processes
DESCRIBE Collect, Organize, and
Present

EXPLAIN Analysis, and

Interpretation
PREDICT [Generalize]
CONTROL
Scientific Research
A. Observational Studies no direct
manipulation; only naturalistic
observation
1. Correlation
2. Parameter Estimation
B. True Experiments manipulation is
employed
C. Quasi-Experiment variables are
not manipulated
Three Types of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics describe,
characterize, and organize data;
simplest form of statistics
e.g. frequency, mean, variance
2. Correlational Statistics
e.g. Pearson Correlation Coefficient,
Spearman Rank-Order Correlation
Coefficient
Regression Analysis looking at the
trend of the connection
3. Inferential Statistics Analyze a
sample group to analyze a population
e.g. t-Test, Chi-square Test
Important Concepts
1. Data - pieces of information
Types:
a. Qualitative categorical
b. Quantitative numerical
2. Variable observable
characteristics; capable of taking
several values
Types:
a. According to how they are obtained:
1. Discrete variable always exact;

count
2. Continuous variable
measurement; exact value cannot be
taken
b. According to how they are used:
1. Independent Variable (IV) - changed
2. Dependent Variable (DV) - variable
measured after changing the IV
3. Constant - cannot be changed
4. Population - large, total group
5. Sample - small group taken from the
population
6. Parameter - value taken from the
population
7. Statistic - value taken from the
sample

Sampling Techniques
I. Nonprobability Sampling
- Generalization is not possible
- a.k.a. non-random sampling
a. Convenience Sampling
- based on researchers/head of the
populations convenience
- a.k.a. accidental/incidental sampling
b. Quota Sampling
- convenience, but with a given
number of respondents
c. Purposive Sampling
- requires the satisfaction of a
certain area
II. Probability Sampling

Concept

Statistic

Population
Sample
Frequency
Sum/Summat
ion
Mean
Median
Mode
Standard
Deviation

-n

Paramete
r
N
-

M (x bar)
Md
Mo
s or sd

Md
Mo

NEXT MEETING: Collection of data:

Basic
QUIZ: First week of September
(8/26)
ABSENT
(8/31)

- Giving every member an equal

chance of becoming a member of the
sample group
- a.k.a. random sampling
- Random Sampling Technique:
general procedure used to ensure
the validity of inferences from the
sample to the population
- Randomization: process of
giving each and every member of
the population equal chance
- Random Sampling Method:
step-by-step procedure of getting a
small but representative cross
section of the population (random
sample)
Slovins Formula
- gives the minimum number of
samples to represent a population
N
n = ---------------------------1 + N (e)2
Where:

n = number of samples
N = total population
e = error tolerance ( level) = 0.05%
Mortality
- losing a respondent due to various
reasons
- response becomes nullified/void
Big population = less samples
Why? Because bigger populations =
general characteristics

Probability Sampling Techniques

a. Simple Random Sampling
1. Lottery method
2. Use of Table of Random Numbers
QUIZ: Friday
(9/5)
b. Systematic Random Sampling
- Selecting every nth element in the
population
1. Take the number of significant
digits
2. Create codes based on the
number of significant digits (e.g. if
N = 315, then 000 299)
3. Compute for the nth element in
the population
Formula:
population (N)
nth = -----------------------------sample size (n)
4. Round off to the nearest whole
no.
5. Refer to the table to get the first
number, and select the next
numbers by skipping numbers

based on the nth element (e.g. 1st =

271; 2nd = 271 + 2)
c. Stratified Random Sampling
- Dividing the population into
categories/strata
- Number of members must be
proportionate to each stratum
Formula:
sample size (n)
p(roportion)* = ------------------------------population (N)
*in percentage
- Samples will be taken based on the
proportion (e.g. samples = stratum1
(p) + stratum2(p))
- In case the number of samples fall
short of one, add one to the stratum
with the larger value of decimal
numbers
- If it exceeds the minimum number of
samples, you may retain it or remove
one with the less value of decimal
numbers
d. Cluster Sampling
Cluster intact sub-group possessing
common characteristics
1. Prepare a list of clusters
comprising the population
2. Estimate the average number of
members per cluster
Ave = N / number of clusters
(Maam Portia: Double or increase
the number of the minimum
number of samples based on
Slovins formula due to the high
mortality possibility)
3. Use the formula

Cluster = n / ave
4. Select the needed clusters
using random sampling
e. Multistage Sampling
1. Divide the population into strata
Multilevel strata divided into
levels, from general to specific

2. Divide each stratum into

clusters; multilevel clustering is
possible
3. Use cluster sampling of proceed
to simple or systematic random
sampling
Least recommended: Multistage
sampling