Typical Superstructures Substructures and Components

Austroads
GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY
Part 4: Design Procurement and

Concept Design
Guide to Bridge Technology

Part 4: Design Procurement and Concept Design
Guide to Bridge Technology Part 4: Design Procurement and Concept Design

Summary
Part 4 of the Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology provides guidance about effectively specifying
and scoping contractual requirements for bridge design parameters, particularly for
design/construct and similar contracts for bridge procurement. This guidance is important where
the design standards require resolution by the authority/owner of many matters about design
assumptions or dimensional/detailing information prior to the commencement of design. An action
checklist identifying all the issues in AS5100 2004 is provided.
It is essential that the design process be error free and result in durable, robust, reliable and
aesthetically pleasing bridges, provided at a reasonable cost. It is also essential that the
authority/owner, and the users, costs associated with maintaining the bridge over its full life be
minimised. No compromise of this intention should be tolerated.
To ensure the required bridge performance, a significant effort must be put into comprehensively
scoping the design and detailing requirements in the contract documents for a bridge. As many
issues as possible within the authority/owners control need to be resolved before the contract is
signed.
For those issues that must be resolved and negotiated during the contract, a robust, formal
process needs to be specified that ensures the authority/owner does not inherit costly and major
maintenance difficulties during the full 100 year life of the bridge.
The effective management of the design process has a significant bearing on the successful
implementation and continuing performance of a bridge project over the bridges 100 year life.
Keywords
bridge, bridge design, design procurement, design brief, bridge ownership, owners responsibility,
design/construct, contractual claims, waterway, floodway design, scour, durability, geotechnical
investigation, foundations, construction methods, maintainability
First Published June 2009

Austroads Inc. 2009
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may
be reproduced by any process without the prior written permission of Austroads.
ISBN 978-1-921551-47-5
Austroads Project No. TP1564
Austroads Publication No: AGBT04/09
Project Manager
Geoff Boully, VicRoads
Prepared by
Don Carter
Ray Wedgwood
Published by Austroads Incorporated

Level 9, Robell House
287 Elizabeth Street
Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 9264 7088
Fax: +61 2 9264 1657
Email: austroads@austroads.com.au
www.austroads.com.au
This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road
authorities may vary their practice according to local circumstances and policies.
Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not accept
responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should
rely on their own skill and judgement to apply information to particular issues.
Guide to Bridge Technology

Sydney 2009
Austroads profile
Austroads purpose is to contribute to improved Australian and New Zealand transport outcomes
by:
providing expert advice to SCOT and ATC on road and road transport issues
facilitating collaboration between road agencies
promoting harmonisation, consistency and uniformity in road and related operations
undertaking strategic research on behalf of road agencies and communicating outcomes
promoting improved and consistent practice by road agencies.
Austroads membership
Austroads membership comprises the six state and two territory road transport and traffic
authorities, the Commonwealth Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development
and Local Government in Australia, the Australian Local Government Association, and NZ
Transport Agency. Austroads is governed by a council consisting of the chief executive officer (or
an alternative senior executive officer) of each of its eleven member organisations:
Roads and Traffic Authority New South Wales

Roads Corporation Victoria
Department of Transport and Main Roads Queensland
Main Roads Western Australia
Department for Transport, Energy and Infrastructure South Australia
Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources Tasmania
Department of Planning and Infrastructure Northern Territory
Department of Territory and Municipal Services Australian Capital Territory
Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government
Australian Local Government Association
New Zealand Transport Agency.
The success of Austroads is derived from the collaboration of member organisations and others in
the road industry. It aims to be the Australasian leader in providing high quality information, advice
and fostering research in the road sector.
GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN
CONTENTS
1
INTRODUCTION AND GUIDE STRUCTURE................................................................ 1
1.1
1.2
Purpose .......................................................................................................................... 1
Guide Structure............................................................................................................... 1
BRIDGE DESIGN PROCESS PROCUREMENT MODELS........................................... 3
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
General ........................................................................................................................... 3
Separate Design Followed by Construction.................................................................... 3
Integrated Design/Construct ........................................................................................... 3
Alliance Arrangements.................................................................................................... 4
Further Information about Project Procurement ............................................................. 4
SPECIFYING REQUIREMENTS FOR DESIGN............................................................. 5
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Bridge Design Code Issues ............................................................................................ 5

Specifying for Local Conditions ...................................................................................... 5
Geometric Details, Including Clearances........................................................................ 5
Gathering and Integrating Data for a Bridge Design....................................................... 6
Design Statement ........................................................................................................... 6
Requirements of AS5100, Australian Standard for Bridge Design ................................. 6
Application of Authority Requirements for Road Users, OH&S and Design
Parameters ..................................................................................................................... 7
Design Surveillance and Achievement of Design Intent ................................................. 8
CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS ......................................................... 9
4.1
Design and Delivery Management.................................................................................. 9

4.1.1
General ............................................................................................................. 9
4.1.2
Delivery of Design/Construct and Alliance Bridge Projects .............................. 9
Checking and Review Concepts..................................................................................... 9
4.2.1
General ............................................................................................................. 9
4.2.2
Defining Process Terminology........................................................................ 10
4.2.3
Road Safety Audit........................................................................................... 10
Standardised Components ........................................................................................... 11
4.3.1
General ........................................................................................................... 11
4.3.2
Proprietary Items ............................................................................................ 11
Aesthetics/Architectural Requirements......................................................................... 11
4.4.1
General ........................................................................................................... 11
4.4.2
References for Aesthetics............................................................................... 11
Presentation of Drawings and Reports ......................................................................... 12
4.5.1
General ........................................................................................................... 12
4.5.2
Interpretation of Site Data............................................................................... 12
Constructability and Maintenance Issues ..................................................................... 12
4.6.1
General ........................................................................................................... 12
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
5
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS................................................................................... 13
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Design Process............................................................................................................. 13
Construction.................................................................................................................. 14
Aesthetics ..................................................................................................................... 14
Cost Effective Design ................................................................................................... 15
Live Loads .................................................................................................................... 15
5.5.1
Design Live Loads .......................................................................................... 15
5.5.2
Dynamics ........................................................................................................ 15
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5.17
5.18
5.19
5.5.3
Fatigue Data ................................................................................................... 15
5.5.4
Pedestrian Bridges ......................................................................................... 15
Location ........................................................................................................................ 16
Traffic and Traffic Considerations................................................................................. 16
5.7.1
Road Geometry .............................................................................................. 17
Public Utilities ............................................................................................................... 17
Articulation .................................................................................................................... 18
5.9.1
Definition......................................................................................................... 18
5.9.2
Considerations................................................................................................ 19
Skew ............................................................................................................................. 19
Information from Existing Bridges................................................................................. 20
Temporary Bridging ...................................................................................................... 20
Provision of Disabled Access ....................................................................................... 20
Terrorist Activity ............................................................................................................ 20
Construction Safety and Structural Form...................................................................... 20
Serviceability Requirements ......................................................................................... 21
5.16.1 Service Life of Bridge and Components ......................................................... 21
5.16.2 Flood Free or Submersible ............................................................................. 21
5.16.3 Alignment and Design Speed ......................................................................... 21
5.16.4 Number of Lanes, Wide Bridges and Thermal Movements ............................ 22
Computer Analysis........................................................................................................ 23
Review of Design Concept ........................................................................................... 23
Review of Drawings ...................................................................................................... 23
SPECIFIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................ 25
6.1
6.2
6.3
Mining Subsidence ....................................................................................................... 25

Earthquake ................................................................................................................... 26
Dynamics Stiffness, Deflection, Span/Depth ............................................................. 26
ENVIRONMENT ........................................................................................................... 28
7.1
Waterway...................................................................................................................... 28
7.1.1
Basic Considerations ...................................................................................... 28
7.1.2
Floodway Design ............................................................................................ 30
7.1.3
Submergence ................................................................................................. 30
7.1.4
Piers................................................................................................................ 30
7.1.5
Scour .............................................................................................................. 30
7.1.6
Minimum Energy Drainage Structures............................................................ 32
Environmental Constraints............................................................................................ 33
7.2.1
Noise............................................................................................................... 33
7.2.2
Pollutants, Flora and Fauna............................................................................ 33
7.2.3
Disturbance of Sediments............................................................................... 33
7.2.4
Fisheries ......................................................................................................... 34
Drainage ....................................................................................................................... 34
Site Constraints and Access......................................................................................... 34
Durability....................................................................................................................... 34
7.5.1
Marine and Salt Rich Environments ............................................................... 34
7.5.2
Piles ................................................................................................................ 35
7.5.3
Concrete and Concreting................................................................................ 35
7.5.4
Concrete and Concreting Issues .................................................................... 36
Protection...................................................................................................................... 36
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
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GEOTECHNICAL ......................................................................................................... 37
8.1
8.2
Foundation Type and Geology ..................................................................................... 37

Investigations................................................................................................................ 37
8.2.1
Preliminary Geotechnical Investigations ......................................................... 37
8.2.2
Geotechnical Strategy and Geology ............................................................... 37
Investigation Methods................................................................................................... 39
8.3.1
Site Investigation Methods.............................................................................. 39
Specific Issues.............................................................................................................. 41
8.4.1
Soft Soils......................................................................................................... 41
8.4.2
Black Soils ...................................................................................................... 41
8.4.3
Soil and Ground Water Aggressivity (RTA Guideline Acid Sulphate
Soils)............................................................................................................... 41
8.4.4
Pile Relaxation in Fine Sands......................................................................... 42
8.4.5
Height of Abutments ....................................................................................... 42
8.4.6
Skew Abutments............................................................................................. 42
8.4.7
Sensitivity of Design to Changes in Site Conditions ....................................... 42
Geotechnical Investigations.......................................................................................... 42
8.5.1
Geotechnical Investigations Design and Construct Contracts ..................... 42
8.5.2
Presentation of Geotechnical Information....................................................... 43
8.3
8.4
8.5
FOUNDATION SELECTION ........................................................................................ 44
9.1
9.4
9.5
Footings, Abutments and Piers..................................................................................... 44

9.1.1
Spread Footings ............................................................................................. 44
Piles .............................................................................................................................. 44
9.2.1
Reinforced Concrete....................................................................................... 44
9.2.2
Prestressed Concrete ..................................................................................... 44
9.2.3
Steel H Piles ................................................................................................... 45
9.2.4
Composite Steel and Prestressed Concrete Piles .......................................... 45
9.2.5
Steel H Pile Corrosion .................................................................................... 46
9.2.6
Cast-in-Place Piles ......................................................................................... 46
9.2.7
Open-ended Tubular Piles in Dense Sands ................................................... 47
9.2.8
Proprietary Piling Systems.............................................................................. 47
Pile Driving.................................................................................................................... 48
9.3.1
Historical ......................................................................................................... 48
9.3.2
Dynamic Pile Testing ...................................................................................... 48
9.3.3
Pile Driving Issues .......................................................................................... 49
Scour Susceptibility ...................................................................................................... 50
Damage to Adjacent Properties.................................................................................... 51
10
CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................... 52
9.2
9.3
10.1 Construction Form ........................................................................................................ 52

10.1.1 Cast-in-situ Concrete ...................................................................................... 52
10.1.2 Precast Prestressed Concrete Members ........................................................ 54
10.1.3 Steel Members................................................................................................ 55
10.1.4 Precast Prestressed Segmental Construction ................................................ 57
10.2 Construction Method..................................................................................................... 58
10.2.1 Incrementally Launched.................................................................................. 58
10.2.2 Push-out Construction .................................................................................... 60
10.2.3 Balanced Cantilever........................................................................................ 60
10.2.4 Cable Stayed .................................................................................................. 63
10.2.5 Suspension ..................................................................................................... 65
10.2.6 Stage Construction ......................................................................................... 65
10.2.7 Superstructure Types and Construction Method ............................................ 65
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10.3 Concrete Construction in Marine Environments ........................................................... 66

10.3.1 Steel Pipe Culverts ......................................................................................... 66
11
DESIGN FOR CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................. 68
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
Special Cases............................................................................................................... 68
Specific Site Constraints............................................................................................... 68
Location ........................................................................................................................ 68
Physical Location.......................................................................................................... 69
Choice of Bridge Type .................................................................................................. 69
12
DESIGN FOR MAINTAINABILITY............................................................................... 70
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
Maintenance Schedule ................................................................................................. 70

Access for Inspection (stairs, ladders, hatches, anchorage points).............................. 70
Access for Maintenance Works .................................................................................... 70
Bearing Replacement (jacking points method, clearances for removal and loads) ...... 70
Fitment Materials .......................................................................................................... 70
Provision for Prestressing Tendon Replacement ......................................................... 70
Provision of Stay Cable Maintenance........................................................................... 71
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 72
APPENDIX A
ACTION CHECK LIST FOR RESOLUTION OF DESIGN

ISSUES IN AS5100 2004 .............................................................. 74
APPENDIX B
ACTION CHECKLIST FOR ENSURING COVERAGE OF

RELEVANT DETAILS FOR THE PREPARATION OF A
BRIDGE DESIGN CONCEPT........................................................... 79
APPENDIX C
RESOURCES FOR BRIDGE AESTHETICS.................................... 84
APPENDIX D
CODE ERRATA................................................................................ 86
APPENDIX E
FUTURE CODE REQUIREMENTS .................................................. 91
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TABLES
Table 4.1:
Table 10.1:
Process of review and interaction..................................................................... 9

Construction methods of superstructure types ............................................... 66
FIGURES
Figure 5.1:
Figure 5.2:
Figure 5.3:
Figure 5.4:
Figure 5.5:
Figure 6.1:
Figure 7.1:
Figure 7.2:
Figure 7.3:
Figure 7.4:
Figure 7.5:
Figure 8.1:
Figure 9.1:
Figure 9.2:
Figure 9.3:
Figure 9.4:
Figure 9.5:
Figure 9.6:
Figure 9.7:
Figure 10.1:
Figure 10.2:
Figure 10.3:
Figure 10.4:
Figure 10.5:
Figure 10.6:
Figure 10.7:
Figure 10.8:
Figure 10.9:
Figure 10.10:
Figure 10.11:
Figure 10.12:
Figure 10.13:
Figure 10.14:
Simply supported spans ................................................................................. 18

Continuous spans ........................................................................................... 18
Simply supported for dead load, continuous for live load ............................... 18
Superstructure and pier integral ..................................................................... 18
Bridge built normal to the skew....................................................................... 22
Design consideration for mine subsidence ..................................................... 25
Scoured abutment due to lack of waterway .................................................... 28
12 metre high abutment abutment expansion joint jammed due to
horizontal abutment displacement .................................................................. 29
Scour at a pile caused by horseshoe and wake vortices ................................ 31
Cut back scour................................................................................................ 32
Minimum energy drainage structure concept.................................................. 33
Weathering profile of granite........................................................................... 38
Pile driving with hydraulic hammer ................................................................. 44
Prestressed concrete pile with Steel H pile section ...................................... 45
Prestressed concrete piles with steel stubs .................................................... 46
Cast-in-place pile ............................................................................................ 47
Pile driving analyser equipment...................................................................... 49
Pile instrumented with strain reducer.............................................................. 49
Pile damage due to overdriving ...................................................................... 50
Reinforced concrete slab ................................................................................ 52
T-beam ........................................................................................................... 53
Reinforced concrete T-beam .......................................................................... 53
Prestressed concrete box girder..................................................................... 53
Prestressed concrete voided slab................................................................... 54
Prestressed precast members ........................................................................ 54
I-girders........................................................................................................... 55
Trough girders with cast in situ deck .............................................................. 55
Rolled steel universal beam............................................................................ 56
Welded plate girder......................................................................................... 56
Steel box girder............................................................................................... 56
Steel box girders............................................................................................. 57
Span-by-span construction segments supported by truss ........................... 58
Incrementally launching construction process ................................................ 59
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Figure 10.15:
Figure 10.16:
Figure 10.17:
Figure 10.18:
Figure 10.19:
Incrementally launched bridge........................................................................ 60

Mooney Mooney balanced cantilever bridge nearing completion ................... 61
Construction steps of balanced cantilever bridge ........................................... 62
Cable stayed bridge construction using balanced cantilever method ............. 64
Anzac Bridge .................................................................................................. 65
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INTRODUCTION AND GUIDE STRUCTURE
1.1
Purpose
The purpose of the Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology, Part 4: Design Procurement and
Concept Design, is two-fold. It provides guidance about effectively scoping and specifying
contractual requirements for bridge design parameters to enable efficient procurement of design.
This part also looks at the design process and how it necessitates a series of steps to ensure that
the final design has addressed the design requirements and various site constraints.
Guidance is particularly important where the design standards require the authority/owner to
resolve matters about design assumptions or dimensional/detailing information prior to the
commencement of design. It also discusses philosophical issues about how the bridge design
procurement process should be managed and where responsibilities should lie for various parts of
the design input and process. For more specific information about project procurement, reference
is made to the companion Austroads Guide to Project Delivery.
The bridge design process necessitates a number of steps to ensure the final design addresses all
design requirements and site constraints. This outcome is best achieved by preparing design
concepts for a number of options for the client. Depending on the size of the project the concept
designs may require preliminary calculations and should set out how each concept addresses the
design issues. Included in this part are issues of the environment, geotechnical and foundation
issues, designing for construction and maintainability considerations and other general
construction issues.
1.2
Guide Structure
The Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology is published in seven parts and addresses a range of
bridge technology issues, each of which is summarised below.
Part 1: Introduction and Bridge Performance
This part covers the scope of the Guide to Bridge Technology, includes factors affecting
bridge performance, the relationship to the bridge design standards, and an understanding of
the evolution of bridges and bridge loadings. Technical and non-technical design influences
are also discussed along with the evolution of bridge construction methods and equipment.
Specifications and quality assurance in bridge construction are also included in this part.
Part 2: Materials
The full range of bridge building materials is discussed in Part 2 including concrete, steel,
timber and non-metallic components. It also discusses the material characteristics including
the individual stress mechanisms.
Part 3: Typical Bridge Superstructures, Substructures and Components
Included in this part are superstructure and substructure components - namely timber, steel,
wrought iron, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete. Typical bridge types such as
suspension, cable stayed and arched types are discussed. Included in this part is a section
on bridge foundations.
Austroads 2009
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Coverage includes bridge design process procurement models, specification requirements,

design and delivery management processes, design checking and review concepts, the use
of standardised components, aesthetics/architectural requirements, standard presentation of
drawings and reports, designing for constructability and maintenance. The service life of the
structure and components, mining and subsidence, flood plains, bridge loadings, and
geotechnical and environmental considerations are also discussed.
Part 5: Structural Drafting
Covers the detailed drawing aspects required to clearly convey to the consultant/construction
contractor the specifics of the project. It discusses the various standards including details
required for cost estimating and material quantities. Coverage also includes reinforcement
identification details.
Part 6: Bridge Construction
Provides guidance to the bridge owner's representative on site. It focuses on bridge

technology, high-risk construction processes e.g. piling, pre-stressing, and the relevant
technical surveillance requirements during the construction phase. Bridge geometry and the
management of existing road traffic and temporary works are also discussed.
Part 7: Maintenance and Management of Existing Bridges
Maintenance issues for timber, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete, steel, wrought and cast
iron bridges are discussed in this part. Other bridge components including bridge bearings
and deck joints are also referred to. It also covers the monitoring, inspection and
management of bridge conditions.
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BRIDGE DESIGN PROCESS PROCUREMENT MODELS
2.1
General
The processes for the procurement of bridge design by road authorities/owners are determined by
their in-house design capabilities, the capabilities of the available external design providers and the
availability of both. Emphasis is placed on the importance of the design process to the successful
completion of the bridge project. The effective management of risks associated with ensuring
traffic-friendly, durable, robust and reliable bridge performance over the required 100 year life is
enhanced by being an informed purchaser of design.
It is essential that the design input information be closely researched and clearly specified to
ensure minimum change during the design and that the purchasers intent is delivered. This
section does not seek to endorse one procurement method over another, but simply to give an
outline of the mechanics of each to the reader. Choice of procurement method would depend on
circumstances and the road authoritys policies and objectives.
2.2
Separate Design Followed by Construction
Generally, up to the 1980s, the method of bridge design procurement commonly used was to
acquire the design separately, in advance of the bridge construction, with the design plans being
part of the tender (or briefing) documents for the construction of the bridge. Such designs are
either prepared in-house or acquired from an external provider by a procurement arrangement.
An advantage of this process is the time it allows for the design to gestate and be subject to wideranging review, both formal and informal, from other contributors to the road/traffic environment in
which the bridge is to be used. This process usually allows for the development of a concept
design proposal, with detailed design not commencing until the concept is signed off by a
hierarchy of authority/owner management. By this means, many projects are enhanced by the
incorporation of both technical and geometrical refinements, at minimal cost penalty to the
authority/owner. Further advantages of this process are that the design provision is managed by
bridge design specialists, with access to a range of collegiate bridge design and construction
experience to inform the process and the designer owes allegiance to the authority/owner.
2.3
Integrated Design/Construct
Bridge designs are now more often procured as part of the design/construct model (or
design/construct/maintain, or design/construct/maintain/operate models). In such cases, the
design procurement phase is managed as part of the overall project procurement, often with
minimal input from bridge design specialists and generally under severe time and dollar
constraints, which can disadvantage the project by limiting the input of other road/traffic specialists.
Another disadvantage is the relatively short time specified for maintenance, as defects do not
become obvious for a number of years.
For this procurement arrangement, the owner is obliged to specify at the outset the requirements
for the design process.
The advantage of this process is that responsibility for all co-ordination of the separate activities is
assigned to the contractor. In addition, the suitability of the construction/erection processes may
be tailored to suit each contractors experience and equipment.
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2.4
Alliance Arrangements
A recent development for project procurement is the alliance arrangement where the contractor,
designer and owner/authority form a management team to manage the project. This process
happens under the separate oversight review of the owner, but involves the owner in ensuring that
financial aspects of delays are recognised and minimised, by involvement of the owner in a profit
sharing arrangement.
The important aspect of the alliance process is the assessment by the owner of the competency
and potential performance of the alliance team to produce the desired outcomes and the specific
scoping of the works.
Once again, as for the design/construct procedure, it is necessary to specify design requirements
before the letting of the tender.
The advantage of the alliance arrangement is that all players (contractor, designer and owner)
have an interest in the financial and technical outcome. Another advantage is that the alliance
team takes on an ownership of the project, which can develop an exceptional synergy.
2.5
Further Information about Project Procurement
A more detailed discussion about methods of project procurement generally, including advantages
and disadvantages, is covered in the Guide to Project Delivery Part 2: Project Delivery Planning
and Control, Austroads (2007).
Austroads 2009
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SPECIFYING REQUIREMENTS FOR DESIGN
3.1
Bridge Design Code Issues
For bridge design to be procured by the same contract as the construction

(maintenance/operation) of the bridge, the means to ensure the advantageous outcomes from the
separate design procurement process need to be incorporated into the design/construct tender
process. For an effective process, there are many important design and design detail decisions to
be made by the authority/owners representatives prior to the signing of the contract. AS5100 lists
all the issues where design input is required or where the approval of the authority/owner is
required in Appendix A of Part 1 (Scope and General Principles) of the Australian Bridge Design
Code (Standards Australia). These issues are repeated in Appendix A to this document.
While AS5100 applies to all Australian bridge design, the Transit New Zealand Bridge Manual
(Transit NZ 2003) is applicable to all New Zealand bridges. In the case of design/construct
contracts in New Zealand, an interactive tendering and consultation process is used based on the
proforma tender documents set out in Transits State Highway Construction Contract Proforma
Manual (Transit NZ 2001). The tender documents include a section entitled principals
requirements, which sets out Transits requirements for the contractors design, construction,
completion and correction of defects of the contract works. It describes the relevant standards,
design criteria, technical and other requirements and provides information that applies to the
contract, and also includes a specimen design that demonstrates that the principals requirements
can be met. During the tender period, tenderers develop a preliminary conceptual design. These
are discussed in formalised individual consultation meetings between each tenderer and Transit,
with the aim of resolving issues relating to the tenderers preliminary concept design, tender
preparation and submission. The processes will also address any identified anomalies,
ambiguities, errors or omissions in the tender documents, and may result in amendment of the
principal requirements. A formal submission of the preliminary concept design is then made to
Transit. Transit will then issue to tenderers a schedule of supplementary requirements for their
conceptual design proposal, to be taken into account in their tender submission. Final tender
submissions include drawings of the developed conceptual design together with a corresponding
design statement.
3.2
Specifying for Local Conditions
If the bridge site is in a remote area where quality of work and supervision is a concern, precasting
or prefabrication should be included as a requirement.
3.3
Geometric Details, including Clearances
As a bridge is part of a road network and must operate effectively to carry traffic over a space
(waterway, transport corridor), the geometric layout and details of the bridge must be appropriate
to its use. Changes to bridge drawings to amend geometric details can extend over many of the
drawings and present the possibility of errors in the drawings when changes are made.
It is important that crossing clearances and road/traffic geometry for a bridge is confirmed by
relevant, authorised personnel from the road authority/owner and, in the case of a bridge over a
railway, by relevant authorised personnel from the railway authority. Navigation clearances will
require the confirmation of the relevant waterway authority. Flood and debris clearances will
require the confirmation of the relevant local authority.
Austroads 2009
5
3.4
Gathering and Integrating Data for a Bridge Design
A formalised process is the most effective way to ensure that all relevant issues are considered,
integrated and resolved. Most state road authorities have adopted such a process. The following
checklists to inform and assist this process need to be assembled:
Checklist 1
A Bridge Site Information Summary that contains the basic data needed for the start
of design. It should be completed prior to the commencement of design, as
described in Appendix B to this document.
Checklist 2
Action checklist for comments and/or concurrences to design concept proposal.
Checklist 3
Action check list for comments and/or concurrences and approval to various stages
of design and drawing preparation, including final design and drawings.
3.5
Design Statement
Authorities should require the preparation of a design statement which sets out all the factors
affecting the design (including those as listed in the Bridge Design Code/Manual) and present
design options and a recommended solution, with a recommended construction procedure.
Design codes and standards, and any departures from these and/or alternative methods of design
proposed to be adopted are to be stated. The design statement, once endorsed by the authority,
sets out the agreed form and nature of the structure to be designed.
3.6
Requirements of AS5100, Australian Standard for Bridge Design
AS5100, the Australian Standard for Bridge Design, recognises that it will be used as the design
standard by the authorities/owners for all forms of bridge design procurement. An increasing
number of bridges are being procured under the design/construct/{maintain}/{operate} process,
with the completed bridge being handed back to the authority/owner to maintain after some years
of operation. Contract administration for these methods of procurement of bridges, which rely on
references to AS5100 could be compromised by the failure of the authority/owner to determine a
number of matters in AS5100 that require resolution by the authority/owner before commencing the
design process.
Some of the typical issues which have fallen into this category include confirming:
bridge deck geometry, including deck width (with any allowances for curve widening),
superelevation and footway requirements and layouts (including provision for cyclists)
traffic barrier category and geometry and pedestrian barrier details
additional design live traffic loads (including provision for road construction vehicles) and
pedestrian loads
extent and comprehensiveness of geotechnical investigations
location and type of deck expansion joint, including width, type and performance parameters.
While AS5100 has not been adopted by Transit New Zealand for use in New Zealand, a similar
need exists to minimise the need for variations because of incomplete resolution of issues prior to
the signing of the contract. In the case of design and construct contracts, the practice is that the
principals requirements set out the criteria to be met, and a specimen design illustrates how they
can be met. Tenderers are required to submit a conceptual design and corresponding design
statement with their tender submission.
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Even more variations can occur when construction is allowed to proceed before these issues are
resolved, thus potentially placing the owners representative under pressure to accept a lower
standard of work.
3.7
Application of Authority Requirements for Road Users, OH&S and

Design Parameters
There are a number of bridge details for which the road authority/owner will have specific
requirements to ensure consistency and conformity of the bridge deck appearance for use by road
users, such as:
traffic barriers
pedestrian barriers
transitions to approach barriers
deck, traffic lane, shoulder and footway widths and geometry
deck drainage
expansion joints
light standards
noise walls
safety screens.
There are also a number of bridge details for which the road authority/owner will have specific
requirements to ensure consistency of OH&S requirements for constructability, replaceability and
accessibility during both construction and maintenance of the bridge, such as:
access gantries, including methods of attachment to the structure
bearings
deck joints, particularly expansion joints
traffic and pedestrian rails
drainage details
access to internal cells of box girders (confined spaces)
maintenance of attached services.
There are also a number of design parameters for which the road authority/owner will have specific
requirements to ensure consistency of design outcomes, such as:
acceptance of relevant geotechnical strength reduction factors for design of retaining walls,
abutments, piers, footings and cast-in place and driven piles, as related to the level of
geotechnical investigation, as outlined in AS5100 Standard for Bridge Design
fatigue design limits for a particular vehicle route
earthquake resistance requirements.
It is essential that the authority/owner provides its specific requirements for these details before the
bridge design procurement tender is let.
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3.8
Design Surveillance and Achievement of Design Intent
The design surveillance process adopted should be based on the quality management system of
the authority/owner or as otherwise agreed by the parties. The achievement of the design intent in
construction must be certified by the designer. For long span bridges, the control of deflected
shape is also very important.
For the handover of the bridge to the authority/owner a process of inspection and rehabilitation
needs to be negotiated and implemented.
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CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS
4.1
Design and Delivery Management
4.1.1
General
The action checklist in Appendix A covers the many aspects related to a bridge design that must
be considered, reviewed and acted on.
The design process requires continual review in order to ensure that the interaction of
requirements for traffic-friendliness (safety), durability, robustness, reliability and aesthetics does
not compromise any of these criteria. For significant and/or complex bridges it may be appropriate
for the owner to conduct a Value Engineering study to review risks to the project.
Value Engineering is defined as the review of bridge drawings and design calculations to identify
opportunities to optimise the structural form and element quantities to achieve economies in design
and construction. Value Engineering should not, however, result in a reduction in the design
standards, but rather, an enhanced project outcome
4.1.2
Delivery of Design/Construct and Alliance Bridge Projects
In a design/construct or alliance project the requirements in the contract documents need to reflect
the interaction between the authority/owner and the contractors designers. The design for a
bridge is developed to satisfy not only the contractors focus on efficiency and economy, but also
the authority/owners requirements for traffic-friendliness, durability, robustness, reliability and
aesthetic values, for the 100 year life of the bridge.
Successful management of the design process has been achieved by a multi-stage process of
review and interaction, (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Process of review and interaction
Stage of process
Contractor
Authority/Owner
Preliminary investigations and design brief
Prepare and submit
Review, comment and/or accept
Concept/preliminary design proposal, including verification for

100 year durability and aesthetics
Prepare and submit
Final investigations and final design to 20%
Prepare and submit
Final design to 80%
Prepare and submit
Final design to 100% and related construction documentation
Prepare and submit
Each of these stages needs to be identified in the contract documents, with an associated hold
point and related time limit for review, comment and/or acceptance for each stage.
4.2
Checking and Review Concepts
4.2.1
General
The requirement for an independent design check is an important part of the quality assurance
process for bridge design. The risk management processes for avoiding design and drawing
errors, particularly gross errors, must be foolproof and failsafe and must be at a level to result in
the confidence of road users.
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Various procedures have been implemented on different projects, such as design checking, proof
engineering, design verification and peer review. These terms are not well defined and have
different meanings to different people in terms of the level of comprehensiveness of the design
check and the level of confidence that any design and drawing errors have been identified.
The authority/owner needs to define precisely the level and quantum of design checking required,
as related to the risk consequences for the project, and also the competency required for both
designer and checker, the level of independence of the checker from the designer, and the
responsibility for payment of the checker.
For particularly significant or complex bridges, it may be appropriate to nominate a third level of
independent checking or verification, particularly to ensure the structural modelling is consistent.
In addition, the authority/owner needs to ensure the checking outcomes are critically reviewed and
that an arbitration process is in place to resolve technical disputes between the designer and the
checker or independent verifier.
4.2.2
Defining Process Terminology
For the purpose of achieving commonality of understanding, the following definitions of activities
related to the design review process are provided:
Design checking a comprehensive, separate, independent preparation of calculations for

the whole of the bridge design by a qualified bridge designer in another part of the
organisation, with subsequent comparison of results and either certified agreement between
designer and checker or arbitration by an experienced bridge design manager.
Proof engineering a review of the bridge design calculations and drawings by an

experienced independent bridge designer in another entity, not part of the original design
organisation. Separate calculations need to be undertaken for critical aspects of the design
(abutments, piers, main superstructure members) and certified as either agreed with the
bridge designer or arbitrated by an experienced design manager and with investigation and
correction of any other discrepancies raised.
Design verification a review of the bridge design calculations and drawings by an

experienced independent bridge designer. Investigation and correction of any discrepancies
raised.
Peer review a review of the bridge drawings by an experienced independent bridge

designer. Investigation and correction of any discrepancies raised.
Where a design review process is applied to a significant road project with a number of similar
bridges, the design checking, proof engineering, design verification and peer review processes
may be applied to a selected few representative bridge designs, depending on the risk analysis.
4.2.3
Road Safety Audit
In addition, the final bridge design and any subsequent changes should be subject to a road safety
audit, to confirm the suitability of road safety issues associated with the bridge alignment and
width.
For complicated urban interchange bridge geometry, with curved alignments, the safe design
speed and minimum radius of curvature should be determined by the owner as a functional
requirement, and the final design geometry should be reviewed to ensure it conforms. Whilst it
may be tempting to reduce costs of overbridges by shortening spans, reducing skew and reducing
the radius of curvature at certain locations, these actions can also lower the safe design speed.
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Road safety audits need to be certified and the requirements implemented.
4.3
Standardised Components
4.3.1
General
Most road authorities/owners have determined that for some aspects of bridge construction and
maintenance, the use of standardised components results in efficiencies for both themselves and
also for the industry.
Typical examples are the use of a standardised range of mould sizes for laminated elastomeric
bearings, (AS 5100.4, Appendix A) and the standardised formwork sizes for precast prestressed
concrete bridge girders, both I-girders and Super-T girders (AS 5100.5, Appendix H). Other local
examples are for precast concrete pile sections and joints and for barrier shapes and railing
components.
Where the authority/owner requires the adoption of such standardised components, this should be
nominated in the contract documents, with appropriate requirements for supply and testing.
4.3.2
Proprietary Items
The authority/owner should ensure that any proprietary products that are nominated for use by the
designer are noted or approved equivalent to enable competition to be applied to the supply of
proprietary items.
In addition, the authority/owner should ensure it specifies the required performance of proprietary
items to enable a judgement of equivalence.
4.4
Aesthetics/Architectural Requirements
4.4.1
General
Whilst difficult to scope and value, some authorities/owners are nominating that the tender
selection process will include consideration of aesthetic/architectural requirements. The level of
these requirements will depend on the visibility of the project and issues such as the need for
landmark bridges, overbridges or pedestrian bridges. Issues such as span length, superstructure
depth, pier shape, pile cap visibility and retaining wall configuration are important for landmark or
iconic structures. For structures of lesser visibility, the general requirement of attention to
simplicity of line and proportion is emphasised.
Bridge aesthetics last for the life of a bridge. Good aesthetics can be achieved at little or no extra
cost.
4.4.2
References for Aesthetics
The designer shall give careful consideration to the aesthetics of the structure. Guidance on the
principles involved may be obtained from the following references, while additional resources are
listed in Appendix C to this document:
Fdration Internationale du Bton (2000); Highways Agency (1998); Highways Department, Hong
Kong (1997); Roads and Traffic Authority (2004); and Transportation Research Board (1991).
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4.5
Presentation of Drawings and Reports
4.5.1
General
A particular source of error or ambiguity can be from a poor standard of presentation with bridge
drawings and reports, whether as hard or soft copies. Such errors and ambiguities can
compromise not only the bridge construction process, but also future maintenance and load
capacity rating management of the bridge. A standard form of presentation for drawings and
reports (e.g. Foundation Investigations, Hydrology Report, Fatigue Studies, etc.) similar to that
used by the authority/owner should be nominated in contract documents.
The drafting standards of the authority/owner should be specified for the production of drawings.
Guide to Bridge Technology Part 5: Structural Drafting, Austroads (2009c) provides full details on
the requirements for the presentation of structural drawings.
4.5.2
Interpretation of Site Data
While the interpretation of spatial geotechnical information is not included on the drawings for
contractual reasons, it may be that such interpretive information would be valuable for other
interested parties. In such a case, it may be appropriate to request this information with the asconstructed drawings, with a suitable disclaimer.
4.6
Constructability and Maintenance Issues
4.6.1
General
Authorities/owners need to ensure that issues related to the constructability of the structure,
replaceability of components of shorter life than the design life of the structure and OH&S issues
for construction and maintenance are identified and resolved during the design process. The
authority/owner will have on-going responsibility for OH&S issues over the lifespan of the bridge.
These issues usually, but not exclusively, relate to access to various components of the bridge,
such as bearings, deck joints and main load-carrying members. It is essential that these issues be
included in the Design Statement and in contract documentation.
Constructability and maintenance issues need to be signed off by corporate and local asset
managers of the authority/owner, at the relevant stages of the design process (Table 4.1).
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GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
5.1
Design Process
design requirements and site constraints.
This outcome is best achieved by preparing design concepts for a number of options for the client.
Depending on the size of the project the concept designs may require preliminary calculations and
should set out how each concept addresses the design issues.
In the case of small streams design options should consider either a bridge or a culvert.
Early in the project planning phase the client needs to decide the project delivery mode as this will
impact on the bridge design process. Options for the project delivery mode include:
Bridge design by in-house or external resources. Construction is by public tender using

contract documents prepared by the designer. The project is funded by the client.
Design and Construct tenders call for the design and construction of the bridge as one
package. Under this arrangement the construction contractor tendering usually engages
bridge design consultants to carry out the bridge design. The project is funded by the client.
BOOT Project tenders call for the financing, design, construction and operation for the
project as a tolled facility for a specified period. At the end of the specified period the
ownership reverts to the client. B-Build, O-Own, O- Operate, T- Transfer. The project is
funded by the private sector.
Alliance Contract Tenders call for delivery of the project, including the design and
construction, under an arrangement where the client and the contractor contribute to the
project. The aim is for the contract to operate under a non-adversarial environment whereby
both parties have input into the project. This is opposed to the adversarial environment that
exists with conventional construction contracts.
Early Contractor Involvement (ECI) essentially a Design and Construct. However, the
contractor/consortium is engaged early and is involved in the design and planning with a
view to efficient construction. An estimate is prepared which is audited externally and if
accepted the consortium is chosen for the final design and construction phase.
In all of the above project delivery modes the concept of Project Partnering needs to be fostered
where the client and contractor are to work together in a fair and meaningful way with open
communication to optimise the project outcomes.
Steps in the design process include:
concept design possible options, global design considerations
preliminary design sufficient calculations carried out to assess the structural and economic
feasibility of each concept
design proposal physical details and dimensions, design basis, loads, cost estimate
client review and feedback
approval to proceed or amend proposal
detailed design
design review this may involve review of the design at stages nominated by the client
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final design and preparation of contract documentation drawings and specifications. The
specifications may include project specific as well as standard documents.
AS 5100 Part 1 Bridge Design (2004), Appendix A Matters for Resolution Before Design
Commences are to be addressed by the designer and the relevant authority or owner of a bridge.
The following sub-sections deal with additional matters for design consideration.
5.2
Construction
Two fundamental concept design considerations are the structural form and the method of
construction of the bridge.
The structural form and the method of construction chosen for a particular site will be influenced by
a number of factors including:
the height of the bridge above the natural surface or water ease of access
simply supported or continuous spans the need to reduce the number of deck joints and
noise generated by them, structural efficiency
longitudinal profile of the site ground slope and height may influence number and location
of piers and hence span lengths
proximity and extent of water location and number of piers on ground and over water to
minimise work over water
the geographical location in terms of haulage distances, proximity to concrete batching and
precast concrete plants, urban or rural location, prefabrication options
traffic access requirement in terms of provision of openings and maintaining traffic flow
environmental constraints in terms of minimising disturbance to existing conditions, risk of

pollution
site access in terms of working area, equipment access
site geology in terms of addressing geological issues such as slope stability, settlement
seismic areas in terms of simply supported or continuous spans
mining subsidence areas in terms of simply supported or continuous spans and provision for
anticipated movements
location of utilities may influence position of piers and span lengths
comparative costs of options.
The design considerations for each site will provide options for the form and construction method
to be adopted.
5.3
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is an important design consideration. A number of state road authorities have produced
guidelines on the aesthetics of bridges. RTA, NSW has published a document titled Bridge
Aesthetics (RTA 2004a).
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5.4
Cost Effective Design
In preparing proposals a number of design options and their cost estimates should be considered
as part of the design process including:
cost comparison between superstructure types and methods of erection, e.g. precast versus
cast in situ or segmental construction
identifying site constraints for each method of construction and the cost implications
the cost comparison between increasing the span lengths to reduce the number of piers and
foundation costs
optimisation of girder spacing versus deck slab thickness
the minimisation of the number of piers constructed over water, e.g. minor changes in span
lengths or bridge position may result in piers that are marginally over water being on land
designing members to allow repeated use of formwork, e.g. on a bridge on a vertical curve it
may be possible to make all pier columns the same height by varying the pile cap levels
allowing the use of the same formwork throughout
cost comparison of low level bridge versus high level
overall project costs, which include the cost of approaches and road realignment, may be the
determining economic factor
minimum whole of life cost.
5.5
Live Loads
Design considerations for live loads should include the following:

5.5.1
Design Live Loads
Notwithstanding the requirements of AS 5100.2 Clause 6 it may be advantageous to the

community and industry to design for heavier loads where they are required for specific projects
such as power stations and dams. Payloads on these projects may include boiler components and
heavy construction equipment.
5.5.2
Dynamics
Notwithstanding the requirements of AS 5100.2 Clause 6.7 the dynamic characteristics of a bridge
and/or its components may be sensitive to interaction with the specific traffic using the bridge.
Instances have occurred where the dynamic amplification as a result of the interaction of the bridge
with specific vehicle types has resulted in an increase in the dynamic load in excess of the
provisions in AS 5100.2. In addition the possibility of stress reversals occurring when the
excitation force (traffic) is removed need to be considered.
5.5.3
Fatigue Data
The projected number of load cycles for the design life needs to be obtained to enable a fatigue
design to be carried out. Traffic volumes and make up are required to carry this out.
5.5.4
Pedestrian Bridges
AS 5100.2 Clause 12.4 includes provisions for the dynamic behaviour of pedestrian bridges. A
range is stipulated for the resonant frequency for vertical vibrations for which the serviceability limit
state must be investigated. In addition a limit is set for the dynamic deflection at the first mode
flexural frequency and horizontal excitation by pedestrian loads is also considered.
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Notwithstanding the provisions in the code, in instances where the dynamic characteristics are
close to the limits set, there is a possibility of producing adverse dynamic behaviour. The provision
of fitments to enable installation of damping devices if required may be an appropriate contingency
provision. These damping devices may be in the form of hydraulic shock absorbers.
The design may need to consider the possibility of the use of light vehicles being used on the
bridge for maintenance purposes.
Disabled access to pedestrian bridges needs to be addressed. There are legislative requirements
in some jurisdictions. Design considerations will include:
maximum gradient on the bridge and ramps
provision of level landings in the approach ramps
provision of lifts where ramps are not practical because of site constraints.
5.6
Location
The location of the bridge is a key factor in the design considerations. The location will influence
decisions made on a number of key factors including:
type of bridge
foundation details, e.g. steel piles vs concrete piles
availability of materials, e.g. proximity of a concrete batching plant and precast concrete
factories
haul distance
material type, e.g. steel or concrete, carbon steel or stainless steel components and fixtures
availability of construction equipment, e.g. crane capacity
durability considerations, e.g. marine environment, aggressive ground water
method of construction, e.g. to address the need to protect or diminish the impact on the
environment. Sensitive environments may require special consideration
the need for staged construction
proximity of existing bridge or other structures.
5.7
Traffic and Traffic Considerations
Each road authority records data on the make up and volume of traffic on classified roads. The
data provides the percentage of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream. Terms used in traffic data
include Average Daily Traffic (ADT) and Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT). The volume and
make up of traffic on roads set a number of bridge design parameters including the width, the
number and width of lanes and the type of traffic barrier.
The use of weigh-in-motion systems to obtain traffic data is becoming widespread. These systems
provide invaluable data on vehicle mass and number which is relevant for design issues such as
fatigue. On existing bridges they provide information on changes in traffic patterns and their
cumulative effects.
See AS5100 (2004) Part 2 Design Loads.
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5.7.1
Road Geometry
Clause 9 of AS5100 (Part 1) sets out the geometric requirements for all bridges. However, there
are other traffic related issues that need to be considered including the following:
Future land use changes may have a significant impact on projected traffic growth figures.
The design should provide an adequate number of lanes and overall width.
Every effort should be made to design the vertical and horizontal alignments of a bridge to
simplify the bridge geometry. A bridge on a constant curvature is preferable to having
transition curves within its length.
For a major incrementally launched bridge a minor redesign of the road alignment to use
constant radius of curvature resulted in significant cost savings and improved
constructability.
In another case the vertical and horizontal alignments were redesigned to shift the curve
transitions off the bridge. This avoided the need for the bridge planks to be placed on
varying crossfalls across the deck.
For incrementally launched bridges on vertical and horizontal curves a constant curvature
simplifies the segment formwork and the launching process.
It should be noted that a reversal of curvature on a bridge results in a transition from one
superelevation to the other. This situation results in a length of the deck being level transversely
which creates an issue in terms of drainage of the deck.
5.8
Public Utilities
The presence and location of public utilities at the site need to be determined early in the
investigations. The type and location may have a major impact on the design. For example, the
presence of an optical fibre cable may affect the bridge location because of the major cost to
relocate it. Details need to be obtained of the provision for utilities as constructed and for future
needs. Provision for utilities may include:
Ducts in barriers.
Attachment water, sewer and gas mains.
In the case of pressure mains, dynamic loads to the bridge caused by any changes in the
pipe alignment must be considered.
Provision of trenches below footways for electrical and gas services. Note: There are
regulations governing the proximity of gas and electrical services.
Design and installation of fitments to support existing or future utilities.
The utilities must be designed to accommodate the thermal, deflection and rotation
movements of the bridge.
The attachment of utilities must be done in such a way as to allow access for future maintenance
of the bridge, e.g. providing clearance behind mains to allow access to concrete surfaces.
Note: Gas and water mains should not be installed inside box girders.
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5.9
Articulation
5.9.1
Definition
Articulation of a bridge refers to the way the components of a bridge are joined. For example, a
bridge where the girders are rigidly connected to the piers will behave differently to one where the
girders are supported on the piers. Similarly a bridge that has an expansion joint at each pier will
behave differently as it expands under temperature changes to a bridge where the deck is
continuous over its full length. The bridge designer can make a bridge behave differently by
changing the way it is articulated (Figure 5.1, Figure 5.2, Figure 5.3, and Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.1: Simply supported spans
Figure 5.2: Continuous spans
Figure 5.3: Simply supported for dead load, continuous for live load
Source for Figures 5.1 to 5.4: D Carter
Figure 5.4: Superstructure and pier integral
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5.9.2
Considerations
Each of the considerations listed below may have an influence on the number and location of
expansion joints and type of bearings in the bridge, the connection of the substructure to the
superstructure (pinned, fixed or integral), the distribution of longitudinal and transverse loads to
bearings, piers and abutments.
Considerations for the articulation of a bridge will be governed by a number of factors including:
Type of superstructure (form and whether continuous or simply supported)
An alternative to fully continuous spans is to erect the members as simply supported and
then pour the deck slab continuous over the piers. This is referred to as being continuous
under live load
Method of construction
Horizontal alignment
Length of bridge
Span lengths
Ride quality
Noise generated by deck joints
Relative heights and stiffness of piers
Type of bearings
Lateral restraints
Stiffness of bearings
Seismic constraints
Mining subsidence
Site geology
Skew angle.
5.10
Skew
The adverse effects of skew need to be considered in the design particularly for skew angles in
excess of 20. The effects of large skew angles include:
Non-uniform distribution of loads to bearings, particularly those at the acute corners of a

deck. Instances have occurred where the deck at the acute corner has lifted off the adjacent
bearing under dead load only.
This has implications for the deck in terms of flexural behaviour. In regard to bearings this
situation results in increased loads to adjacent bearings that will overload them.
In the case of elastomeric bearings the reduced loads at bearings may lead to bearings
walking out under shear displacements because of the lack of friction at the rubber/concrete
interface.
On large skew bridges there is a tendency for decks to rotate due to the fact that any
longitudinal deck movement will cause the piers to deflect normal to their transverse axis.
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Circular elastomeric bearings should be used on large skew bridges to provide the same stiffness
in all directions. This will better accommodate the complex movements that occur with large skew
bridges.
5.11
Information from Existing Bridge
Review of maintenance records of the existing bridge may highlight other design considerations.
These may include:
foundation type and founding levels
foundation performance
stream characteristics
evidence of durability problems that may have relevance to the new bridge. For example,
evidence of the presence of acid soils evidenced by deterioration of non-structural concrete
or other deleterious agents in the soil or ground water evidenced by deterioration of structural
concrete.
5.12
Temporary Bridging
Depending on the site conditions and traffic requirements temporary bridging may be required to
provide access while an existing bridge is demolished or partly demolished, to allow construction of
a new bridge. A number of road authorities have supplies of proprietary temporary bridging
systems. Bridging systems are also available from equipment hire companies.
5.13
Provision of Disabled Access
Statutory requirements exist in most jurisdictions for the provision of disabled access, particularly
to pedestrian bridges.
5.14
Terrorist Activity
With the increased awareness of potential terrorist activity design considerations may need to
include the following:
high security access to the inside of box girders and hollow piers
considerations of the redundancy of members and in spans
installation of security cameras
design assessment of worst case scenarios.
5.15
Construction Safety and Structural Form
The designer must ensure that the form of the bridge and the construction sequence specified will
allow it to be constructed in a safe manner. To achieve this special provisions may be required
including:
purpose built construction equipment
purpose built access provisions
purpose built safety equipment
detailed documentation of construction procedures to ensure the safety issues are

addressed.
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Liaison between the designer and the construction contractor may be necessary where special
provisions are required.
Instances have occurred overseas where following a construction safety incident the courts have
found the designer liable for designing a structure that could not have been built safely.
5.16
Serviceability Requirements
5.16.1
Service Life of Bridge and Components
The specified design service life in AS 5100 is 100 years. However, the relevant road authority
should give consideration to the fact that a nominal 100 year design service life will result in some
bridges having a service life of less than 100 years due to statistical variation in the construction
quality.
For bridges in aggressive environments this statistical variation will have more serious implications
compared to bridges in relatively benign environments. It may be more logical to increase the
design service life to 150 years. This decision would result in additional considerations of the
durability aspects in terms of construction quality provisions and material types. For example, it
may force the use of stainless steel fitments to ensure the extended design service life is achieved.
5.16.2
Flood Free or Submersible
Waterway calculations are aimed at defining the minimum size opening to be able to pass a flood
flow for a specific return interval, e.g. 1 in 100 years, 1 in 50 years, 1 in 25 years.
The waterway area provided needs to provide the desired level of service and ensure there are no
detrimental effects to the stream in regard to scour and bank erosion, the adjacent land and the
structural integrity of the bridge.
In addition the structural integrity of the bridge and the effect on adjacent land under the ultimate
design flood (1 in 2000 years) event needs to be assessed.
In some instance the waterway area may be fixed by other considerations such as road grading,
navigational or other local requirements.
The bridge waterway will inevitably be smaller than in the natural stream under flood conditions.
Therefore the water velocity through the bridge will increase. The acceptable restricted velocity
through the bridge will depend on the local conditions in terms of the type of material in the stream
bed and its propensity to scour. The implications of the restricted velocity on the stability of
abutments and road embankments also need to be assessed. Scour protection of abutments and
embankments may be required.
5.16.3
Alignment and Design Speed
The vertical and horizontal alignment and design speed will have an impact on the bridge design in
terms of:
bridge geometry in terms of gradient, vertical curvature, superelevation and horizontal

curvature. For example, for incrementally launched bridges constant vertical and horizontal
curvature is required
drainage of the deck in terms of collection and piping to stilling basins
method used to accommodate the curvature on the bridge, e.g. bridge built as a series of
chords with curved traffic barrier or constructed on the curve
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width to allow for curve effects in terms of vehicle tracking
traffic barrier type
potential vehicular impacts
longitudinal and transverse forces generated by traffic
number of lanes, e.g. climbing lanes, turning movements
transition curves.
5.16.4
Number of Lanes, Wide Bridges and Thermal Movements
The number of lanes and therefore the width of a bridge are generally governed by traffic
requirements. However other considerations may dictate that additional lanes are required
including:
future traffic growth
gradient and the need for climbing lanes
geometric requirements e.g. acceleration and deceleration lanes, overtaking lanes
percentage of heavy vehicles
provision of cycle lanes.
In some instances the bridge may be wider than it is long. In the case of a wide bridge over a rail
on a large skew it may be more appropriate to construct a square bridge normal to the railway.
There will be an excess area of bridge deck at each end (Figure 5.5). However, the simplicity of
the design and construction outweighs the cost of the additional deck area.
Six lane bridge
Excess deck area
Railway line
Bridge built square to the

railway line using prestressed
concrete members.
Source: D Carter
Figure 5.5: Bridge built normal to the skew
Wide bridges
It should be noted for bridge decks wider than their span the transverse thermal movements and
transverse shrinkage of concrete should be considered as well as those that occur longitudinally.
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5.17
Computer Analysis
The use of computers in bridge design provides a powerful analysis and design tool. However,
outputs need careful review to ensure the answers make sense. The review may include:
ensuring that zero and maximum moments occur at locations in the model where they would
be expected
plotting of results along a member to ensure no discontinuities exist
using hand calculations and approximate methods of analysis to obtain a feel for the
structural behaviour.
The results of any analysis may be either intuitive or counter-intuitive. The former may be wrong;
the latter may only be obvious after reviewing the computer output.
5.18
Review of Design Concept
design requirements and site constraints. These requirements and constraints include:
traffic
live loads
hydraulics
waterway
environmental
geotechnical
economics
disabled access.
This outcome is best achieved by preparing design concepts for a number of options for the client.
Depending on the size of the project the concept designs may require preliminary calculations and
should set out how each concept addresses the design issues.
In some situations consideration needs to be given as to whether a bridge is in fact required. This
applies particularly to small streams and design options should consider if a bridge or a culvert is
required.
5.19
Review of Drawings
The final review of drawings is an important part of the design process. In reviewing the drawings
the designer needs to focus on those areas/issues that are critical or fundamental to the
completeness of detailing and therefore constructability of the bridge.
These include:
rechecking pile and spread footing contract levels in light of any additional geotechnical
information
plotting the setting out details to check for any gross errors
examining details in key areas e.g. prestressing anchorage zones
anchorage lengths of reinforcing steel
clashing of reinforcing steel

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correct skew hand on bridge layout and bridge girders
construction sequence logical and practical
correct location of bearing types and locations
contingency to allow the raising of the deck level if the vertical hog of prestressed concrete
girders is excessive e.g. abutment curtain wall constructed after the deck is poured to ensure
level compatibility
construction joints in marine environments being above water high tide levels
special durability measures, e.g. cathodic prevention, application of surface treatments

(silanes) to concrete to reduce the ingress of chlorides (see section 4.2 of Austroads
(2009a))
freeboard of soffit at superstructure above flood levels
potential for scour.
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SPECIFIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
6.1
Mining Subsidence
Mining is one of the most common activities that can have a considerable impact on the design of
a bridge. Assessment of the mining impacts requires close liaison with the relevant statutory
authority and the mining company, if mining is already in progress.
Maps of designated mine subsidence areas are produced by relevant state authorities. Bridges
constructed in those areas will need to be designed for anticipated ground movements resulting
from future mining activities.
The design parameters for ground movements are usually prepared by the mine subsidence
authority using geotechnical models and include vertical displacement and the orientation and
degree of the ground slope. The ground slope results from the transition from the original ground
levels to the subsided ground levels. The ground slope moves as a wave through an area as
mining progresses and hence differential movements and rotations may occur over the length of
the bridge (Figure 6.1).
Original ground level
Rotation of pier caused by

ground wave
Ground level post subsidence
Source: D Carter
Figure 6.1: Design consideration for mine subsidence
The need to accommodate mine subsidence movements may require:
the use of simply supported spans as opposed to continuous spans to accommodate

rotations
the provision of measures to accommodate movements at abutments by using precast

curtain walls to facilitate movements
the use of bearings that will allow free movement at piers and abutments. For example, the
use of guided slide pot bearing with side guides that can be removed will allow movements
without damaging the bearing
the use of bedding material under spread footings that will allow rotations to occur without
damaging the substructure
special considerations to remove part of a bridge to accommodate movements, for example,

the provision to remove a span on a pedestrian bridge when the ground movements cannot
be accommodated by the structure.
Detailed procedures of action required in the event of mine subsidence being imminent should be
shown on the drawings together with the design parameters used.
Confirmation should be obtained from the mine subsidence authority that parameters used in the
design are still appropriate for the actual movements being recorded.
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6.2
Earthquake
The design considerations in relation to earthquake depend on the location of the bridge. All
geographical areas are designated by a zoning that determines the specific earthquake design
parameters that must be complied with.
Specific requirements include:
vertical and horizontal accelerations
minimum overlap of superstructure and substructure to reduce the risk of collapse
longitudinal and side restraints
linking of adjacent spans
tying down of the superstructure
articulation e.g. continuous or simply supported spans
stability
changes in properties of supporting soil conditions, e.g. soil liquefaction.
Existing high profile bridges should be assessed for earthquake risk.
6.3
Dynamics Stiffness, Deflection, Span/Depth
The allowance for the dynamic effect of moving loads on a bridge is set out in AS 5100 Part 2
Design Loads termed the Dynamic Load Allowance (DLA). The DLA is the factor applied to the
static mass of a live load to take into account the increased load effect caused by the moving load.
The dynamic behaviour of a bridge or its components is related to three factors:
mass
stiffness as indicated by deflection
damping the diminishing of the dynamic effects over time.
The bridge designer controls the mass and stiffness by the size and depth of members. The width
and depth of members is usually controlled by strength requirements. For concrete bridges in
most instances stiffness is not an issue as guidelines exist for minimum span/depth ratios that from
past experience have generally resulted in bridges of acceptable stiffness and dynamic behaviour.
However, a number of recent cases have highlighted the fact that the damping characteristic of a
bridge, or its components, has a major influence on the implications of the dynamic behaviour.
Fatigue cracking was found in a modular bridge deck joint on a major bridge after 8 years in
service life as a result of the dynamic behaviour. Investigations showed that stresses being
induced would have resulted in a fatigue life of 13 years. The actual DLA exceeded that
required by AS 5100 by an order of magnitude. Stress reversals were occurring due to the
dynamic behaviour of the joint after the traffic had passed. Measures were taken to change
the dynamic behaviour by altering the damping characteristics to reduce the stress range to
ensure a service life of at least 50 years.
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Cracking occurred in the web of a steel box girder after 10 years in service. Investigations
showed that the cracking was a result of fatigue as a result of poor detailing of internal
bracing connections. The investigations also highlighted the fact that the stress reversals
caused by vibrations that continue after the traffic has passed need to be assessed by the
designer as these have a major influence on fatigue life.
It should be noted that Clause 8.4.6 of Part 2 of AS5100 (2004) requires that consideration be
given to the load reversal caused by vibrations that occur after the passing of traffic.
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ENVIRONMENT
7.1
Waterway
The increase in the velocity through the restricted waterway occurs as a result of the increase in
the energy head. The restriction in the waterway results in water banking upstream to a level
sufficient to develop the additional head to increase the velocity to maintain equilibrium flow
(Figure 7.1). The increase in height of the water upstream is termed afflux.
The amount of afflux will determine the extent of flooding in adjacent land. The acceptable level of
afflux for design depends on the upstream land use, i.e. housing, agriculture or undeveloped
natural land. The implications for any possible change in the future land use will need to be
considered.
Source: RTA NSW
Figure 7.1: Scoured abutment due to lack of waterway
7.1.1
Basic Considerations
The need to pass flood flows of a certain return interval will determine the following details of the
bridge:
Length
In most cases it is not economical to bridge the full width of flood flow and the problem reduces to
what is an acceptable length of bridge.
As a consequence, the road embankment in the approaches to the bridge causes a restriction on
the flow occurring under natural conditions.
Consideration of the increase in velocity and hence scour potential and afflux would be the main
determining factors for the length of a bridge.
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Height of abutments
The height of abutments should be considered in determining the length of a bridge. High
abutments result in large retaining structures and embankments with inherent stability issues both
in terms of the surcharge load to underlying material and the long term structural issues including
rotations and horizontal deflections. Instances have occurred where vertical and horizontal
displacements at high abutments in soft soils has resulted in structural distress to the abutment
and jamming of expansion joints (Figure 7.2).
Source: RTA NSW
Figure 7.2: 12 metre high abutment abutment expansion joint jammed due to horizontal abutment displacement
Bridge height
The bridge height will be influenced by a number of factors being flood height, navigation clearance
and span lengths.
Flood height
For high level bridges the deck level adopted will be above the design flood level. The clearance
from the underside of the superstructure to the flood level (freeboard) should be a minimum of
0.6 1.00 m. However the type, amount and size of debris likely may require an increased free
board depending on local conditions.
Navigation clearance
The height of a bridge may be fixed by the local waterway authority for navigational clearance
requirements. The requirements of the local waterway authority need to be established at the
design concept stage.
Span lengths
In some cases the minimum span lengths may be determined by the size of the debris carried by
the stream. The potential exists for a debris dam to be built up by log lengths greater than the
spans.
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7.1.2
Floodway Design
In some locations with a substantial flood plain the bridge waterway calculations will need to
assess the need for supplementary openings such as additional bridges or culverts. In the case of
where the approaches and the bridge will be submerged the slopes of road approaches will have
to be protected to prevent scouring at the point of over-topping.
7.1.3
Submergence
If for economic or hydraulic reasons a bridge cannot be built above the ultimate design flood level
then it must be designed for submergence.
This requires design considerations in terms of the buoyancy effects on structural stability and
restraint of members. In addition consideration needs to be given to traffic kerbs and barriers to
minimise debris accumulation.
For a submerged bridge the maximum velocity through the waterway occurs at the point of overtopping.
Voided superstructure members should be circumvented for submerged bridges because of the
risk of voids filling with water through drain holes. In the event of the drain hole becoming blocked
the water would remain in the void space after the flood has receded.
For further information see RTA (1990).
7.1.4
Piers
Piers should be designed to minimise the effect on stream flow in terms of constriction and scour.
This can be achieved by shaping the piers and pile caps to promote streamline flow to reduce the
scour potential.
Wall type piers promote streamline flow compared to a number of individual columns and hence
reduce scour effects. However, when variations in direction of flow (angle of attack) occur they will
cause an increased restriction of the flow. Variations in flow direction will also generate
longitudinal stream forces on wall type piers that need to be considered in the design.
Circular columns promote streamline flow compared to rectangular columns and therefore reduce
the scour potential. In addition circular columns have the advantage of the stream flow effects
being independent of the angle of attack of the flow.
7.1.5
Scour
There are three types of scour that occur in streams that have implications for bridges.
Local scour
Local scour is caused by the turbulence that results when water flow is restricted by a pile or pier.
Horseshoe vortices occur at the bottom of the pile as a result of water flowing vertically down the
pile resulting in the development of a scour hole at the streambed.
Scour occurs when the increased energy of the water flow is sufficient to remove stream bed
material. The severity of scour is a function of the increased energy and the physical properties of
the bed material.
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Bridge foundations need to ensure that structural integrity remains when the scour reaches its
maximum depth. In the case of driven friction piles the depth of embedment must be sufficient to
ensure that the load capacity of the pile is not compromised by any future scour (Figure 7.3). If
scour is possible down to the depth of rock driven piles should not be used.
Afflux caused by
restriction
Water level
Pile
Flow in line
with pile
directed
downwards
River bed
Pile
Horseshoe vortices caused

by downward flow scours the
river bed. The depth of scour
depends on material and
stream velocity
Wake vortices caused by

the restriction to flow
also scour the river bed
on the down stream side
Source: D Carter
Figure 7.3: Scour at a pile caused by horseshoe and wake vortices
Contraction Scour
Contraction scour occurs as a result of the reduction of the waterway area by a bridge or some
other constriction. The increase in energy of the restricted velocity is sufficient to remove
streambed material at abutments, piers and road embankments.
Measures to control contraction scour include:
Installation of scour protection mats, gabions, reno mattresses.
Increasing the waterway by adding additional spans to a bridge.
Placing large gravel fill in the scour area to reduce the potential for the stream to continue
scouring the bed. It should be noted that this measure may provide only a temporary
solution. There is the potential for the scour location to shift elsewhere as the fill material will
reduce the waterway area that will result in an additional increase in the restricted velocity.
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Cut-back scour
Cut-back scour occurs when the stream bed is lowered at one location by scour or dredging of the
bed is carried out. This situation results in step in the stream bed gradient. To return to a more
uniform gradient and energy head the stream will cut back the bed upstream and in so doing will
lower the bed level from a maximum at the scour hole or dredging location. If a bridge is located
upstream of a scour hole or dredging location there is a risk that the bed levels at the bridge will be
lowered (Figure 7.4). The implications for a bridge will depend on the depth of scour and the
foundation levels or the pile embedment length.
Bridge
Cut back bed
Original bed
Scour hole or
dredging site
Source: D Carter
Figure 7.4: Cut back scour
Monitoring Scour
Monitoring of bed levels at each pier and abutment location should be a required maintenance
activity.
The bed profile along the length of the bridge and the bed level upstream and downstream at each
pier and abutment should be recorded at the time of construction. This information will provide
base data to monitor long term trends in the stream bed profile (contraction scour) and detect any
changes in bed depth at piers and abutments (local scour).
In one instance the fact that serious scour had occurred was not detected because successive
underwater inspections were comparing the bed profile from the previous inspection and not
comparing them to the as-built bed profile. The changes in bed profile from one inspection to the
next were not considered significant.
At scour prone sites monitoring can be carried out in real time using various electronic devices.
The use of these devices enables long term monitoring to determine long term trends. They also
provide information on bed movements in flood. The change in bed levels in flood conditions is
considered by some hydrologists to be under-estimated.
7.1.6
Minimum Energy Drainage Structures
The principle of a minimum energy drainage structure is to accelerate the stream velocity by
increasing the approach gradient and therefore discharge a greater volume of water through a
smaller opening. They have been used for culverts but are not suitable for bridge openings
because of the potential for scour on the downstream side. As a result of the depressed invert
level siltation can occur which requires maintenance (Figure 7.5).
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Potential for scour

on downside
Silting of invert
requires cleaning
Acceleration of
stream velocity
Source: D Carter
Figure 7.5: Minimum energy drainage structure concept
7.2
Environmental Constraints
A number of environmental considerations should be considered as part of the design. These

include the following:
7.2.1
Noise
Noise considerations, particularly in urban situations, may govern the type and details of bridge
members adopted including:
cast-in place piles instead of driven piles
precast or fabricated steel superstructure members instead of cast-in-place members
minimisation of deck joints to reduce noise emissions
designing for the attachment of noise walls to the superstructure and in the bridge
approaches.
7.2.2
Pollutants, Flora and Fauna
Design details to minimise the disturbance and the potential for pollutants to enter the environment
may include:
minimisation or avoidance of piers in streams by using longer spans and/or strategic

placement of piers
precast or fabricated steel superstructure members instead of cast-in-place members
construction methods that minimise superstructure construction over water and sensitive
land such as incrementally launched, push-out, balanced cantilever and segmental bridges.
7.2.3
Disturbance of Sediments
At some bridge sites in rivers and estuaries, heavy metals and other industrial pollutants may be
present in the bed sediments. Disturbance of these sediments must be avoided to prevent
pollution of existing waterways.
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Environmental protection agencies may apply conditions under which bridgeworks may be carried
out at the site. These may include:
containment using coffer dams
removal of contaminated water
monitoring by testing water samples.
7.2.4
Fisheries
A number of state fishery authorities now have specific requirements that must be addressed as
part of the bridge design. These include the minimisation of the number of piers in streams and
provision of fish runs to allow upstream migration.
7.3
Drainage
With increased awareness of environmental issues the discharging of run-off from bridge decks
into streams is not acceptable in some jurisdictions. To address this, run-off may need to be piped
from the bridge to holding tanks or a settlement pond in the approaches. This can be a practical
solution for small bridges or those constructed on gradients greater than 2%. However, on long
bridges and those on gradients less than 2% the issue becomes problematical and uneconomic.
The main issue to be addressed with this requirement is the need for maintenance crews to be
able to clear the pipes of debris and silt. Provision of a suitable number of access points to purge
the drainage pipes is an important issue.
7.4
Site Constraints and Access
Environmental constraints may require that the bridge construction causes minimal impact to the
environment. This may require the use of a construction method that would not normally be used
for the site. For example balanced cantilever construction may be adopted purely because it would
minimise the disturbance to the areas below the bridge. Instances have occurred where piers
have been constructed from the top down to avoid the necessity for access roads to be
constructed through environmentally sensitive areas.
7.5
Durability
Bridges are a major community asset and the maximum economic benefit occurs when a bridge
has a very long maintenance free life exceeding 100 years. On this basis bridge design is not just
about calculations but must be about ensuring the design service life is achieved.
Therefore bridge design considerations should include the durability aspects of the bridge. These
are covered below in Sections 7.5.1 to 7.5.4.
7.5.1
Marine and Salt Rich Environments
For bridges in marine and salt rich environments, special design considerations should include the
following:
The requirements in Clause 4.3 of AS 5100.5 in regard to exposure classification.
Consideration of the selective use of stainless steel reinforcing steel in marine and salt rich
environments.
The use of corrosion inhibitors in the concrete.
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The use of concrete mixes with supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash and
silica fume. The properties of these materials vary with the source of coal used in a
particular power station. Each source must undergo testing to establish compliance with
relevant standards and specifications.
Special requirements to delay the exposure of new concrete surfaces to salt water or salt
spray for as long as possible to allow the pore structure to close up.
The installation of a cathodic prevention system at the time of construction.
The application of concrete surface treatments to reduce the ingress of moisture into
concrete.
The use of stainless steel fitments for bearings, traffic barriers and attachments.
Cathodic protection to exposed steel members.
The use of stainless steel in steel bearings.
The requirement to wash down carbon steel reinforcing steel and formwork with potable
water immediately prior to pouring concrete.
7.5.2
Piles
The durability considerations for piles should include:
allowances for loss of section in steel piles over the service life
application of protective coatings to steel piles
encasement of steel piles in concrete in the upper areas of highest exposure
the use of sulphate resisting cement and high strength impermeable concrete mixes in acid
sulphate soils.
7.5.3
Concrete and Concreting
The designer should consider special measures to increase the durability of concrete related to the
material and construction process.
Cold weather concreting
the use of air entraining agents in concrete exposed to freeze-thaw conditions
specific requirements in regard to protecting new concrete from frost damage in specific
locations.
Further information is available from the RTA, NSW Guidelines on Cold Weather Concreting for
Bridge Works (RTA n.d.).
Hot weather concreting
Notwithstanding the limitations placed on pouring concrete in hot weather, other measures can be
taken to enhance the long term durability including:
cooling of aggregates by spraying stockpiles with water
the use of chilled mixing water
provision of shade to concrete surfaces
cooling of formwork by water spray
the use of aliphatic alcohol to reduce evaporation.
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For further information, see CIA (1989).

7.5.4
Concrete and Concreting Issues
Concreting must be done with great caution. If it is not done properly it will limit the facility of the
bridge and will result in a loss of structural strength and durability leading to increased
maintenance costs and reduced service life. Instances have occurred where bridge decks have
had to be replaced after 10-15 years service due to poor construction practices.
In certain circumstances it may be appropriate to include the following in the contract documents:
Placement and compaction of concrete training of the contractors staff is to be conducted by

a suitably qualified person nominated by the superintendent.
Requirement that the contractors construction staff carry out a trial slab pour on ground to
demonstrate that they have the necessary skills to pour a bridge deck.
Insulating concrete decks for seven days to control cracking by limiting differential shrinkage
and thermal strains between the upper and lower surfaces.
Sealing of bridge decks with a waterproof membrane prior to the application of a flush seal or
asphaltic concrete.
Specific mix requirements to address the alkali aggregate reaction (AAR) in available
aggregates if not covered by specifications.
Addressing the flotation of large voids on planks, trough and box girders and voided slabs.
This may dominate the design and detailing of the member as the voids cannot be restrained
by the reinforcement or formwork. The restraint against flotation must be provided by the
falsework or a secondary support system.
7.6
Protection
The durability of a concrete bridge can be enhanced by measures to protect the concrete from the
ingress of chemical agents including:
proper curing measures
the use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in the concrete mix
application of waterproof membranes
the use of corrosion inhibiting admixtures in the concrete mix
the installation of a cathodic protection system at the time of construction to protect the
reinforcing steel.
See Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology Part 2 Materials, Clause 5.2 for details of these
measures and materials.
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GEOTECHNICAL
8.1
Foundation Type and Geology
The foundation type used needs to match the geology of the bridge site. The followings factors will
influence the foundation type adopted:
depth to rock spread footings or piled
type and size of overburden material gravel or boulders whether driven piles or
cast-in-place piles required
potential for settlement
rock strength
presence of thin hard layers that need to be penetrated may require steel H piles
whether the overburden material is scour prone.
A progressive review should be carried out as foundation information comes to hand to assess the
need for changes in methodology or extent, e.g. the need for additional bore holes.
To account for the comprehensiveness of the geotechnical investigation, the type and importance
of the structure, implications of failure, construction related issues and possible load variations,
AS 5100.3 (2007) (Appendix A) includes a geotechnical strength reduction factor g.
8.2
Investigations
8.2.1
Preliminary Geotechnical Investigations
The general geological classification of the area at the site should be obtained prior to finalising the
details of the geotechnical investigation. This will give an indication of the type of material likely to
be encountered at the site. The number and location of test bores may be influenced by the local
geology. A site inspection is recommended as part of the initial investigation to observe the
following:
type of soil in the overburden
presence of rock outcrops in the bed
presence of boulders in the banks and bed
geological profile in adjacent road cuttings
size of alluvium
scour at the existing bridge
signs of instability in rock faces at proposed pier footing locations
presence of large logs in the stream that may indicate the risk of impediments to the
construction depending on the foundation type.
8.2.2
Geotechnical Strategy and Geology
Location of bores
Where only one test bore is planned at each pier and abutment, staggering the bore locations from
upstream to downstream will assist in providing information at the dip of stratum.
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Test pits
The excavation of test pits at the bridge sites may provide additional information on the site
geology.
Variable geology
The potential for variability in the geological profile must be considered when interpreting test
bores.
For example, the construction of piled or spread footings in granite country has the potential to
cause major contractual issues because of the highly variable geological profile. The weathering
pattern of granite often results in the formation of large boulders surrounded by areas of highly
weathered material that can extend to considerable depth (Figure 8.1). As a consequence test
bores only two to three metres apart may encounter weathered granite in one and fresh granite in
the other. Instances have occurred where piles in one pier have obtained capacity at shallow
depths while piles immediately adjacent have had to be extended to obtain capacity at depth. The
bedrock profile of granite can also be highly variable over relatively short distances. Where this
occurs and spread footings are used extensive excavation of extremely strong rock will be
required.
When fresh granite is encountered the test bore needs to be taken to sufficient depth to determine
if it is a boulder and if so how large.
In sedimentary rocks the implications of the spacing and orientation of joints has to be considered.
In addition, if the joints contain clayey materials the structural implications may be significant.
Instances have been encountered in sedimentary rocks where in some areas the bedding planes
have been rotated vertically resulting in decomposition and a highly variable geological profile.
Joint and weathering
profile
Boulders inter interspersed in the weathered material
Source: D Carter
Figure 8.1: Weathering profile of granite
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It is recommended that in granite country test bores be taken at the final position of each pile. In
the case of spread footings it is recommended bores be taken at each corner and at the centre of
the footing. These recommendations may mean that a second geotechnical investigation be
undertaken once the design details of the foundations have been finalised. The additional cost
involved in this strategy will be small compared to the potential claims that may be made by the
contractor in the event of dramatic variations in the site geology compared to the information
provided by the principal.
8.3
Investigation Methods
8.3.1
Site Investigation Methods
Preliminary techniques
Sources of information include:
aerial photographs recognition of features such as landslips, fault zones, folds, old cut-off
meanders with different material
geological maps for information on troublesome sites such as basalt surface flows, granite
areas
geophysical methods seismic refraction to provide estimates of subsurface profiles,

resistivity to delineate rocks and soils.
Direct methods
Test pits
Generally used in materials that do not require support. Generally up to 3 m deep but may be
deeper. The test pit provides a soil profile and shows any seepage zones and zones of weak rock
that would not be recovered by core sampling.
Borings
Borings refer to geotechnical investigations carried out by using a number of methods to provide
information on geotechnical profile for design and construction. Methods used to carry out borings
include:
Augers these consist of lengths of spirally fluted steel tube that can be extended to the
required length. The soil sample obtained is classified as a disturbed sample as material
from different depths is likely to be mixed together.
Percussion drill where the overburden includes rock fragments or cobblestones that would
jamb an auger or coring bit, a percussion drill is used which has the ability to break up the
rock material. Sampling of the material is recovered using a sampling tube.
Core drilling this is the most common form of material sampling used in bridge
construction. The method involves the use of a casing tube and a sampling tube in which a
51 mm core sample is held. The sample is classified as undisturbed.
In weak seams or clay bands the sample may be lost due to the action of the circulation of
water used to lubricate the diamond cutting head. This is referred to as core loss as should
be indicated in the core sample box. In some instances the location of the core loss may be
unknown.
Standard penetration test (SPT)

SPT testing is the most common form of material testing used in bore holes.
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It usually applied to cohesionless soils but is also a valuable tool in cohesive soils for preliminary
site investigations.
The penetration tool is a thick walled sampler 50 mm OD and 34 ID. The sampler is attached to
the bottom of driving rods of specified stiffness and driven 450 mm into the soil at the bottom of the
bore hole with a 63.5 kg mass free falling 750 mm.
The number of blows in the last 300 mm of driving is recorded as the standard penetration number
(N) the first 150 mm is considered to be a seating drive.
After withdrawal from the borehole the tube is split and the sample examined for laminations or
other structural features. The sample can be sealed in a plastic bag as a moisture content sample.
The relationship between SPT N value and the properties of cohesionless soils have been
established and include:
relative density
approximate angle of internal friction
bearing capacity
consistency.
The relationship between SPT N value and the properties of cohesive soils have been also been
established and include:
unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
consistency.
Empirical relationships have also been developed for SPT N values and pile driving.
piles with a serviceability load capacity of up to approximately 300 kN can be driven through
material with an N value of 20
piles with a serviceability load capacity of up to approximately 600 kN can be driven through
material with an N value > 30.
These figures are to give an indication only of the feasibility of driving through particular materials.
Note: It is very important to select a pile capacity, and hence the required driving energy, that can
be driven to the minimum pile penetration so that it can still carry the load in the event of future
possible scour.
The decision on the type of pile to be driven will depend on specific geological features such as
hard layers, the presence of boulders, the possibility of reaching bedrock, potential for settlement
and anticipated depth of scour.
A steel rod with a conical tip (apex angle 60 and 35.7 mm (originally an imperial dimension)
diameter) is pushed into the soil at a rate of 2 cm/s. The steel rod has the same diameter as the
cone. The penetration resistance at the tip and along a section of the shaft (friction) is measured
via transducers. The friction sleeve is located immediately above the cone and has a surface area
of 150 cm2. Different types of mechanical and electrical cone penetrometers exist but the electrical
cone is most widely used.
Austroads 2009
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The CPT can be used to measure pore water pressure and vibrations. CPT is less operator
dependent than the SPT thus giving more reproducible results. Geotechnical literature contains
comprehensive information about different types of cone penetration tests (Lunn et al.1997).
8.4
Specific Issues
8.4.1
Soft Soils
Soft soils present particular issues in terms of bridge design and include:
draw-down loads (negative friction) to piles as a result of soil consolidation
lateral loads to abutment piles and abutment rotations caused by horizontal soil movements
as a result of surcharge loads from road embankments
the lengthening of the bridge to reduce the height of abutments and avoid potential instability
problems
degree of lateral stability provided to driven piles. Instances have occurred where piles driven
on a rake have subsequently moved laterally in soft soils
prediction of settlement
down-hole soil testing.
8.4.2
Black Soils
Piles driven in dry black soil need to be driven to sufficient depth to ensure the required load
capacity will be available when the soil is in a saturated state.
To cover this situation a minimum pile penetration should be stated on the drawings. Instances
have occurred where piles driven in the dry that have obtained the required driving resistance have
subsequently settled in when the soil became saturated in flood conditions.
8.4.3
Soil and Ground Water Aggressivity (RTA Guideline Acid Sulphate Soils)
Samples of soil and ground water should be tested for the following:
pH
sulphates (the use of agricultural fertilisers can result in high concentrations within streams)
chlorides (high concentrations can occur in non-marine environments).
The potential for deterioration of concrete depends on the level of concentration of any one of the
above.
Based on the results of testing, specific requirements may be needed under the exposure
classification including:
the use of sulphate resisting cement
the use of blended cements using supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash and
silica fume.
For additional information see Section 4 of Austroads (2009a).
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8.4.4
Pile Relaxation in Fine Sands
In fine sands the potential exists for driven piles to undergo a significant relaxation of the driving
resistance over 12 - 24 hours. This relaxation phenomenon occurs as a result of the build-up of
pore pressure that results in a false driving resistance. The apparent driving resistance dissipates
with time.
The problem of pile relaxation can be overcome by requiring that all piles be re-driven after
12 - 24 hours.
8.4.5
Height of Abutments
As mentioned in Section 4.4.1 the height of abutments is an issue in soft soils. The stability and
implications of possible long term horizontal and vertical deflections of the abutment need to be
assessed.
8.4.6
Skew Abutments
Skew abutments present particular problems in that deflections occur normal to the abutment. The
stiffness of a skewed abutment normal to its front face is significantly less than the stiffness along
the centre line of the bridge. This situation can also result in rotation of the adjacent span around a
vertical axis resulting in distress to bearing fixtures and expansion joints. The performance of
expansion joints can be compromised by excessive abutment deflections. It is recommended
circular elastomeric bearings be used on skew bridges to ensure the bearing has uniform
characteristics in all directions (see also Section 5.10). Refer also to Section 12.3 of the Guide to
Bridge Technology, Austroads (2009b).
8.4.7
Sensitivity of Design to Changes in Site Conditions
The designer should assess the impact on the design of changes in site conditions.
These may include:
differential settlement of supports
changes in soil or rock stiffness e.g. in the case of soil interaction structures (arches), high
foundation stiffness may result in changes to the soil pressure distribution if active pressure
is not activated by small movements of the arch supports
piles driven out of position
changes in spread footing contract levels
changes in pile toe contract levels
differential backfill heights at abutments.
In a number of the above examples the designer should determine, as part of the design, the limits
to changes that can be tolerated without the need for a redesign.
8.5
Geotechnical Investigations
8.5.1
Geotechnical Investigations Design and Construct Contracts
Geotechnical information has generally been carried out primarily for design purposes. This
information has then been passed on to contractors to use in the construction phase.
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However, the geotechnical investigation should be viewed for two separate purposes; design and
construction. On completion of the design the geotechnical information available needs to be
thoroughly reviewed in light of the final design from a contractors viewpoint and may include
consideration of:
proximity of bores to final pile and footing positions
additional geotechnical information on the material overlying rock for excavation method or
pile driving issues
sufficiency of the number of bore holes
soil properties of overburden material.
In some instances, the geotechnical information obtained for design may be considered sufficient
for construction. However, additional information may reduce the contractors risk and hence the
contract price and the potential for contractual claims.
8.5.2
Presentation of Geotechnical Information
The procedure adopted by the RTA, NSW is to compile all geotechnical information into a booklet
and make it available to tenderers.
The geotechnical information does form part of the contract but is information the principal has
used to carry the design that is passed on to the contractor for use in the construction phase of the
project.
The booklet may include historical information from previous geotechnical investigations, and as
much interpretive information as possible. It may also draw attention to particular matters e.g.
limitations of the investigation carried out.
The booklet may also include particular conclusions gained through the investigation that may be
of significance to tenderers. It is considered in the principals best interest, from a contractual point
of view, to reveal, rather than hold back, relevant information, conclusions and important site
issues.
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FOUNDATION SELECTION
9.1
Footings, Abutments and Piers
9.1.1
Spread Footings
Provided rock or other suitable material is within a reasonable depth and permanent water is not a
problem, spread footings are the simplest and most satisfactory foundations. With the cost of
shoring, pumping, access and removal of material, increasing with depth, it is necessary to make
an economical comparison between spread footings and bored piles when the depth to rock
exceeds three metres.
9.2
Piles
Source: RTA NSW
Figure 9.1: Pile driving with hydraulic hammer
At sites where rock is at a considerable depth and the material above is reasonably free of
boulders the usual solution is friction piles. The types of piles to be used include:
9.2.1
Reinforced Concrete
These can be friction or end bearing piles depending on the soil conditions. Splicing can be
carried out using in-house designs or proprietary systems. The use of a proprietary pile splicing
system should only occur after the manufacturer provides research and testing information to
demonstrate that the system meets all design requirements and driving loads (Figure 9.1). This
includes the moment capacity of the splice compared to the reinforced concrete section. Instances
have occurred where testing carried out on a splice for a particular sized pile was erroneously
extrapolated to larger sizes. Splices may need to be located below the point of pile fixity i.e. not
subjected to bending moments.
9.2.2
Prestressed Concrete
These can be friction or end bearing piles depending on the soil conditions. In soft soils caution
must be exercised to limit the initial driving energy to avoid cracking due to reflected tension waves
running back up the pile. Splicing can be carried out using in-house designs. The use of
proprietary splicing systems with prestressed concrete piles is not practical. However, a steel
collar has been used to couple a lower reinforced concrete pile to an upper section of prestressed
concrete pile using epoxy adhesives.
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9.2.3
Steel H Piles
These piles are normally driven to rock. The toe of the pile is stiffened to avoid buckling under
driving loads. Care must be taken to avoid overdriving as considerable damage can result both at
the toe and the head. Steel H piles can be easily spliced by welding or bolting.
Steel H piles are also ideal for penetrating thin hard layers in the stratum to enable the piles to be
founded on rock or other suitable material.
9.2.4
Composite Steel and Prestressed Concrete Piles
Composite steel and prestressed concrete piles (steel H pile in the lower section and prestressed
concrete in the upper section) are ideally suited to the situation where the founding level is below a
thin hard stratum. The steel H section (Figure 9.2) and (Figure 9.3) is able to punch through the
hard stratum where as a prestressed concrete pile may be damaged by the driving stresses under
the same conditions. The prestressed concrete pile section provides a higher moment capacity in
the upper part of the pile to resist lateral loads compared to a steel H pile.
The steel H pile is driven first and then spliced via welding to a section of H pile cast into the lower
end of the concrete pile. The concrete pile must be designed to withstand the driving and resulting
bursting stress forces from the embedment of the steel section. The splice must be located below
the point of maximum bending. The aggressivity of the ground water and soil must be assessed in
regard to corrosion of the steel pile.
Source: RTA NSW
Figure 9.2: Prestressed concrete pile with Steel H pile section
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Source: RTA NSW
Figure 9.3: Prestressed concrete piles with steel stubs
9.2.5
Steel H Piles Corrosion
In situations where corrosion of the pile is likely to occur, allowance for loss of section over the
design life is taken into account. In situations of higher corrosion risk, protective coatings can be
applied or alternatively the steel pile can be spliced to a concrete pile in the upper region of the
pile. Instances have occurred where steel H piles have been severely corroded by sulphur
producing bacteria after a relatively short service life.
The encasement of the upper region of the pile in reinforced concrete is also an option for
corrosion protection especially where piles are driven through disturbed fill that may permit the flow
of oxygenated water.
9.2.6
Cast-in-Place Piles
Cast-in-place piles (bored piles) are normally drilled to rock level or socketed into rock to increase
their capacity (Figure 9.4). Diameters range up to 1.5 2.0 m. The smaller sizes are commonly
used where rock is below the depth where spread footings would be economical but there is
insufficient material above the rock for driven piles.
Cast-in-place piles provide a suitable solution to foundations where boulders prevent the use of
driven piles. Suitable percussion drilling equipment can be used down the pile line to break up the
boulders.
The pile construction method can be:
Uncased
The pile can be uncased if the material is suitable. Uncased piles should be used with caution as
the potential for increased project costs and contractual disputes is high in the event of the material
being found unsuitable for the method. This situation may lead to the need to revert to the use of
casing requiring additional materials and plant.
Temporary or permanently cased
When the material requires support the options available are to temporary case or permanently
case the pile. The casing is driven to rock and the pile constructed. The casing can then either be
removed or remain in place.
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The experience of some road authorities has led to generally specifying permanent casing
because of the increased project costs from contractual variations and disputes where the option
for either temporary or permanent casing has been included in the contract documents. Where the
option for temporary casing or permanent casing has been included, the direction to use one or the
other has been given by the superintendent. Variations in material properties over a site can lead
to issues in installing and removing temporary casing and claims for additional costs by the
contractor.
The use of permanent casing is generally preferred for integrity and durability reasons. There is
also a significant risk that extracting the temporary casing will disturb the cover concrete and allow
soil and corrosive salts to come in contact with the reinforcing steel.
Cast-in-place pile with

permanent casing to rock
Overburden
Socket length
Founding material
Source: D Carter
Figure 9.4: Cast-in-place pile
9.2.7
Open-ended Tubular Piles in Dense Sands
In dense sands the option of using open-ended tubular piles should be considered. Open-ended
tubular piles provide a low displacement friction pile with relatively high surface area. The
formation of a sand plug at the toe of the pile also provides additional bearing capacity. Where
open tubular piles are used the top section to the point of fixity is designed as a reinforced concrete
pile. The steel tube is not considered as contributing to the structural capacity and is classified as
sacrificial material.
9.2.8
Proprietary Piling Systems
A number of proprietary pile systems have been used for bridge construction and include:
bulbed toe type piles
vibratory methods of installation
grouted injected piles
barrettes.
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9.3
Pile Driving
Where the use of driven piles is indicated, the geotechnical information should be carefully
assessed to ensure that driven piles are a feasible option. Where large cobbles and boulders are
present the use of driven piles may be problematic and the use of cast-in-place piles is considered
more suitable. In such instances steel casings can be driven to refusal and then suitable
equipment used to break up the boulders or cobbles to allow the driving of the casing to continue.
In black soil country preboring is required to ensure the minimum pile penetration is achieved. In
the dry condition black soils produce high load resistance which diminishes dramatically when
saturated.
Driven piles are driven with a nominated maximum driving energy using a pile driver to develop
sufficient resistance to sustain the applied loads with an adequate factor of safety. The designer
must specify the ultimate axial loads and moments in the piles on the drawings.
9.3.1
Historical
In the past pile driving parameters were calculated using the Hiley formula. For a specific driving
energy (hammer mass and drop height) and the physical features of the pile, the penetration per
blow of the pile (set) could be calculated that would represent that the required ultimate pile
resistance had been achieved.
This method has now been surpassed by dynamic pile testing which is a more accurate method
that measures energy, using Wave Equation Analysis (WAE).
9.3.2
Dynamic Pile Testing
Dynamic pile testing involves driving a test pile to establish the driving parameters to obtain the
specified ultimate pile resistance.
On site pile strains and accelerations are measured and input into a pile driving analyser (PDA) to
obtain an instantaneous pile estimated resistance (Figure 9.5 and Figure 9.6). The pile driving
information is subsequently used to calibrate a computer model (CAPWAP Case Pile Wave
Analysis Program) of the pile to replicate the field data to provide an accurate relationship between
ultimate load, driving energy and pile set (the pile penetration that indicates the required ultimate
pile resistance has been achieved).
The results of the dynamic testing are used to drive all other piles at the site provided the site
geology is uniform. The same equipment, and driving energy and set must be used on all other
piles.
Dynamic pile testing can also predict long term settlement. However, in the case of cohesive soils
static load testing should be used to predict long term settlement.
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Source: RTA NSW
Figure 9.5: Pile driving analyser equipment
Source: RTA NSW
Figure 9.6: Pile instrumented with strain reducer
9.3.3
Pile Driving Issues
There are a number of issues that need to be considered in driving piles including:
The use of packing on the top of the pile to ensure the efficient transfer of the energy of the
hammer into the pile.
The risk of damage to the head of the pile if the packing becomes ineffective (Figure 9.7).
The need to ensure the required height of drop of the hammer is consistently achieved.
Decreased drop height will result in lower driving energy and false set readings.
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The high risk of damage to the toe and head of the pile as a result of continuing to drive to
achieve the required depth even though the specified set has been achieved.
In soft soils the driving energy must be gradually increased as the pile resistance is
developed. Driving with the full energy from the start of driving has the potential to cause
cracking in the pile due to the compression wave being reflecting as a tension wave.
Source for both Figures: RTA NSW
Figure 9.7: Pile damage due to overdriving
9.4
Scour Susceptibility
Where either piled or spread footings are selected the site needs to be assessed for scour
susceptibility. Factors to consider include:
Evidence of local scour around the foundations of an existing bridge
Evidence of bank scour as a result of turbulent flow adjacent to abutments
Examination of bore logs to assess the alluvium particle sizes in terms of the anticipated
restricted velocity through the bridge
Examination of bore logs to determine changes in the alluvium size that may indicate scour
depths
Examination of bore logs to determine marked change in SPT values that may indicate scour
depths
Assessing the situation downstream of the bridge for cutback scour
Depth to rock and potential scour depth in alluvium if driven piles are to be used
Historic changes in position of channels. Instances have occurred where piles away from an
existing channel have been driven to a higher level than those in the channel. Subsequent
channel movements have compromised the integrity of those piles necessitating major
additional underpinning works.
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For additional information on scour see Section 7.1.5.
9.5
Damage to Adjacent Properties
There is a potential for damage of adjacent structures from ground vibrations caused by piling
operations. For further information, see New (1986).
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10
CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
10.1
Construction Form
10.1.1
Cast-in-situ Concrete
The option to use cast-in-situ construction depends on the bridge type involved. For a single short
span bridge it would be more economical to use cast-in-situ construction compared to precasting a
small number of members. However, a prestressed concrete voided slab bridge can only be
constructed as cast-in-situ. A prestressed concrete box girder can be constructed precast or castin-situ. The decision on the construction method to adopt will depend on site-specific
requirements/constraints including:
access
construction area
location
height of construction
haulage distance
availability of concrete supply
construction over water or land.
The types of bridges suitable for cast-in-situ construction include:
reinforced and prestressed concrete slab (Figure 10.1)
reinforced concrete T-beam (not commonly used now, Figure 10.2 and Figure 10.3)
prestressed concrete box girder (segmental or span by span with internal or external
tendons, Figure 10.4)
prestressed concrete voided slab (Figure 10.5).
Source: RTA, NSW
Figure 10.1: Reinforced concrete slab
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Source: D Carter
Figure 10.2: T-beam
Source: RTA, NSW
Figure 10.3: Reinforced concrete T-beam
Source: D Carter
Figure 10.4: Prestressed concrete box girder
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Source: D Carter
Figure 10.5: Prestressed concrete voided slab
10.1.2
Precast Prestressed Concrete Members
Prestressed concrete members are ideally suited to precasting. The advantages of precasting
include:
the production of members can occur concurrently with other site works to reduce the
construction time compared to cast-in-situ construction
the members are produced under factory conditions which is based on a daily cycle with 80%
of the 28 day strength achieved overnight by steam curing
the large number of members typically produced leads to economies of scale and increased
production efficiencies
standardisation of cross sections allows the cost of the formwork to be written of over a
number of projects.
The types of members suitable for precasting include:
planks (Figure 10.6)
I girders (Figure 10.6 and Figure 10.7)
trough girders (Figure 10.6 and Figure 10.8).
Voided plank
l-girder
Trough girder
Source: D Carter
Figure 10.6: Prestressed precast members
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Source: RTA NSW
Figure 10.7: I-girders
Source: RTA NSW
Figure 10.8: Trough girders with cast in situ deck
10.1.3
Steel Members
The type of steel members used is related to the type and span of the bridge. For short span road
and pedestrian bridges, rolled sections, such as universal beams, can be used (Figure 10.9).
For longer spans, welded plate girders that are fabricated from individual web and flange plate are
used (Figure 10.10). Steel box girders can be used for pedestrian bridges through to major long
span bridges (Figure 10.11). Long span steel box girders may be in the form of beam spans or as
part of a cable stayed or suspension bridge system (Figure 10.12).
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Source: D Carter
Figure 10.9: Rolled steel universal beam
Source: D Carter
Figure 10.10: Welded plate girder
Source: D Carter
Figure 10.11: Steel box girder
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Source: RTA NSW
Figure 10.12: Steel box girders
10.1.4
Precast Prestressed Segmental Construction
Precast prestressed segmental construction is used for a number of bridge types. The segments
can either be precast in a factory remote from the site or in a purpose built on-site facility. The
segments are usually matched cast to the adjacent segment to ensure full contact at the interface
between the segments.
The advantages of precast construction are set out in Section 10.1.2.
The types of bridges suitable for precast prestressed segmental construction include:
balanced cantilever
cable stayed
span by span construction (segments placed in position by supporting them from above or
below, Figure 10.13).
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Precast segments
A
Supporting truss
Precast segments
Supporting truss
Section A - A
Source: D Carter
Figure 10.13: Span-by-span construction segments supported by truss
10.2
Construction Method
10.2.1
Incrementally Launched
The principal of incrementally launched bridges consists of building the segments in a casting area
located behind one of the abutments. Each segment is matched cast to the previous one and
stressed to the section of superstructure already completed. The entire superstructure is then
jacked forward the length of one segment and the process repeated (Figure 10.14 and
Figure 10.15.
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The advantages of incrementally launched bridges include:
No falsework is required over the length of the bridge which makes the method ideally suited
to bridges with high piers, over deep water, over roads and railways.
Most of the construction activity takes place in one location which means the process
replicates precast factory conditions with inherent advantages.
Production is based on a weekly cycle of launching.
The specialised equipment including launching nose, launching jacks, conventional jacks and
guides are adaptable for re-use on other projects.
For further information, see Department of Main Roads (1986).
Source: DMR, NSW (1976)
Figure 10.14: Incrementally launching construction process
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Source: RTA NSW
Figure 10.15: Incrementally launched bridge
10.2.2
Push-out Construction
Push-out construction is similar to an incrementally launched bridge but in this case the completed
bridge is launched in one operation:
prestressed or steel members full length of bridge constructed on approach and pushed out
into position
minimum site disturbance
obviates the need for superstructure construction over water, land or roadway underneath
segments built under factory conditions
requires substantial working area depending on the length of the bridge
generally more suited to straight bridges.
10.2.3
Balanced Cantilever
Balanced cantilever construction is a form of segmental construction. Segments are cast and
stressed to alternating sides of each of two piers columns (dead loads being continually balanced
with each pour) (Figure 10.16 and Figure 10.17). The process is continued until the cantilevers in
the centre span are close enough to pour a closing segment to make the cantilevers at each pier
one continuous girder. Continuity of the superstructure is achieved when adjacent cantilevers
meet and continuity prestressing installed after the closing pour. This form of construction is
generally used on sites with spans in excess of about 80 m.
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The advantages of balanced cantilever construction include:
to bridges with high piers, spanning over deep water, over roads and railways. In some
designs a temporary tower is placed adjacent to each pier to provide stability in the
cantilevering phase.
The segments are matched cast-in-situ using travelling formwork at the end of each
cantilever. The formwork moves along each cantilever and is adjustable to provide for the
variations in the depth of the segments.
The method is ideal for lower bridges where access underneath is limited or area needs to
be kept clear for river or road traffic.
Source: RTA NSW
Figure 10.16: Mooney Mooney balanced cantilever bridge nearing completion
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1.
Construct piers and pier head then segment 1, stress segment 1 to pier head.
2.
Construct segment 2, stress segment 2 to pier head.
3.
Construct successive segments alternating each side of pier, stressing each time.
4.
Construct remaining segments. Pour centre closing segment. Pour segments to abutments on falsework. Install continuity
tendons and stress to result in a continuous superstructure from the two cantilevers sections.
Source: D Carter
Figure 10.17: Construction steps of balanced cantilever bridge
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10.2.4
Cable Stayed
Cable stayed bridges are used over a range of spans and bridge types from pedestrian bridges
with spans 30 40 metres and major bridges in excess of 200 metre spans. The superstructure
can be constructed from prestressed concrete or steel.
Deck construction can be cantilevered from piers using the cable stays similar to balanced
cantilevering (Figure 10.18 (1)). The cables are progressively installed as the segments are
poured and stressed to the cantilevered sections (Figure 10.18 (2)).
Stay cables can be designed in single plane at the bridge centre or on each side of the bridge. The
cables can be parallel or radiate from the top of the towers.
Advantages of cable- stayed construction include:
to bridges with high piers, spanning over deep water, over roads and railways.
Concrete segments are match cast in-situ using travelling formwork at the end of each
cantilever. The formwork moves along each cantilever and is adjustable to provide for the
variations in the depth of the segments.
For steel bridges plate or box girders can be used.
Reduced superstructure depth as the main members only span between stay cables.
Large spans are possible.
Aesthetically appealing (Figure 10.19).
Versatility of the construction method using concrete or steel.
Versatility of the arrangement and type of stay cables.
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1.
Constructed pier towers. Construct successive segments alternating each side of pier, stressing each time. Attach stay
cables. Repeat process.
2.
Construct remaining segments and attach stay cables. Pour centre closing segment and stress. Pour segments at
abutments.
Source: D Carter
Figure 10.18: Cable stayed bridge construction using balanced cantilever method
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Source: RTA NSW
Figure 10.19: Anzac Bridge
10.2.5
Suspension
Suspension bridges are generally used where span lengths are beyond the limit for cable stayed
bridges.
10.2.6
Stage Construction
Staged construction may be required to accommodate a number of specific site constraints

imposed by maintaining the existing conditions.
These may include the following:
The requirement to maintain the existing traffic flow. This may involve traffic shifts through
falsework in the case of cast-in-situ superstructures such as box girders and voided slabs.
The need to construct the bridge in two halves to enable the existing alignment to be
maintained.
The need to construct two separate bridges rather than two integral halves to maintain
existing traffic flows.
The need to avoid major utilities or to allow utility adjustments as the works progress.
10.2.7
Superstructure Types and Construction Method
Table 10.1 sets out the construction methods possible for various superstructures.
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Table 10.1: Construction methods of superstructure types

Superstructure
type
Construction method
Cast-in-situ/On site fabrication
Falsework
Balanced
cantilever
Push-out
Precast/Prefabricated
Incrementally
launched
Craneage
Concrete slabs
Falsework
Balanced
cantilever
Pushout
Incrementally
launched
Prestressed
concrete planks
Prestressed
concrete I & trough
girders
Prestressed
concrete
voided slab
Prestressed
concrete
box girder
Steel beams
& welded girders
with concrete deck
Steel box girder with
concrete deck
Steel box girder

pedestrian bridge
10.3
Launching
truss
Concrete Construction in Marine Environments
Concrete construction in marine environments must be focused on protecting the concrete from
ingress of chloride ions. Measures to protect the concrete include:
Exposing the concrete to salt water should be delayed as long as possible. The longer the
delay the more mature the concrete becomes and as a result develops a more increased
resistance to the diffusion of chlorides.
The use of precast concrete permanent formwork on pile cap construction is recommended.
It reduces the construction issues in tidal areas by providing formwork that can be sealed to
prevent ingress of salt water. It also protects the immature concrete on the external faces
from exposure to salt water.
The level of construction joints in piers should be above high tide level.
It should be noted that information on tide levels from tide charts should be corrected for the
location of the bridge site. Instances have occurred where immature concrete has been
exposed to salt water as the tide level at the site differed from the tide chart at a different
location.
10.3.1
Steel Pipe Culverts
The use of steel pipe culverts raises durability issues in terms of corrosion of the steel. The
aggressivity of the ground water and soil must be assessed to determine the effect on the service
life of the culvert. In certain circumstances steel pipe culverts may only have a service life of
20 years.
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The other durability issue with steel pipe culverts is the fact that water can lie in the culvert for
extensive periods of time. This fact will lead to the breakdown of the protective coating resulting in
corrosion of the pipe invert.
Any proposal to use steel pipe culverts should include a careful assessment of the long term
maintenance implications and risks.
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11
DESIGN FOR CONSTRUCTION
11.1
Special Cases
The design considerations may be influenced by unique constraints of the site including:
location
environment
presence and location of public utilities
height restrictions on the bridge
height restrictions on equipment
navigational clearances
matching pier locations with those of an existing bridge
superstructure depth restrictions to match an existing bridge.
Any one constraint may force the designer of the bridge to suit the construction method and type of
bridge to be adopted.
11.2
Specific Site Constraints
Site constraints may include:
the size of the working area
site access for plant and materials to the working area
the proximity of adjacent structures and potential to disturb existing foundations
the potential for damage of adjacent structures from ground vibrations caused by piling
operations (New 1986).
11.3
Location
Location issues may include:
Condition and standard of access roads leading to the site.

The horizontal alignment of roads may limit the maximum length of precast elements.
Haul distance for transport of materials, especially concrete.

Remoteness of the site may lead to the use of precast elements in the substructure and
superstructure.
The existence and location and the cost of possible relocation of public utilities.
Material availability such as location of concrete plants.
Considerations in terms of special materials suitable for the environmental exposure

conditions e.g. the use of stainless steel reinforcement and stainless steel fitments.
The effect of geographical location in terms of special requirements to address likely weather
conditions e.g. cold or hot weather.
Austroads 2009
68
11.4
Physical Location
The physical location and physical details will have a major impact on the type of bridge,
foundation type and method of construction. These include:
deep water may force the use of cast-in-place piles or the need to splice precast concrete
piles
presence of shipping lanes in regard to impact loads, protection measures, clearances
height of piers may force the adoption of balanced cantilever or incrementally launched
construction or the use of trusses for the temporary support of the superstructure
wave action in sites close to the coastline.
11.5
Choice of Bridge Type
The decision on bridge type adopted for a site will be influenced by all the design considerations
set out above.
The designer must reach a balance in the choice of bridge type to try and arrive at the optimum
solution that takes into account all the design considerations while at the same time addressing the
clients requirements. The designer may have limited choices of the bridge type because of the
constraints that exist for a particular site. The overall design considerations include:
structural form and method of construction
aesthetics
cost
loads
location
traffic
serviceability requirements
site requirements and constraints
environmental
geotechnical
replacement of bearings.
Austroads 2009
69
12
DESIGN FOR MAINTAINABILITY
12.1
Maintenance Schedule
A maintenance schedule should be prepared for each bridge to highlight specific maintenance
requirements and be listed on the front sheet of the drawings.
12.2
Access for Inspection (stairs, ladders, hatches, anchorage points)
On major bridges the design should include the provision of access gantries for future
maintenance. On smaller bridges the installation of support points to support future maintenance
activities such as repainting should be considered. Other access requirements include:
stairways to access locations and on batter slopes
ladders
hatchways to provide access and prevent unauthorised entry
anchorage points for an inspection scaffold.
12.3
Access for Maintenance Works
It is essential that proper access be provided to inspect bearings. At abutments benching of the
batter at the front face and provision of access steps will address OH&S issues for maintenance
staff. Provision of hollow abutments on major bridges to allow full access to bearings should be
considered.
12.4
Bearing Replacement (jacking points method, clearances for

removal and loads)
To facilitate replacement of bearings a jacking procedure, jacking points and jacking loads should
also be included on the drawings.
The designer needs to ensure that the bearings can be removed with the minimum possible lift of
the superstructure. The bearing anchor plate bolts need to be positioned to clear the bearing for
this to be achieved.
12.5
Fitment Materials
The durability of the materials used for fitments including anchor bolts, traffic barrier connections,
anchorage points, bearing bolts, machine screws etc. need to be considered in light of the
exposure conditions. In marine conditions the use of stainless steel fitments will reduce the long
term maintenance costs and offset the initial higher cost. The cost of replacement may be
disproportionally high compared to the extra cost of a higher durability material.
12.6
Provision for Prestressing Tendon Replacement
In post-tensioned prestressed concrete members, provision for the replacement of an existing

tendon should be considered by the inclusion of spare ducts in a member. This applies particularly
to external prestressing but is also sound practice for internal prestressing.
In the case of internal prestressing this provides a contingency for the situation where a duct
becomes blocked due to cross leakage from one duct to another.
Austroads 2009
70
12.7
Provision of Stay Cable Maintenance
For cable stayed bridges provision must be made for the replacement of the stay cables in the long
term. To facilitate this requirement the bridge must be designed to allow a cable to be removed
without compromising the structural integrity of the bridge.
A detailed procedure for the replacement of stay cables should be included on the drawings noting
any live load restrictions required.
Austroads 2009
71
REFERENCES
American Welding Society 2008, Structural welding code: steel, AWS D1.1/D1.1M, AWS, Hialeah, Florida,
USA.
Austroads 2007, Guide to Project Delivery: Part 2: Project Delivery Planning and Control, by R Brown &
P Robinson, AGPD02/07, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2009a forthcoming, Guide to Bridge Technology: Part 2: Materials, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2009b forthcoming, Guide to Bridge Technology: Part 3: Typical Superstructures, Substructures
and Components, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2009c forthcoming, Guide to Bridge Technology: Part 5: Structural Drafting, Austroads, Sydney,
NSW.
CIA 1989, Hot weather concreting, CIA News, vol.15, no.1, pp.3-4.
Department of Main Roads NSW 1986, Design and construction of incrementally launched bridges, DMR,
Sydney, NSW.
Fdration Internationale du Bton 2000, Guidance for good bridge design, bulletin 9, FIB, Lausanne,
Switzerland.
Highways Agency 1998, The appearance of bridges and other highway structures, in Design manual for
roads and bridges, vol.1, section 3, part 11, BA 41/98, Highways Agency, Department for Transport,
UK.
Highways Department, Hong Kong 1997, Structures design manual for highways and railways, 2nd edn,
Highways Department, Hong Kong, viewed 1 March 2006
<http://www.hyd.gov.hk/eng/public/publications/SDM/filelist.htm>.
International Institute of Welding 1999, Radiographs of welds, IIW, Roissy, France.
Lunn, T, Robertson, PK & Powell, JJM 1997, Cone penetration testing (CPT) in geotechnical practice, Spon
Press, London, UK.
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities, 1980, Bridge welding practice, NAASRA, Sydney,
NSW.
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities, 1987, Guide specifications for bridge construction,
NAASRA, Sydney, NSW.
New, B 1986, Ground vibration caused by civil engineering works, TRRL research report 53, Transport and
Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, UK.
Ontario Ministry of Transportation 1992, Ontario highway bridge design code, 3rd edn., Ontario Ministry of
Transportation, Canada.
Queensland Department of Main Roads 2006, Tunnels, in Road planning and design manual , QDMR,
Brisbane, Qld., chapter 23.
Roads and Traffic Authority 1990, Guidelines for the design of bridges subject to submergence, technical
services direction 90/19, RTA, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2009
72
Roads and Traffic Authority 2004a, Bridge aesthetics: design guidelines to improve the appearance of
bridges in NSW, RTA/pub.04.003, RTA, Sydney, NSW.
Roads and Traffic Authority 2004b, Bridge waterways manual, RTA, Sydney, NSW.
Roads and Traffic Authority n.d., Guidelines on cold weather concreting for bridge works, RTA, Sydney,
NSW.
Thompson, C & Thompson, D 1985, Real and apparent relaxation of driven piles, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, vol. 111, no. 2, pp. 225-37.
Transit New Zealand 2001, State highway construction contract proforma manual, SM031, Transit New
Zealand, Wellington, NZ.
Transit New Zealand 2003, Bridge manual, 2nd edn., SP/M/022, Transit New Zealand, Wellington NZ.
VicRoads 2007a, Safety during inspection and repair of corrosion-damaged buried corrugated metal
structures, bridge technical note 2007/001, VicRoads, Kew, Vic.
VicRoads 2007b, Interim advice: design and construction of cantilever sign and light structures, bridge
technical note 2007/013, VicRoads, Kew, Vic.
Standards Australia
AS 3600-2001, Concrete structures.
AS 5100 set-2007, Bridge design set.
AS 5100.1-2004 Bridge design: scope and general principles.
AS 5100.2-2004 Bridge design: design loads.
AS 5100.3-2004 Bridge design: foundations and soil supporting structures.
AS 5100.4-2004 Bridge design: bearings and deck joints.
AS 5100.5-2004 Bridge design: concrete.
AS 5100.6-2004 Bridge design: steel and composite construction.
AS 5100.7-2004 Bridge design: rating of existing bridges.
Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand
AS/NZS 1170 set:2007, Structural design actions set.
Austroads 2009
73
APPENDIX A
ACTION CHECK LIST FOR RESOLUTION OF

DESIGN ISSUES IN AS5100 2004
In AS5100 2004 all matters requiring resolution by the authority/owner are listed in Appendix A of
Part 1 (AS5100.1) to assist authorities/owners to identify all relevant matters related to the design
of a bridge and to enable their resolution and determination prior to acceptance of a tender.
The information in Appendix A of AS5100.1 is presented here in the form of an action check list. In
addition, the relative importance of the matters requiring resolution are itemised in the list.
HH = Extreme, H = High, M = Medium, L = Low.
The following shall be confirmed as accepted by the relevant authority or owner of a bridge or
associated structure before commencing the design process.
AS5100.1 Scope and general principles

1.1
(a) Application of the provisions of this Standard to the design of

modifications to existing bridges (see Clause 2 of AS 5100.1).
1.2
Design life of ancillary elements (see Clause 6.2).
1.3
Use of non-linear analysis methods (see Clause 6.4).
1.4
Other effects, including load effects, to be considered regarding specific

additional conditions and requirements (see Clause 6.8).
1.5
Bridge waterway requirements (see Clause 7.1).
1.6
Determination of environmental requirements including requirements of

the Waterway Authority (see Clause 8).
1.7
Geometric requirements for all bridges (see Clauses 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3).
HH
1.8
Geometric arrangement of railway bridges (see Clause 9.2).
1.9
Road bridge carriageway widths (see Clause 9.4).
HH
1.10
Edge clearances from the edge of the traffic lane to the face of the safety
barrier (see Clause 9.5).
1.11
Horizontal clearances to substructure components of bridges over

roadways (see Clause 9.6).
1.12
The minimum vertical clearance of structures over roadways (see

Clause 9.7).
1.13
Vertical and horizontal clearances for bridges over railways (see

Clause 9.8).
1.14
The superelevation and widening of the deck surface of a bridge on a

horizontal curve (see Clause 9.9).
HH
1.15
Geometric requirements for walkway and pedestrian bridges (see

Clauses 9.10 and 9.11).
1.16
Dimensional requirements for pedestrian subways (see Clause 9.12).
1.17
Determination of barrier performance level and barrier type requirements

(see Clause 10.1).
Austroads 2009
74
Implemented
Resolution by owner
Reviewed
Issue
Applicable to project
No
DATE:
Relative importance
PROJECT:
AS5100.1 Scope and general principles (contd)

1.18
Acceptance criteria for bridge traffic barriers (see Clause 10.4).
1.19
Specification of performance levels for traffic barriers including bridge

rehabilitation (see Clause 10.5.1).
HH
1.20
The need and provision of special performance level barriers (see

Clause 10.5.6).
1.21
The height and profile of parapet type barriers (see Clause 10.6.1).
1.22
Geometric requirements for post and rail type barriers (see

Clause 10.6.2).
1.23
The extent of transition of the road approach barrier system to the bridge
barrier (see Clause 10.6.3).
1.24
Performance levels for collision protection (see Clause 11.1).
1.25
Requirements for protection of bridge supports from road traffic collision

(see Clause 11.2).
1.26
Requirements for protection of bridge supports from railway traffic

collision (see Clauses 11.3.1, 11.3.2, 11.3.3 and 11.3.4).
1.27
Requirements for protection of bridge supports from ship collision (see

Clause 11.4).
1.28
Requirements for protection barriers for bridges over electrified railways

(see Clause 12.2).
1.29
Requirements for protection screens to prevent objects falling or being

thrown from bridges (see Clause 12.3).
1.30
Requirements for the attachment of and design loads for noise barriers
on bridges (see Clause 13).
1.31
Drainage requirements for bridge approaches (see Clause 14.1).
1.32
Attachment of utility services on structures (see Clause 16).
AS5100.2 Design loads

2.1
Varying loads on the basis of engineering measurements and

calculations (see Clause 1).
2.2
Value of g for large segmental cantilever construction for the case when
dead load reduces safety.
2.3
Value of gs to be applied to the nominal superimposed dead load (see

Clause 5.3).
2.4
Specification of heavy load platform design load (see Clauses 6.2 and
6.3).
2.5
Requirement for design loads and load factors if road bridges are to carry
tramway or railway traffic (see Clause 6.4).
2.6
Number of lanes to be included for braking force and calculations (see

Clause 6.8.2).
2.7
Number of stress cycles for fatigue load calculation (see Clause 6.9).
2.8
Design vehicle load for walkway (see Clause 7.1).
2.9
Requirement for design for crowd loading (see Clause 7.1)
Austroads 2009
75
Implemented
Resolution by owner
Reviewed
Issue
No
Relative importance
AS5100.2 Design loads (contd)

2.10
Design loads for railway bridges and bridges carrying light rail and the like
(see Clause 8.1).
2.11
Dynamic load allowance for specific structures, track standard and train
speeds (see Clause 8.4.7).
2.12
Need for protection beams to protect superstructures of low clearance

bridges (see Clause 10.3).
2.13
Risk analysis and redundancy levels for determination of alternative load

path (see Clause 10.4.2).
2.14
Need for and determination of collision loads on support elements (see

Clause 10.4.3).
2.15
Other design requirements for collision loads from railway traffic (see
Clause 10.4.6).
2.16
Determination of traffic barrier design loads (see Clause 11.2.2).
2.17
Determination of effective heights of traffic barriers (see Clause 11.2.3).
2.18
Barrier anchorage requirements (see Clause 11.2.4).
2.19
Requirement for pedestrian barrier design for crowd loading (see Clause
11.5).
2.20
Criteria for dynamic analysis (see Clause 12.2.3).
2.21
Need for assessment of vibration behaviour for railway bridges (see

Clause 12.3).
2.22
Classification of bridges and associated structures that are essential to

post-earthquake recovery (see Clause 14.3.2).
2.23
Identification of and requirements for earthquake design for bridges

identified as particularly important (see Clause 14.4.1).
2.24
Any changes to the importance level for noise barriers (see Clause 24.2).
AS5100.3 Foundations and soil-supporting structures

3.1
Design requirements for foundations for overhead wiring structures (see

Clause 1).
3.2
Detailed method and formulae to be used for the design of geotechnical

or structural elements (see Clause 1).
3.3
Supervision of site investigation (see Clause 5.1).
3.4
Extent and coverage of preliminary and design investigation (see Clause

5.1).
3.5
Minimum number of bore holes (see Clause 5.2).
3.6
Selection of the geotechnical strength reduction factors (see Clause

6.3.4).
3.7
Requirements for consideration of future development (see Clause 6.8).
3.8
Other durability criteria (see Clause 8.1).
3.9
Use of treated and untreated timber (see Clause 8.2).
3.10
Requirements for prevention of corrosion of reinforcement (see Clause

8.3).
Austroads 2009
76
Implemented
Resolution by owner
Reviewed
Issue
No
Relative importance
AS5100.3 Foundations and soil-supporting structures (contd)

3.11
Acceptance of rates of corrosion for steel surface (see Clause 8.4).
3.12
Requirements to minimise corrosion effects on stray currents (see Clause

8.4).
3.13
Acceptance of slip factor coatings (see Clause 8.5).
3.14
Durability requirements of other materials (see Clause 8.6).
3.15
Design requirements for durability of materials used in shallow

foundations (see Clause 9.3.6).
3.16
Requirements for structural design and detailing for shallow footings (see
Clause 9.4).
3.17
Requirements for materials and construction for shallow foundations (see

Clause 9.5).
3.18
Use of timber piles (see Clause 10.3.1).
3.19
Requirements for durability of materials used (see Clause 10.3.3).
3.20
Requirements for structural design and detailing for construction of piles

(see Clause 10.4).
3.21
Requirements for materials and construction for piles (see Clause 10.5).
3.22
Requirements for testing of piles (see Clause 10.6).
3.23
Design requirements for durability of anchorages and anchorage

components (see Clause 11.3.6).
3.24
Requirements for materials and construction for anchorages (see

Clause 11.4).
3.25
Requirements for method of installation and on site assessment tests for

anchorages (see Clause 11.6.1).
3.26
Proof load test for anchors (see Clause 11.6.2).
3.27
Requirements for anchorage acceptance tests (see Clause 11.6.3).
3.28
Requirements for design of retaining walls and abutments (see Clause

12.1).
3.29
Acceptance of geotechnical strength reduction factor for retaining walls

and abutments (see Clause 12.3.1).
3.30
Design requirements for durability (see Clause 12.3.5).
3.31
Requirements for structural design and detailing for retaining walls (see
Clause 12.4).
3.32
Requirements for materials and construction for retaining walls and

abutments (see Clause 12.5).
3.33
Approval of drainage system (see Clause 12.6).
3.34
Requirements for the design of buried structures (see Clause 13.1).
3.35
Design requirements for the durability of materials (see Clause 13.3.3).
3.36
Requirements for structural design and detailing for buried structures (see
Clause 13.4).
3.37
Requirements for materials and construction for buried structures (see

Clause 13.5).
Austroads 2009
77
Implemented
Resolution by owner
Reviewed
Issue
No
Relative importance
AS5100.4 Bearings and deck joints

No entries
AS5100.5 Concrete
5.1
Acceptance of the use of new or alternative materials and methods of

design or construction (see Clauses 1.5.1 and 1.5.2).
5.2
Design requirements of lightweight structural concrete (see Clause 1.5.4).
5.3
Minimum cover at post-tensioning anchorages (see Clause 4.10.2(e)).
5.4
Requirements for control of cracks in columns and tension members (see

Clause 10.1.4).
5.5
Determination of proof load tests (see Clause 17.3).
AS5100.6 Steel and composite construction

6.1
Requirement for members and materials for new and unusual bridge
types (see Clause 1.1).
6.2
Design requirements for structural elements using non-ferrous metals

(see Clause 1.1).
6.3
Requirements for steels for machined parts and for uses in other than
structural member or elements (see Clause 2.2.4).
AS5100.7 Rating of existing bridges

7.1
Application of performance load testing results to determine the rated

load (see Clause 5.4.4).
7.2
Conditions for amending the dynamic load allowance (see Clause 5.5.1).
7.3
Approval to the use of a reduced live load factor for load capacity rating of
a bridge (see Clause 5.5.2).
7.4
The load factors to be used when rating a bridge (see Clause 6.1).
7.5
Approval to modification of load factors for serviceability limit states (see

Clause 6.2).
7.6
Approval to modification of load factors for ultimate limit state (see

Clause 6.3.1).
7.7
Approval to the use of a live load factor which is less than the design
value (see Clause 6.3.2).
7.8
Use of modified live load factors based on probability of overloading (see

Clause 6.3.3).
7.9
Conditions for use of load factors for specific loads (see Table 6.3).
7.10
Approval to the determination of ratings for fatigue (see Clause 7).
Austroads 2009
78
Implemented
Resolution by owner
Reviewed
Issue
No
Relative importance
APPENDIX B
ACTION CHECKLIST FOR ENSURING

COVERAGE OF RELEVANT DETAILS FOR THE
PREPARATION OF A BRIDGE DESIGN
CONCEPT
To inform and enable full consideration of a bridge design by designers, reviewers and approvers,
it is essential to collect and summarise comprehensive background information related to the
bridge. By this means, late amendments to the design drawings, as a result of unconsidered
issues, can be minimised.
An effective design process includes the development of a detailed design concept, or proposal,
which is fully reviewed and signed off by all major proponents with responsibility for the design,
construction, contract administration, maintenance and management of the bridge. The action
checklist below covers the many aspects related to a bridge design that must be considered,
reviewed and acted on.
Bridge Design Action Checklist
Item
no.
Bridge site information
1.0
PROJECT IDENTIFICATION
1.1
Project no.
1.2
Sketch no.
1.3
Region
1.4
Road no.
1.5
Local government area
1.6
Project description
2.0
DETAILS OF BRIDGE CONCEPT PROPOSAL
2.1
Reason for new bridge
2.2
Number and length of spans
2.3
Overall length
2.4
Bridge width between traffic barriers
2.5
Bridge width overall
2.6
Number of footways
2.7
Width of footways
2.8
Footway locations
2.9
Type of wearing surface
2.10
Superstructure description
2.11
Substructure description
2.12
Clearances
2.13
Special features and requirements
3.0
ROAD ALIGNMENT
3.1
Horizontal alignment
3.2
Vertical alignment
3.3
Datum
Applicable to
project
Austroads 2009
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Reviewed
Resolution by
owner
Bridge Design Action Checklist (contd)

Item
no.
Applicable to
project
3.4
Chainages at end of deck
3.5
Levels at end of deck
3.6
Source of horizontal and vertical alignment information
4.0
ESTIMATED COST AND PROGRAM
4.1
Estimated construction cost
4.2
Allowances for design, supervision or cost variations
5.0
EXISTING BRIDGE
5.1
Structure no. and drawing no.
5.2
General file no.
5.3
Year constructed
5.4
Type of substructure
5.5
Type of superstructure
5.6
Width between parapets or kerbs
5.7
Footways
5.8
Length
5.9
Number of spans
5.10
Deck level RL
5.11
Above H.F.L
5.12
Navigation clearance
5.13
Condition (incl. any load rating)
5.14
Proposed future use of existing bridge
5.15
Public utility services: (number, size and type)
6.0
CLEARANCES FOR PROPOSED BRIDGE
6.1
Horizontal: actual/required
6.2
Vertical: actual/required
7.0
APPROACHES
7.1
Road plans no. (or file no.)
7.2
Design speed
7.3
No. of lanes
7.4
Median width
7.5
Shoulder widths
7.6
Verge width
7.7
Formation width
8.0
WATERWAY
8.1
Waterway report identification
8.2
General comments on waterway
8.3
Catchment area
8.4
Calculated discharge
8.5
Calculated flow velocity
8.6
Calculated H.F.L. including afflux of.
8.7
Observed H.F.L. (Date:
Austroads 2009
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Reviewed
Resolution by
owner

Item
no.
Applicable to
project
8.8
Normal water level
8.9
Tidal
8.10
Is stream navigable?
Yes/No
MHWS
MLWS
8.11
Estimated depth of scour
8.12
Proposed clearance (above observed/calculated HFL)
9.0
SUBSTRUCTURE
9.1
Geotechnical report identification
9.2
General comments on geotechnical characteristics of

site
9.3
Geotechnical investigation completed
9.4
Further geotechnical investigation required
9.5
Founding material
9.6
Type of foundations: abutments
9.7
Type of foundations: piers
Yes/No
9.8
Allowable bearing pressure
9.9
Maximum pile working loads
9.10
Pile cap levels
9.11
Pile contract levels:
9.12
Basis for determination of contract levels and type of

foundations
9.13
OHS factors considered in selecting type of foundation
10.0
SUPERSTRUCTURE
10.1
Type of superstructure
10.2
No. of spans
10.3
Reason for selection
10.4
OHS factors considered in selection of superstructure

type (construction/maintenance)
11.0
DESIGN LOADINGS
(Assume 2004 Aust. Bridge Design Code AS5100
unless stated otherwise)
11.1
Live loading: number of 3.2 m design lanes
11.2
Live loading: standard loading Yes/No
11.3
Live loading: SM 1600 loading
11.4
Live loading: heavy load platform: HLP 320/HLP 400
11.5
Live loading: footway loading
11.6
Live loading: construction loading
11.7
Live loading: other loading e.g., B-double, road trains,

MLR
11.8
Superimposed dead load
11.9
Temperature range
11.10
Temperature gradient
11.11
Design wind speed
11.12
Differential settlement
Austroads 2009
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Reviewed
Resolution by
owner

Item
no.
11.13
Applicable to
project

Mining subsidence parameters
11.14
Stream flow effects
11.15
Impact loads
11.16
Earthquake loading acceleration coefficient
11.17
Other loadings
12.0
ARTICULATION
12.1
Method of resisting longitudinal forces
12.2
Method of resisting transverse forces
12.3
Longitudinal temperature movements (mm) (+ive

opening, -ive closing)
12.4
Longitudinal shrinkage movements
12.5
Longitudinal creep movements
12.6
Mine subsidence
12.7
Expansion joints: number
12.8
Expansion joints: location
12.9
Expansion joints: type
12.10
Bearings: number
12.11
Bearings: location
12.12
Bearings: type
13.0
PROVISIONS FOR PUBLIC UTILITY SERVICES ON

THE PROPOSED BRIDGE
13.1
Utility: water, sewer, gas, electricity, Telstra, other
13.2
Number, size, type, expansion arrangements
14.0
DRAINAGE
14.1
Scuppers: number, location
14.2
Piped stormwater under deck?
15.0
LIGHTING
15.1
Details of lighting requirements
16.0
BARRIER TYPES
16.1
Traffic barriers
16.2
Pedestrian barriers
16.3
Median barriers
16.4
Barriers between carriageway and footway
16.5
Safety screens
16.6
Noise walls
17.0
DURABILITY
17.1
Exposure classification
17.2
Soil/water aggressivity
18.0
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
(add attachments summarising relevant requirements if
yes)
18.1
Environmental (e.g. .EIS, REF):
Austroads 2009
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Reviewed
Resolution by
owner

Item
no.
Applicable to
project
18.2
Fisheries
18.3
Heritage
18.4
Navigation (MSB, DPW)
18.5
Planning (DUAP)
18.6
Other
19.0
SITE ACCESSIBILITY
19.1
Have abutment positions been pegged?
19.2
Is more pegging required?
19.3
Proximity of overhead and underground power lines?
20.0
TRAFFIC DATA
20.1
AADT (fatigue loads)
20.2
% commercial vehicles (fatigue loads)
20.3
Traffic data (barrier performance level)
20.4
Site risks (barrier performance level)
Austroads 2009
83
Reviewed
Resolution by
owner
APPENDIX C
RESOURCES FOR BRIDGE AESTHETICS
Bennett, D 1997, The architecture of bridge design, Thomas Telford, London, UK.
Burke, MP 1998, Aesthetically notorious bridges, Proceedings of the Institute of Engineers: Civil
Engineering, vol.126, no.1, pp 39-47.
Department of Main Roads NSW 1987, The aesthetics of bridges, Department of Main Roads, Sydney,
NSW.
Department of Transportation Minnesota 1995, Aesthetic guidelines for bridge design, Minnesota
Department of Transportation, Saint Paul, MN, USA.
Fdration Internationale du Bton (FIB) 2000, Guidance for good bridge design, Bulletin 9, FIB, Lausanne,
Switzerland.
Ford, CR, Johnston, GC, Douglas, HR, Henderson, JR & Valentine, WH 1997, Skye Crossing a design
build finance and operate project, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Civil Engineering,
no.120, pp 46-58.
Gottemoeller, F 1998, Bridgescape: the art of designing bridges, John Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, USA.
Gottemoeller, F & Buchwalter, A 1995, Innovation and aesthetics, International bridge engineering
conference, 4th, 1995, San Francisco, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, conference
proceedings, no.7, pp. 47-56.
Highways Agency 1998, The design and appearance of bridges, advice note BA 41/98, Stationery Office,
London, UK.
Highways Department, Hong Kong 1997, Structures design manual for highways and railways, 2nd edition,
Highways Department, Hong Kong, viewed 1 March 2006
http://www.hyd.gov.hk/eng/public/publications/SDM/filelist.htm.
Leonhardt, F 1982, Bridges, aesthetics and design, Architectural Press, London.
Lyall, S 1994, Visual engineering, World Highways, vol.3, no.2, pp 65-8.
MacLennan, BJ 1997, Who cares about elegance? The role of aesthetics in programming language design,
technical report UT-CS-97-344, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, viewed 1 March, 2006,
http://www.cs.utk.edu/~mclennan/anon-ftp/Elegance.html.
Maestro, MB, Hernandez, DFO & Sanchez, CO 1995, Aesthetics in the design of precast prestressed
bridges, Concrete International, vol.17, no.8, pp 39-44.
OConnor, C 1985, Spanning two centuries: historic bridges of Australia, University of Queensland Press,
St. Lucia, Qld.
Petzold, EH & Carlson, BE 1996, Objectivity and the aesthetic design process, Transportation Research
Record, no.1549, pp 48-53.
Roads and Traffic Authority 2004, Bridge aesthetics: design guidelines to improve the appearance of bridges
in NSW, RTA, Sydney.
Rosales, M & Gottemoeller 2000, Contextual and urban design considerations in design of major bridges,
Transportation Research Record, no.1696, part1, pp 17-24.
Austroads 2009
84
Transportation Research Board 1991, Bridge aesthetics around the world, Transportation Research Board,
Washington DC.
Wallsgrove, J, British methods for improving sensitivity of bridge designers to good bridge appearance,
Transportation Research Record, no.1549, pp 103-7.
Wells, M 2002, 30 bridges, Watson-Guptill, New York.
Austroads 2009
85
APPENDIX D
CODE ERRATA
AS 5100 Bridge Design Code was first published in February 2004. No supplements have yet
been issued by Standards Australia. This appendix provides a source to list the errors in the code
for designers to be mindful of prior to issue of amendments. In using these Errata, references to
sections of the code are in the following format:
AS 5100.Part number Clause number.
The above format is abbreviated to 5100.X Y.Z, where Y.Z, refers to the particular clause number
within part number 'X' of the code.
D.1
Part 1 Scope and General Principles
BDC 1 B3: Procedure

Typographical error, Figure B1 third box from the bottom should read Determine barrier
performance level from Figures B5 to B8.
D.2
Part 2 Design Loads
BDC 2 6.7.3(ii): Application (of dynamic load allowance)

Should be amended to read 0.1 for a cover depth of 2 m or more for all loads excluding S1600.
(For S1600 loads, the dynamic allowance is zero.)
BDC 2 8.5.1: General (distribution of railway traffic load)
Typographical error, the second sentence should read In the absence distributed as set out in
Clauses 8.5.2 to 8.5.5 as appropriate.
BDC 2 11.2.1: General (barriers)
First sentence is ambiguous and should be replaced with The design criteria, including loads and
geometric requirements, provided in this Clause 11 and in AS 5100.1 Clause 10, shall be used for
the following:.
BDC 2 12.4: Pedestrian bridges (dynamic behaviour)
Typographical error, Figure 12.4 vertical axis should be divided by 10, with values of 1.0 mm to
6.0 mm maximum dynamic deflection.
BDC 2 15.2.1: Ultimate limit states
Typographical error, Figure 15.2.1 horizontal axis right end value should be 2000 instead of 0.2.
BDC 2 16.3.3: Drag coefficient (Cd)
Typographical error, Figure 16.3.3 vertical axis label should be DRAG instead of DRUG.
BDC 2 17.3: Differential temperature
Figure 17.3, the structure depth should be D instead of d.
D.3
Part 3 Foundations and Soil-Supporting Structures
Currently no changes required for this section.
Austroads 2009
86
D.4
Part 4 Bearings and Deck Joints
BDC 4 12.6.8: Compressive deflection

Section (c) should read For plain pads and strips the value of the compressive strain (c) to be
used in deriving the compressive deflections (dc) shall be determined as follows:.
BDC 4 14.2: Materials (sliding contact surfaces)
Typographical error, second paragraph should reference ASTM A240/A240M-03b instead of
AS 1449.
D.5
Part 5 Concrete
BDC 5 6.4.3.4: Loss of prestress due to tendon relaxation

Typographical error, Equation 6.4.3.4 should read
the loss of stress due to creep and shrinkage

R 1
pi
BDC 5 8.1.6: Stress in tendon that is not bonded

Typographical error, Equation 8.1.6(1) should read
6200 x
pu
p . ef
(dp kud )
Lpe
BDC 5 8.2.7.2: Prestressed beams (shear strength of a beam excluding shear reinforcement)
Typographical error, the first paragraph should read The ultimate shear strength in which case
only Item (a) applies.
BDC 5 8.3.4: Requirements for torsional reinforcement
Typographical error, need to add or between (i) and (ii).
BDC 5 10.3.1: General (design of short columns)
Typographical error, Equation 10.3.1(2) should read
Le
M *1
60 1 *
r
M 2
N*
1
0.6 N uo
BDC 5 13.3.2: Development and transmission length of pretensioned tendons

Typographical error, third paragraph should read It shall be assumed that no change
completely unstressed zone of length 0.1Lpt develops at the end of the tendon.
BDC 5 App. H: Standard precast prestressed concrete girder
Typographical error, Figures H1(B) and H1(C) all cross-sections should denote the bottom flange
thickness as tb instead of lb to be consistent with Tables H2(B)(1) and H2(b)(2).
Austroads 2009
87
Typographical error, Figure H1(C) label for (b) should be Type T2 1 instead of Type T2 2.
Typographical error, Table H2(B)(1), the yb value for girder type T1 should be 333 mm instead of
323 mm.
D.6
Part 6 Steel and Composite Construction
BDC 6 5.1.8.3(b): Hybrid factor for hogging moment regions

Typographical error, should read for other hybrid sections.
BDC 6 5.6.1.1: Open sections with equal flanges
Typographical error, Equation 5.6.1.1(2) should read
s 0.6
Ms
3
Moa
Ms

Moa
BDC 6 5.6.1.2: I sections with unequal flanges

2
2
EIw x 2 EIy
GJ
2
2
4
L
e
L
e
EIy
Mo
2
Le
x

2
EIy
2
Le
BDC 6 5.6.2: Segments unrestrained at one end

Typographical error, Equation 5.6.2 should read
0.6
s
Ms 2
Mob
Ms

Mob
BDC 6 5.6.5: Effective length

Typographical error, Table 5.6.5(A) twist restraint factor for PP restraint arrangement should read
d 1 tf 3

2
L 2tw
nw
Typographical error, Table 5.6.5(B) has FU and PU values in the wrong row of the table. The
correct version should read
Austroads 2009
88
Longitudinal
position of the land
Within segment
At segment end
Load height position

Restraint arrangement
Shear centre
Top flange
FF, FP, FL, PP, PL, LL

FU, PU
1.0
1.0
1.4
2.0
FF, FP, FL, PP, PL, LL

FU, PU
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
BDC 6 5.13.2: Buckling capacity

Typographical error, effective length of stiffener equation at (a) should read
17.5t w
fy
250
BDC 6 6.4.2.2: Lateral distortional buckling
1
Lb 2 dw
d 0.018 3
ry t w
1
0.40
BDC 6 10.6.2.2: Circular members (ultimate section capacity)

1tf y
N us As 2 f y Ar f ry Ac f ' c 1
d o f 'c
10 4.9 18.5 r 17 r 2
but 0
20 0.253 2r
but 1
1 10 1
10e
d o
Austroads 2009
89
10e
do
2 20 1 20
BDC 6 11.4.2.1: Compression members (in-plane capacity)

Additional checks are needed in determining Nc using the effective length factor (ke). The definition
of Nc should read nominal member capacity in axial compression determined in accordance with
Clause 10.3 for buckling about the same principal axis with the effective length factor (ke) taken as
1.0 for both braced and sway members, unless a lower value is calculated for braced members
from Clause 4.3.2.2 or Clause 4.3.2.3, provided Clause 10.1 is satisfied for Nuc calculated using Le
determined in accordance with Clause 4.3.2.
BDC 6 A4: Reference Elastic Buckling Moment (Mo)
Typographical error, Equation A 4(3) should read
EI
2
w
2
GJL
BDC 6 App. E Nominal Section Moment Capacity for Composite Sections Under Sagging
Moments
Typographical error, Equation E (5) should read
Mp = fy [ Adg bf (dh - ds) dh]
D.7 Part 7 Rating of Existing Bridges

BDC 7 A3: Railway Traffic Design Load
Typographical errors, the last three figures are incorrectly located and should be amended as
follows:
the diagram of Figure A11 should be shifted to Figure A13
the diagram of Figure A12 should be shifted to Figure A11
the diagram of Figure A13 should be shifted to Figure A12.
Typographical error, Figure A11 to become A13 should have two notes: Dimensions in metres
and Axle loads in kN.
Typographical error, the title of Figure A12 should be Figure A12 300-A-12 Railway Traffic
Loadings Axle Group Spacings.
BDC 7 A3.2: 1992 Australian Bridge Design Code
Typographical error, the first paragraph should read The 300-A-12 loading as shown in Figure
A11. The spacing between the centres taken as 12 m (see Figure A12).
Austroads 2009
90
APPENDIX E
FUTURE CODE REQUIREMENTS
Although the AS 5100 Bridge Design Code 2004 has only been in use for a relatively short period
there are numerous items where bridge designers require further clarification and other areas
where the Code is found to be silent. To date supplements for Parts 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7 have been
published by Standards Australia.
Individual state road authorities address local environmental and material issues that are not
relevant to all member authorities in the form of technical publications. Further details are
available for each member authority as follows:
ACT Department of Territory and Municipal Services www.tams.act.gov.au/move/roads
Department of Infrastructure, Energy & Resources, Tasmania

http://www.transport.tas.gov.au/road
Department of Transport and Main Roads, Queensland

www.mainroads.qld.gov.au/web/partnersCR.nsf/DOCINDEX/Technical+reference+centre
Department of Planning and Infrastructure, Northern Territory

www.nt.gov.au/infrastructure/techspecs/index.shtml
Department for Transport, Energy & Infrastructure, South Australia

www.dtei.sa.gov.au/dtei_contractor_documents
Main Roads Western Australia www.mainroads.wa.gov.au/Standards
New Zealand Transport Agency www.transit.govt.nz/technical/manuals.jsp
Roads and Traffic Authority, New South Wales

www.rta.nsw.gov.au/doingbusinesswithus/lgr/downloads/information/technical_documents.html
VicRoads
www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/Home/RulesStandardsRegulations/RoadAndTrafficDesignStandards/
This appendix provides a source list to those areas where further insight is required into sections of
the code which may be rewritten in the future or proposed future additions, suggestions for future
additions and items that could be the subject of future Austroads publications. In using this
appendix, references to sections of the code are in the following format:
AS 5100.Part number Clause number
The above format is abbreviated to 5100.X Y.Z, where Y.Z, refers to the particular clause number
within part number 'X' of the code.
E.1
Part 1 Scope and General Principles
BDC 1 10: Road Traffic Barriers

Uniform guidelines are required for traffic barriers for new bridges and for replacement traffic
barriers for existing bridges. This shall include barrier transitions from bridge to roadway and
should be the subject of a future Austroads guide. In the interim refer to individual state road
authority guidelines.
E.2
Part 2 Design Loads
BDC 2 10: Collision Loads

Collision loads on bridge piers from ship impact is not addressed in AS 5100 and should be the
subject of guidance in future code updates.
Austroads 2009
91
BDC 2 14: Earthquake forces

The Australian Standard on Earthquake Loads has been updated, viz AS 1170.4 2007.
The Bridge Design Code must be updated to conform to the latest earthquake code.
Note also that AS 1170.4 2007 has removed the requirement for considering vertical
earthquake actions. It is appropriate that AS 5100 should align with this.
BDC 2 23: Road signs and lighting structures
VicRoads has produced a Technical Note (2007/013), Interim Advice Design and Construction of
Cantilever Sign and Light Structures. Design fatigue cycles require addressing in future updates of
AS 5100 for all connection types.
E.3
Part 3 Foundations and Soil-Supporting Structures
BDC 3 14: Buried structures

VicRoads has produced a Technical Note (2007/001), Safety during Inspection and Repair of
Corrosion-Damaged Buried Corrugated Metal Structures (BCMS).
QDMR has produced design notes for bridges which incorporate Design and Construction of
Tunnels. This should be the subject of a future inclusion in AS 5100. Austroads has formed a
Tunnel Technology Review Panel to produce a Guide to Tunnel Technology.
E.4
Part 4 Bearings and Deck Joints
General An Austroads project is proposed viz, Performance and use of Bridge Bearings and
Deck Expansion Joints.
BDC 4 12: Elastomeric bearings
Load testing requirements are different from the code for some SRAs
BDC 4 13: Pot bearings
Load testing requirements are different from the code for some SRAs.
Disc bearings could be considered in lieu of pot bearings.
BDC 4 17: Deck joints
Finger plates for deck expansion joints require further investigation on issues that are only
generally covered in the code including suitability/safety for cyclists, detailing requirements and
allowable stress in both the bolts and fingers.
E.5
Part 5 Concrete
General The Concrete Structures Code, AS 3600-2001 is undergoing revision which will require
updating of the Bridge Design Code.
BDC 5 4: Design for durability
Long term durability is the subject of a future Austroads project, for example, 300 year service life
of concrete bridge structures in aggressive environments.
BDC 5 6.2.1: Strength and ductility (of reinforcement)
Austroads 2009
92
Ductility of reinforcing bar, especially from coils is an issue that requires research and update to
AS/NZS 4671.
BDC 5 8.2 & 8.3: Strength of beams in shear and torsion
Rules for shear and torsion need revising for box girders and Super T girders.
E.6
Part 6 Steel and Composite Construction
Currently no new material identified for this section.
E.7
Part 7 Rating of Existing Bridges
Currently no new material identified for this section.
E.8
General
Evaluation of new materials, including geopolymers (as a cement/cement replacement for

concrete), for high durability bridge components is the subject of a future Austroads project.
Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FPR) are steadily increasing applications both for new construction
and strengthening of existing structures. An Austroads Guide or Australian Standard is required
for the design of members and elements.
Austroads 2009
93

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Austroads

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY

Part 4: Design Procurement and

Guide to Bridge Technology

Guide to Bridge Technology Part 4: Design Procurement and Concept Design

First Published June 2009

Published by Austroads Incorporated

Guide to Bridge Technology

facilitating collaboration between road agencies

promoting harmonisation, consistency and uniformity in road and related operations

undertaking strategic research on behalf of road agencies and communicating outcomes

promoting improved and consistent practice by road agencies.

Roads and Traffic Authority New South Wales

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN

INTRODUCTION AND GUIDE STRUCTURE................................................................ 1

BRIDGE DESIGN PROCESS PROCUREMENT MODELS........................................... 3

SPECIFYING REQUIREMENTS FOR DESIGN............................................................. 5

Bridge Design Code Issues ............................................................................................ 5

CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS ......................................................... 9

Design and Delivery Management.................................................................................. 9

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN

SPECIFIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................ 25

Mining Subsidence ....................................................................................................... 25

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN

Foundation Type and Geology ..................................................................................... 37

FOUNDATION SELECTION ........................................................................................ 44

Footings, Abutments and Piers..................................................................................... 44

CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................... 52

10.1 Construction Form ........................................................................................................ 52

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN

10.3 Concrete Construction in Marine Environments ........................................................... 66

DESIGN FOR CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................. 68

DESIGN FOR MAINTAINABILITY............................................................................... 70

Maintenance Schedule ................................................................................................. 70

ACTION CHECK LIST FOR RESOLUTION OF DESIGN

ACTION CHECKLIST FOR ENSURING COVERAGE OF

RESOURCES FOR BRIDGE AESTHETICS.................................... 84

FUTURE CODE REQUIREMENTS .................................................. 91

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN

Process of review and interaction..................................................................... 9

Simply supported spans ................................................................................. 18

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN

Incrementally launched bridge........................................................................ 60

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN

INTRODUCTION AND GUIDE STRUCTURE

Part 3: Typical Bridge Superstructures, Substructures and Components

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN

Part 4: Design Procurement and Concept Design

Coverage includes bridge design process procurement models, specification requirements,

Part 5: Structural Drafting

Part 6: Bridge Construction

Provides guidance to the bridge owner's representative on site. It focuses on bridge

Part 7: Maintenance and Management of Existing Bridges

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN

BRIDGE DESIGN PROCESS PROCUREMENT MODELS

Separate Design Followed by Construction

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN

Further Information about Project Procurement

GUIDE TO BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY PART 4: DESIGN PROCUREMENT AND CONCEPT DESIGN

SPECIFYING REQUIREMENTS FOR DESIGN

Bridge Design Code Issues

For bridge design to be procured by the same contract as the construction

Specifying for Local Conditions

Geometric Details, including Clearances