Engineering Metrology

Read in Text book Chapter: 5

Many of this lecture slides are adopted from
the Text book
2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e

Definition
Metrology: (From greek metron
(Measure, and logy) is a science
of measurement
Metrology include all theoretical
and practical aspect of
measurement

Importance of Metrology

What has allowed the

development of modern
manufacturing is the
concept of
interchangeable parts.
For example, Henry Ford
required that all rear axle's
on the Model T were made
to the same dimensions and
tolerances. Therefore, a
rear axle made on Monday
will fit equally well as a rear
axle made on Wednesday.

On cars such as the Royal Royce, each

part is hand fitted. A technician may
spend up to 30 mins. on each part to get it
to fit just right.
Metrology is the science of
measurement.
In modern manufacturing, the design
engineer designs each part to a certain
dimension and tolerance in order that the
parts will function together.
Metrology is used by the manufacturing
engineer to measure that the parts are
within tolerance

Car Manufacturing Example

On

a car assembly
line a worker may
only get 15
seconds (cycle
time) at their
station.
If the part doesn't
fit, the worker stops
the line!
Photo from: www.sachsreport.com

Remember from MEC222

Graphics...

DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES,
AND SURFACES
1.
2.
3.

Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related

Attributes
Surfaces
Effect of Manufacturing Processes

Critical Information

If you ask a machinist to make you a widget, theyll ask:

what is the material?
impacts ease of machining
what are the dimensions?
what are the tolerances?
huge impact on time/cost
how many do you want?
when do you need it/them?
what budget does this go on?
at $50 to $80 an hour, youd best be prepared to
pay!
Well focus on the second and third items first

Dimensions and Tolerances

Factors

that determine the performance of

a manufactured product, other than
mechanical and physical properties,
include :

Dimensions - linear or angular sizes of a

component specified on the part drawing
Tolerances - allowable variations from the
specified part dimensions that are permitted
in manufacturing

Dimensions (ANSI
Y14.5M-1982):
A dimension is "a numerical value expressed in
appropriate units of measure and indicated on a
drawing and in other documents along with lines,
symbols, and notes to define the size or
geometric characteristic, or both, of a part or part
feature"
Dimensions on part drawings represent nominal
or basic sizes of the part and its features
The dimension indicates the part size desired by
the designer, if the part could be made with no
errors or variations in the fabrication process

Tolerances (ANSI
Y14.5M-1982):
A tolerance is "the total amount by which a
specific dimension is permitted to vary.
The tolerance is the difference between
the maximum and minimum limits"
Variations occur in any manufacturing
process, which are manifested as
variations in part size
Tolerances are used to define the limits of
the allowed variation

Tolerance

Tolerare; put up with, endure

Impossible to make perfect parts
Too small tolerance, cost is high
Boeing 747-400 has 6 million parts,
measurement of 28 features, 150 million
measurements
NIST (U.S. National Institute of Standard and
technology); tolerance shrink by a factor of 3
every 10 yearsultraprecision ion-beam
machining 0.001mm

Importance of tolerance
Parts

from the same machine can be

different

Speed of operation
Temperature
Lubrication
Variation of incoming material
Other factors

ISO

system; definitions

Bilateral Tolerance
Variation is permitted in
both positive and negative
directions from the
nominal dimension
Possible for a bilateral
tolerance to be
unbalanced; for example,
2.500 +0.010, -0.005

Ways to specify tolerance

limits for a nominal
dimension of 2.500:
(a) bilateral

Unilateral Tolerance
Variation from the
specified
dimension is
permitted in only
one direction
Either positive or
negative, but not
both

Ways to specify tolerance

limits for a nominal
dimension of 2.500:
(b) unilateral

Limit Dimensions
Permissible variation
in a part feature
size consists of the
maximum and
minimum
dimensions
allowed

- Ways to specify
tolerance limits for a
nominal dimension of
2.500:
(c) limit dimensions

Tolerance Control

Basic size, deviation, and tolerance on a shaft,

according to the ISO system.

Methods of Assigning
Tolerances

Various methods of assigning tolerances on a shaft:

(a) bilateral
tolerance, (b) unilateral tolerance, and (c) limit dimensions.

Example - which tolerance to

pick?
SHAFT
1.005
0.995

HOLE

Tolerance:
0.990
0.980

Tolerance:
1.000
0.990

Tolerance:

1.000
0.990

Engineering
Drawing
Symbols
Geometric tolerance :
tolerances that involve
shape features of the
part
Geometric characteristic symbols to be
indicated on engineering drawings of parts
to be manufactured. Source: Courtesy of
The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.

Geometric Tolerancing
Example

Hole Locations

How Round?

How Straight?

Parallel?

Definitions

Allowance; the specific difference in

dimensions between mating parts
Basic size; dimension from which limits of
size are derived
Bilateral tolerance; deviation from the basic
size (+ or -)
Clearance; the space between mating parts
Clearance fit; fit that allows for rotation or
sliding between mating parts
Datum; theoretically exact axis, point, line or
plane

Definitions

Feature; Physically identifiable portion of a

part, e.g. hole, slot, pin, chamfer
Fit; the range of looseness or tightness
Geometric tolerancing; tolerances that involve
shape features of the part
Interference; negative clearance
Interference fit

Definition

Limit dimension; Maximum and minimum

dimension of a part,
MMC(maximum material condition); condition
where a feature of size contains the maximum
amount of material within the stated limits of size
Positional tolerancing; A system of specifying the
true position, size, and form of the feature of a
part, including allowable variation
Transition fit; Fit with small clearance or
interference that allows for accurate location of
mating parts

Surface Technology
Concerns

with

Defining the characteristic of a surface

Surface texture
Surface Integrity
Relationship between manufacturing
processes and characteristics of resulting
surface

Surfaces
Nominal surface designers intended surface
contour of part, defined by lines in the
engineering drawing
The nominal surfaces appear as absolutely
straight lines, ideal circles, round holes, and
other edges and surfaces that are
geometrically perfect
Actual surfaces of a part are determined by the
manufacturing processes used to make it
Variety of processes result in wide variations
in surface characteristics

Surfaces
Surface

has properties and behavior that is

different from the bulk of the part
Surfaces affect function, appearance and cost
of the manufactured parts.
Appearance:
How the surfaces feels
How it looks
How it behaves for coating or sealing
Function:
How it behaves in a contact with another surface
How the surface will wear
How well it will retain lubricant
How well it will hold a load

Why Surfaces are Important

Aesthetic reasons (smooth surface- favorable impression to

customer)

Surfaces affect safety

Friction and wear depend on surface characteristics
Surfaces affect mechanical and physical properties
(surface flaws- stress concentration point)

Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces (strength

of adhesively bonded joint-increases when surface is slightly
rough)

Subsequent operation (painting, coating, welding, soldering)

Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts (good

electrical and thermal conductivity)

Metallic Part Surface

A magnified cross-section of a typical metallic

part surface.

Surface Characteristics
Microscopic

Scale-reveals irregularities and

imperfection
Substrate

Bulk of the Part, Under the Surface

Surface

Roughness, Waviness, Flaws

Altered

texture

Layer

Work hardening (Mechanical energy),Heat

(thermal energy), Chemicals, Electrical energy

Surface

Integrity (definition, specification, and

control of surface layer-includes surface
texture and altered layer)

Contamination
Oxide

Film

e.g. Rust (Iron), Al2O3(Aluminum)

Other

Dirt, Oil, Cutting Fluids, Lubricants,

Absorbed Gases

Affects

Appearance
Inhibits Joining

Soldering, Plating, Adhesives, etc.

Surface Structure of Metals

Schematic illustration of a cross-section of the surface structure of metals. The

thickness of the individual layers depends on both processing conditions and
processing environment. Source: After E. Rabinowicz and B. Bhushan.

Surface Texture
Repetitive and/or random deviations
from the nominal surface of an
object

Surface texture features.

Surface Texture
The topography and geometric features of
the surface
When highly magnified, the surface is
anything but straight and smooth

It

It has roughness, waviness, and flaws

also possesses a pattern and/or

direction resulting from the mechanical
process that produced it

Four Elements of Surface

Texture
1.

Roughness - small, finely-spaced

deviations from nominal surface

2.

Determined by material characteristics and

processes that formed the surface

Waviness - deviations of much larger

spacing

Waviness deviations occur due to work

deflection, vibration, heat treatment, and
similar factors
Roughness is superimposed on waviness

1. Surfaces: Roughness
Roughness

refers to the fine (shortest

wavelength) irregularities of a surface.

2. Waviness
Waviness

includes the more widely

spaced (longer wavelength) deviations
of a surface from its nominal shape.

3. Lay

Lay - predominant
direction or pattern of
the surface texture

4.Flaws
Flaws - irregularities that occur occasionally
on the surface

Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and

similar defects in the surface
Although some flaws relate to surface
texture, they also affect surface integrity

Surface Roughness and

Surface Finish
Surface

roughness - a measurable
characteristic based on roughness
deviations
Surface finish - a more subjective term
denoting smoothness and general quality
of a surface

In popular usage, surface finish is often used

as a synonym for surface roughness
Both terms are within the scope of surface
texture

Surface
Roughness

(a) Measuring surface roughness with a stylus. The rider supports the stylus and guards against
damage. (b) Path of the stylus in surface-roughness measurements (broken line) compared to the
actual roughness profile. Note that the profile of the stylus path is smoother than that of the actual
surface. (c) through (f) Typical surface profiles produced by various machining and surface-finishing
processes. Note the difference between the vertical and horizontal scales.

Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from
nominal surface over a specified
surface length

Deviations from nominal surface used in

the two definitions of surface roughness.

Surface Roughness Equation

Arithmetic average (AA) based on absolute

values of deviations, and is referred to as
average roughness
L

Ra
0

y
L

dx

where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical

deviation from nominal surface (absolute value);
and L= specified distance over which the surface
deviations are measured

Alternative Surface Roughness

Equation
Approximation

of previous equation is
perhaps easier to comprehend
N

Ra
n 1

yn
N

1
Ra
N

y
n 1

where Ra has the same meaning as

above; yn = vertical deviations (absolute
value) identified by subscript n; and N =
number of deviations included in L

Surface-Roughness

Coordinates used for

surface-roughness
measurement using Eqs. .

abcd
Ra
n
a 2 b2 c2 d 2
Rq
n

Measures of Roughness
(cont.)
Rq

: the root mean square of the

distance of the roughness profile from
the nominal surface.

Rq (RMS) surface roughness will always be greater than Ra values

because large deviation will figure more predominantly in the calculation
of RMS value

Surface Roughness Specification

Surface texture symbols in engineering

drawings: (a) the symbol, and (b)
symbol with identification labels.

Standard terminology and symbols used to

describe surface finish. The quantities are
given in in. (b) Common surface lay
symbols.

Cutoff Length
A

problem with the Ra computation is that

waviness may get included
To deal with this problem, a parameter
called the cutoff length is used as a filter to
separate waviness from roughness
deviations
Cutoff length is a sampling distance along
the surface

A sampling distance shorter than the

waviness eliminates waviness deviations
and only includes roughness deviations

Surface Integrity
Surface

texture alone does not completely

describe a surface
There may be metallurgical changes in the
altered layer beneath the surface that can
have a significant effect on a material's
mechanical properties
Surface integrity is the study and control of
this subsurface layer and the changes in it
that occur during processing which may
influence the performance of the finished
part or product

Energy Forms in Surface Integrity

Surface

changes are caused by the

application of various forms of energy
during processing

Mechanical energy
Thermal energy
Chemical energy
Electrical energy

Example: Mechanical energy is the most

common form in manufacturing
Processes include forging, extrusion, and
machining

Surface Changes by
Mechanical Energy

Residual stresses in subsurface layer

Example: bending of sheet metal
Cracks - microscopic and macroscopic
Example: tearing of ductile metals in
machining
Voids or inclusions introduced mechanically
Example: centerbursting in extrusion
Hardness variations (e.g., work hardening)
Example: strain hardening of new surface in
machining-plastic deformation

Surface Changes by Thermal

Energy
Metallurgical

changes (recrystallization,
grain size changes, phase changes at
surface)
Redeposited (Metal is removed from the surface in a
molten state, reattached prior to solidification)

Resolidified

material (portion of the metal which

was melted and then solidified without detaching from

the surface)

Heat-affected

zone in welding (Region not

melted but heated to undergo metallurgical changes)

Hardness

changes

Surface Changes by Chemical

Energy
Intergranular

attack (corrosion and oxidation)

Chemical contamination
Absorption of certain elements such as H
and Cl in metal surface (lead to property
change)

Selective

Etch: (Concentrate on certain

components in the base metal)

Alloy

depletion and resulting hardness

changes

Surface Changes by Electrical

Energy
Changes

in conductivity and/or magnetism

Craters- rough surface depression left in
the surface, resulting from short circuits
during certain electrical processing
techniques such as arc welding, Electro
Dischange Machining, Electro Chemical
machining.

Sawed Surface

Close Up

Turned Surfaces

Close Up

As Rolled

Dimensional
Tolerances
as a
Function of
Part Size
Dimensional tolerances as
a function of part size for
various manufacturing
processes. Note that
because many factors are
involved, there is a broad
range for tolerances.

Dimensional
Tolerance
Range and
Surface
Roughness
in Various
Processes
Dimensional tolerance range and surface roughness obtained in various manufacturing
processes. These tolerance apply to a 25-mm (1-in.) workpiece dimeinsion. Source: After
J. A. Schey.

Tolerances and Manufacturing

Processes
Some

manufacturing processes are

inherently more accurate than others
Examples:

Most machining processes are quite

accurate, capable of tolerances = 0.05 mm
( 0.002 in.) or better
Sand castings are generally inaccurate, and
tolerances of 10 to 20 times those used for
machined parts must be specified

Surfaces and Manufacturing

Processes
Some

processes are inherently capable of

producing better surfaces than others

In general, processing cost increases with

improvement in surface finish because
additional operations and more time are
usually required to obtain increasingly better
surfaces
Processes noted for providing superior
finishes include honing, lapping, polishing,
and superfinishing